K^^MtaUMlia 


HM   MI^M©RY  ©IT 


/_£Zi 


11    1      \1  tl  111    C.     \tlU01 


Au  Arab  Chief.     (Gen.  xvi.,  I'.'.) 


BIBLE  LANDS: 


THEIR 


MODERN  CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS 
ILIUSTRATIYE  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


Rev.  henry  J.  VAN-LENNEP,  D.D. 


WITH  MAPS  AND  WOODCUTS. 


NEW    YORK: 
HARPER    &    BROTHERS,    PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN      SQUARE. 

1875. 


^s 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  187/5,  by 

Harper    &    Brothers, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Eighteen  hundred  years  ago  the  last  page  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures was  penned.  Since  that  time  the  lands  of  the  Bible  have 
passed  through  various  vicissitudes,  and  been  overrun  and  oc- 
cupied by  many  strange  nations.  Yet  it  is  acknowledged  that 
in  no  other  portion  of  the  globe  have  traditions,  customs,  and 
even  modes  of  thought,  been  preserved  with  greater  fidelity  and 
tenacity.  This  is  the  uniform  testimony  of  all  who  visit  the 
East.  To  use  the  language  of  one  of  the  most  gifted  Oriental 
travelers  of  modern  times :  "  The  unchanged  habits  of  the  East 
render  it  a  kind  of  living  Pompeii.  The  outward  appearances, 
which,  in  the  case  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  we  know  only 
through  art  and  Avriting,  the  marble,  fresco,  and  parchment,  in 
the  case  of  the  Jewish  history  we  know  through  the  forms  of 
actual  men,  living  and  moving  before  us,  wearing  almost  the 
same  garb,  speaking  in  almost  the  same  language,  and  certainly 
with  the  same  general  turns  of  speech,  and  tone,  and  manners."* 
How  important,  then,  to  the  Biblical  scholar  is  the  study  of  the 
modern  East,  not  only  of  its  antiquities,  intensely  interesting  as 
they  are,  but  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  its  present  inhabit- 
ants! The  remarkable  reproduction  of  Biblical  life  in  the  East 
of  our  day  is  an  unanswerable  argument  for  the  authenticity  of 
the  sacred  writings;  they  could  not  have  been  written  in  any 
other  country,  nor  by  any  other  people  than  Orientals.  As  a 
French  writer  justly  remarks:  "These  customs,  so  unchanged; 
these  manners,  which  have  remained  the  same  through  the  lapse 
of  eighteen  centuries,  impart  strength  and  vividness  to  our 
faith."f  The  minute  and  literal  correctness  of  the  foregoing 
testimonies  will  appear  as  we  proceed  in  the  present  work,  whose 
object  is  to  throw  such  light  as  can  be  derived  from  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  modern  inhabitants  of  Bible  lands  upon  the 
social,  religious,  and  political  life  of  Bible  times.     Our  subject  is 

*  Stanley,  "Jewish  Cliurcli,"  i.,  12.  t  Leon  Paul,  110. 


342118 


6  IKTRODUCTIOX. 

not  entirely  new  ;  many  things  have  been  mentioned  by  travelers 
and  Orientalists.  Some  of  these,  however,  were  ignorant  of  the 
languages  of  the  country  they  visited,  and  therefore  unable  to 
hold  any  intercourse  with  the  people.  Others  only  followed  the 
beaten  lines  of  travel,  and  therefore  saw  only  the  worst  phases 
of  human  nature.  Some  visited  but  a  small  part  of  the  field, 
though  perhaps  the  most  important ;  their  views  and  statements 
are  apt  to  be  one-sided,  and  too  sweeping.  Others  have  failed  to 
get  at  the  homes  of  the  people,  have  learned  things  only  by  hear- 
say, or  have  viewed  every  object  through  the  lens  of  prejudice, 
sometimes  too  favorable,  but  oftener  unjust.  We  make  no  claim 
to  immunity  from  fault,  but  having  spent  almost  a  lifetime  in 
the  East,  and  enjoyed  unrivaled  opportunities  of  intercourse 
with  all  classes  of  the  people,  we  have  no  such  excuse  to  plead 
if  we  fail  to  furnish  our  readers  with  reliable  and  comprehensive 
information  upon  the  topic  of  our  choice. 

Let  it  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  our  object  is  the  mere 
gratification  of  a  laudable  curiosity  respecting  the  interesting 
countries  which  have  been  the  scene  of  Biblical  history.  We 
believe  the  customs  of  the  modern  East  to  be  the  only  key  that 
can  unlock  the  sense  of  many  a  valuable  text  of  Scripture  and 
bring  it  to  view.  This  has  repeatedly  been  proved  by  expe- 
rience, and  a  more  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  East  will 
doubtless  multiply  these  valuable  interpretations.  We  may, 
perhaps,  not  inaptly  compare  the  Scriptures  to  a  manuscript 
somewhat  torn  and  defaced  by  the  tooth  of  time ;  a  well-pre- 
served copy  of  a  portion  has  come  to  hand,  and  may  certainly  be 
used  in  restoring  the  original.  The  Biblical  style  is  often  ren- 
dered obscure  to  us  Occidentals  by  the  omission  of  details  quite 
needless  to  the  Oriental  mind ;  and  we  may  surely  supply  this 
omission  from  the  living  picture  of  Eastern  manners  which  a 
kind  Providence  has  placed  before  us. 

While  studying  the  customs  of  the  East,  it  has  often  seemed 
to  us  that  many  of  them  must  be  the  necessary  result  of  the 
climate  and  physical  resources  of  the  country,  and  have  therefore 
been  adopted  by  every  nation  and  race  that  has  successively 
peopled  the  land.  We  have,  therefore,  in  the  first  part  of  the 
present  work,  undertaken  to  point  out  whatever  characterizes  or 
serves  to  explain  the  physical  condition  and  natural  productions 
of  Bible  lands,  and  to  describe  the  customs  to  which  tliey  have 
given  birth,  never  losing  sight  of  the  parallel  contained  in  the 
pages  of  Holy  Writ,  and  noting  any  changes  that  may  have  oc- 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

curred  since  they  were  penned.  But  let  the  reader  bear  in  mind 
that  we  are  not  writing  a  treatise  on  the  geography,  botany,  or 
natural  history  of  the  lands  of  the  Bible.  Many  valuable  works 
have  already  appeared  on  these  and  kindred  subjects,  and  the 
general  reader  will  find  all  the  information  he  needs  in  an  ency- 
clopedia or  Bible  dictionary.  We  merely  propose  to  throw  light 
upon  the  Scriptures  by  tracing  such  a  picture  of  Bible  lands  as 
lies  before  the  mind  of  an  intelligent  Oriental ;  so  that  we  shall 
omit  much  interesting  matter  of  a  scientific  character,  because  it 
has  no  particular  bearing  upon  our  subject. 

In  every  nation,  however,  usages  are  found  which  can  not  be 
explained  or  accounted  for  by  a  reference  to  the  physical  char- 
acter of  the  country.  These  customs  have  an  historical  original, 
lost  and  forgotten,  perhaps,  in  the  lapse  of  time,  but  still  main- 
taining its  sway  over  the  minds  and  manners  of  those  who  have 
inherited  them.  The  fact  that  the  customs  now  prevalent  in 
Bible  lands  are  so  different  from  those  of  the  West,  and  yet  es- 
sentially identical  with  the  ancient  manners  of  the  East,  is  of 
the  greatest  practical  importance  to  the  Biblical  stuCent.  The 
Hebrew  commonwealth  has  perished ;  its  people  are  scattered 
among  all  the  nations  of  the  earth,  whose  manners  they  have 
adopted.  The  principal  clue,  therefore,  to  what  they  once  were, 
and  our  chief  means  of  explaining  much  that  is  obscure  in  Holy 
Writ,  will  be  found  in  the  customs  of  the  modern  East.  And  we 
propose,  in  the  second  part  of  the  present  work,  to  consider  all 
such  details  of  Oriental  life  as  appear  to  have,  in  the  main,  an 
historical  origin. 

A  few  words  of  explanation  must  be  added  before  we  proceed 
to  our  subject.  We  have  felt  considerable  hesitation  as  to  the 
use  of  some  Avords  improperly  called  Oriental,  and  of  the  incor- 
rect spelling  of  others  that  are  really  so,  simply  lest  we  should 
lay  ourselves  open  to  the  charge  of  pedantry.  It  has,  however, 
seemed  to  us  that  in  such  a  book  as  this  we  could  plead  neither 
ignorance  nor  a  bad  habit.  We  have,  therefore,  written  Mo- 
hammed, instead  of  Mahomet;  Bedawy  (plural,  Bedawin),  in- 
stead of  Bedouin ;  and  mosk,  instead  of  mosque.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  have  not  called  the  religion  of  Mohammed  Mohammed- 
anism, but  Islam,  its  universal  name  in  the  East  (not  Islamism, 
nor  the  relijion  of  Islam) ;  and  his  followers  not  Mohammedans, 
but,  as  they  call  themselves,  Muslims  (not  Mussulmans ;  Mus- 
limin  is  the  plural  of  Muslim. 

We  have    not  interfered,  however,  with  words  which  have 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

harmlessly  become  incorporated  in  the  English  language — such 
as  Sultan,  Koran,  Mecca,  etc.,  which  some  write  Sooltau,  Kuran, 
and  Mekkeh. 

There  are  almost  as  many  systems  of  spelling  Oriental  words 
as  prominent  writers  upon  the  East.  Compelled  to  make  a 
choice,  the  following  method  has  been  adopted  as  most  easy  and 
natural  to  English-speaking  peoples : 

Vozoels. 
a  always  broad,  as  in  father, 
e  as  in  7net,  set,  fell. 
i    "   "  sit,  mill. 
o  "   "  bone,  roll. 

u  like  the  French  u  in  ruse.     Hard  for  English-speaking  lips. 
eu  "      "        "       eu^^jeu  "       "         "  "  " 

u    "    M  in  but. 


in  room. 


Consonants. 


g  always  hard,  as  in  gap,  get,  give, 
gh  like  the  Greek  y  and  Parisian  r. 
j    as  the  latter  part  of  the  English  j,  which  is  really  composed  of  two  sounds, 

i.  e.,  d  and  J.     It  is  like  s  in  measure, 
h    is  a  slight  aspirate,  and  kh  a  stronger  one. 
ch  as  in  cheap, 
sh    "  "  sheep, 
dh  "  hard  th  in  this, 
th    "  soft  th  in  things. 

In  order  to  prevent  misapprehension,  we  have  generally  placed 
an  h  after  a  final  a  or  e,  where  it  would  be  unnecessary  were  our 
system  always  kept  in  mind. 


The  chapters  on  the  Physical  Geography  and  Ethnology  of 
Bible  lands  have  been  read  and  approved  by  my  friend,  Profess- 
or Guyot,  of  Princeton,  to  whom  I  was  already  indebted  for  the 
most  valuable  suggestions  they  contain.  It  is  as  needless  to  point 
out  the  value  thus  conferred  upon  those  portions  of  the  work, 
as  it  is  to  inform  the  public  of  the  immense  erudition  of  tlie 
learned  professor,  which  is  equaled  only  by  the  enthusiasm  for 
the  study  of  nature  with  wliich  he  inoculates  all  who  come  in 
contact  with  him  or  his  works. 


CONTENTS 


PART   I. 

crrsTOMS  which  have  their  origin  in  the  physical  features  op 

BIBLE  LANDS. 

PAGE 

Introduction 5 

CHAPTER  I. 
Physical  Characteristics  of  the  Lands  of  the  Bible  in  general, 
AND  of  Palestine  in  particular 17 

CHAPTER  II. 
Water,  and  Life  upon  the  Water 41 

CHAPTER  in. 
Products  of  the  Soil.— Cereals 73 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Gardening  and  Cultivation  by  Irrigation 92 

CHAPTER  V. 
Vineyards,  and  the  Uses  of  the  Grape  and  the  Olive 110 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Fruit  and  Forest  Trees,  with  the  Flowers  of  Bible  Lands 13G 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Domestic  Animals. — Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Goats 169 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  Horse,  Mule,  Ass,  and  the  Camel 208 

CHAPTER  IX. 
The  Wild  Beasts  of  Bible  Lands 24fi 

CHAPTER  X. 
The  Scavengers 265 

CHAPTER  XL 
Birds  of  Passage 287 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Reptiles  and  Insects  of  Bible  Lands 306 


lU  CONTENTS. 

PART     II. 
CUSTOMS  WHICH  HAVE  A   HISTORICAL  ORIGIX. 

PASK 

Introductory  to  Part  II 329 

CHAPTER  I. 
Ox  THE  Ethnology  of  the  Lands  of  the  Bible 337 

CHAPTER  II. 
Oral  and  Written  Language % 375 

CHAPTER  III. 
The  Tent,  and  Nomad  Life 398 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Permanent  Habitations.— The  House  and  the  Town 416 

CHAPTER  V. 
The  Furniture  of  the  House 459 

CHAPTER  VI. 
The  Inmates  of  the  House 497 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Life  in  the  Family 539 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Social  Life ^89 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Government ^^^ 

CHAPTER  X. 
Religious  Houses  and  Men ^37 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Religious  Practices ^37 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Commerce,  and  the  Mechanic  Arts 774 

APPENDIX  1 813 

APPENDIX  II SI** 

INDEX  OF  SCRIPTURE  TEXTS 817 

INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 827 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Gate  ofan  Egyptian  Governor)  „       .     . 

An  Arab  Chief /  Frontispieces. 

Vertical  Section,  north  and  south,  from 
Mount  Ararat  to  Bagdad  (Babylon), 
and  from  Damascns  to  Egypt,  with  the 

Course  of  the  Jordan 19 

Mount  Sinai  (Ras  Safsafeh) 37 

Public  Fountain  at  Jerusalem 42 

Woman  carrying  Water 43 

Ancient  and  Modern  Water-pitchers 44 

One  of  the  Wells  of  Beer-sheba,  with  its 

Watering-troughs 47 

Well  at  Thyatira,  built  of  ancient  Marbles  48 

Tank  or  Pool  of  Bethesda,  Jerusalem.. .  49 

Interior  of  a  Cistern  near  Aleppo 51 

Cistern  under  the  Temple  area  at  Jeru  - 

salem 51 

Perpendicular  Plan  of  Rock  Cistern  at 

Tocat 52 

Saracenic  Aqueduct  over  the  Meles,  near 

Smyrna 54 

Water  Pillars 55 

Ancient  and  Modern  Skin-bottles 57 

Wooden  Water-jug 57 

Coin  of  Apamea 58 

Assyrian  Warrior  swimming  on  an  in- 
flated Skin 58 

Inflated    Skin    Raft.      From    Assyrian 

Sculpture 59 

Modern  Kelek,  with  Tent 59 

Ancient  Kufa CO 

Modern  Kufa 60 

Oriental  Ships 61 

Shell-flsh  eaten  in  the  Levant 68 

Ancient  Egyptian  Drag-net 70 

Assyrian  Swimmer.     From  an  ancient 

Sculpture 72 

Modern    Plow,   Share,  Yoke,  Mattock, 

and  Goad 76 

Arab  Farmer  plowing 76 

Ox-cart  bearing  Sheaves 79 

Oriental  Ox-cart 80 

Cart  of  the  ancient  Tokhari 81 

Oxen  treading  the  Corn 82 

Threshing-floor 82 

Tares 84 

The  Hand-mill 87 

A  public  Oven 89 

Portable  Ovens :  Ancient  and  Modern. .  90 


PAGE 

Modern  Shadoof. 97 

Ancient  Shadoof 98 

Persian  River-wheel 101 

Pruning -saw,  Pocket-knife,  Hoe,  and 

Mattock 102 

Sakkieh,  or  Well- wheel 104 

Pigeon-houses 107 

Common  Pigeon  of  Palestine 108 

Watchman's  Booth 109 

Oriental  Spade  and  Roman  Bepalium.. .  114 
Pyrghos,  Koolah,  or  Tower  in  the  Vine- 
yard    117 

Modern  Wine-press 118 

Ancient  Egyptian  Wine-press 118 

Oriental  Baskets 120 

Aged  Olive-trees 127 

Ancient  Olive-press 129 

Women  working  at  the  Olive-press 130 

Modern  Clay  and  Tin  Lamps 132 

Ancient  Terra-cotta  Lamps 132 

Cedars  of  Lebanon 154 

Oriental  Woodman's  Axe 155 

The  Apple  of  Sodom 159 

Valonea  Acorn 159 

Stone-pine  Cone  and  Nuts 163 

The  Lily  ofthe  Field— Meadow  Anemone  166 

The  Opium  Poppy 167 

Bufi"aloes  in  Palestine 176 

Wild  Ox  of  Central  Asia 177 

Chase  of  the  Wild  Ox,  or  Reem 178 

MouSlon,  or  Wild   Sheep   of  Western 

Asia 180 

Shepherd  playing  on  the  Nay,  or  Flute..  187 

Ancient  Sling 188 

Native  Haversack,  orSachel,  made  of  an 

entire  Lamb-skin 189 

Oriental  Shepherd-dog 191 

Shepherd-dog.    From  Babylonian  Sculp- 
ture   192 

The  Broad -tailed  Sheep  in  Persia  2500 

Years  ago 195 

Broad-tailed  Sheep,  unshorn 196 

Broad-tailed  Sheep,  shorn 197 

The  Broad -tailed  Sheep,  according  to 

Harris 198 

Etruscan  Sheep.    From  a  Vase 199 

Four-horned  Ram 200 

The  Paseng,  or  Wild  Goat  of  Western 
Asia 202 


12 


ILLUSTEATIOXS. 


PAGE 

The  Teftik,  or  Angora  Goat 203 

Milking  a  Goat.     From  a  Babylonish 

Gem 207 

The  modern  Arab  Horse 209 

Koordish  and  Koordish  Cavalry.  ../ac«s  215 

The  modern  Arab  Horse 218 

Sculptured  Horse  at  Persepolis 218 

Woman  riding  sideways.    From  a  Vase 

found  at  Ruvo,  in  Italy 223 

Assyrian  Women  riding   astride  on  a 

Mule 224 

Eastern  Litter 226 

Ass  Colt  pursued  by  a  Hound 229 

Ass  with   "Egyptian  Saddle."     From 

Beui-Hassan 230 

Bactrian  Camel,  seen  in  Asia  Minor 234 

Bactrian  Camels.     From  the  Nimrood 

Obelisk 235 

Foot  and  Stomach  of  the  Camel 237 

Head  of  a  Camel 23S 

Overworked  Camel 241 

Claw  at  the  end  of  the  Lion's  Tail.  Assyr- 
ian Scnlpture 248 

Muneless  Lion  at  Euyuk,  in  Asia  Minor. 

—Side  View 249 

Front  View  of  the  Same 249 

The  Kaim  Hurmiil,  in  Coele-Syria 255 

Carvings  on  the  Kaim  Hiirmul 256 

The  Roebuck  of  Western  Asia 259 

Bear,  from  an  Assyrian  brass  Bowl 260 

Household  Articles  found  in  an  Ancient 

Dunghill 267 

Vulture  carrying  oflF  the  Entrails  of  the 

Slain.    A  Nineveh  Sculpture 268 

The  long-tailed  Magpie 269 

The  Rashama,  or  "Bird  of  Pharaoh".. .  270 

The  Crow  of  Western  Asia 271 

The  Asiatic  Hyena 271 

Jackal.    Syrian  Fox 279 

The  Jerboa 2S5 

The  Ferret 2S6 

Oriental  Swallows  and  Nest 283 

The  Crane 290 

The  Oriental  Quail 292 

Site  of  the  second  Miracle  of  Quails 296 

A  Pair  of  Turtle-doves 298 

The  Titmouse  and  its  Nest 300 

The  Eastern  Oriole 301 

The  Hoopoe ; 301 

The  Rock  Partridge 302 

The  Stork  and  its  Nest 302 

The  Chameleon  and  its  Tongue 312 

The  Asiatic  Locust 313 

Locusts.    From  a  Babylonian  Gem 314 

The  Rose-colored  Starling 316 

Flight  of  Locusts  in  Southern  Russia. . .  317 
Silk-worm,  Cocoon,  Larva,  Butterfly,  and 

Eggs 321 

Mahmood  U.  and  Attendants faces  337 

Modern  Oriental  Jews :  left,  Asia  Minor; 

right,  Persia 340 


PACS 

Sennacherib  on  his  Throne.    An  Assyr- 
ian Sculpture 343 

Mar  Yohanau 347 

The  Emir  B'shir  Shehab,  Prince  of  the 

Lebanon 349 

The  Arab  Emir,  Ab'd-el-Kadir 351 

Heads  of  Captives  held  by  Rameses  H., 
King  of  Egypt.     Sculpture  at  Abou 

Simbel,  b.o.  1300 353 

Captive  of  Rameses  in.,  b.o.  1170 354 

King  of  Judah.    An  Egyptian  Sculpture  355 
Samaritan  Hebrews  bearing  Tribute.  An 

Assyrian  Sculpture 356 

Jewish  Captives.    An  Assyrian  Sculp- 
ture   357 

The  Abyssinian  Chief,  Belgadda-Arca.. .  361 
Ancient  Persian.    A  Persepolitau  Sculp- 
ture   364 

Aucieut  Persian 365 

Armenian  Merchant,  Costume  of  fifty 

Years  ago 3CS 

Georgian  of  Tiflis 370 

Circassian  Warrior 371 

Oriental  Gypsy  with  the  Gypsy  Lock 373 

Turkish  Lady  in  modern  Costume 373 

Greek  Gentleman  in  his  Native  Cos- 
tume   374 

Arabic  Running  -  hand  :   the  Language 
Turkish,  with  the  Seal  instead  of  a 

Signature 392 

Modern  Seals, 393 

Ancient  Seal  Impression  on  Clay 394 

Sealed  Letter,  Penknife,  Scissors,  and 

Pen 397 

Turkmen's  Tent 400 

Ancient  Tent.    Assyrian  Sculpture 400 

Arab  Tent 401 

Tent-pin,  or  Hook,  and  Mallet  (Ancient 

and  Modern) 401 

Wooden  Mortar  and  Pestle 404 

Babylonian  baked  Brick,  wthNebuchad- 
nezzar's  Name :  12  Inches  square  and 

3  Inches  thick 419 

Village  with  conical  Roofs,  near  Aleppo  423 

Ancient  Assyrian  House 424 

Projecting  Fronts  of  Houses,  Damascua.  427 

Council-chamber  at  Tocat 428 

Inner  Court  of  a  House  in  Damascus 430 

A  Man  carrying  his  Keys 432 

Gypsum  Alcove 434 

Ceiling  Ornament  in  Gj^psum 436 

The  Law  on  the  Door-post 436 

A  Summer-house,  of  Wood,  at  Tocat 445 

Wall  of  Jerusalem 448 

Tower  at  Ramleh 449 

The  Jaffa  Gate  (anciently  the  Fish  Gate) 

at  Jerusalem 461 

The  Strait  Gate.v 453 

A  Street  in  Damascus 46C 

Plan  of  an  Oriental  Room 460 

Oriental  Chairs  and  Stool 461 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


13 


An  Upper  Window 462 

MaDgal,  or  Chaflug-dish,  for  Charcoal. . .  464 

Oriental  Kitchen-range 465 

Kitchen  Utensils 466 

Ladles :  Ancient  and  Modern 406 

Two  Men  pounding  in  one  Mortar.  Egyp- 
tian Sculpture 467 

Coffee-pot  and  Cups 46S 

Earthen  Jars  and  Water-pots 469 

Ancient  Jar 469 

Common  Table  and  Tray 472 

Village  Table 472 

Collation  wicker  Table 472 

Servant  bringing  Dishes 474 

The  Oriental  Cup 475 

The  Assyrian  Cup 475 

Basin  and  Ewer 476 

Candlesticks 478 

Hanging  Lamps  479 

Plan  of  an  Oriental  public  Bath 484 

Interior  of  an  Oriental  Bath 486 

Ancient  Bathing. 490 

An  Oriental  Gentleman 509 

Weapons  carried  in  the  Girdle 514 

Ancient  Girdles 515 

Modern  Oriental  Head-dresses 518 

Ancient  Turbans 520 

Oriental  Shoes,  Boots,  and  Clogs 522 

Muslim  Lady  in  the  Harim— the  Jacket.  524 

Frontlet  worn  by  Ladies 526 

The  Law  upon  the  Forehead 527 

The  Lebanon  Horn 528 

Various  Head-jewels  of  married  Women  530 

Jewish  Horn  at  Algiers 530 

Eastern  Necklaces 532 

Lady's  portable  Looking-glass 534 

"  "  "      —back  of  Mirror  535 

Veiled  Woman 537 

The  bridal  Crown,  or  Dodos 640 

Ancient  Dodos 547 

Marriage  Procession 550 

Ancient  Terra-cotta  Lamps  and  Oil  Ves- 
sels    554 

Ancient  and  Modern  Egyptian  Mode  of 

carrying  little  Children 563 

Ancient  Egyptian  Women  spinning 564 

Modern  Oriental  Spinning-wheel 564 

Oriental  Distaff. 565 

An  Oriental  Cradle 569 

Bells  fastened  to  a  Child's  Ankle 570 

Ancient  baptismal  Font  at  Ephesus 572 

Children's  ancient  Terra-cotta  Toys 573 

Ancient  Terra-cotta  Flageolet 674 

Stone  Door  of  Sepulchre  

Seal  on  Tomb-door 581 

Oriental  Graves 582 

Tomb  of  Polycarp  at  Smyrna 583 

Parsee  Cemetery 585 

Ancient   Mourning:    laying   the   Hand 

upon  the  Head,  and  crying 586 

Ancient  Tear-bottles 587 


The   ancient   Salaam,  or  Temenah,  in 

Egypt  and  Persia 591 

The  Servant's  Hands  before  his  Mas- 
ter   593 

Jeweled  Censers 594 

Rose-water  Bottle 595 

Ancient  Modes  of  Sitting  like  the  Mod- 
ern   698 

Ancient  Egyptians  at  Dinner 601 

The  modern  Zoornil  and  Davool 608 

The  modern  Darabukkeh 609 

Ancient  Musicians  and  Showmen  enter- 
taining Workmen 609 

Oriental  Bagpipe 610 

Ancient  Egyptian  military  Music 611 

The  Nay  (Flute),  and  Case 611 

Ancient    Egyptian    Performer    on    the 

Nay 012 

The  Tamboora,  or  Lute 612 

The  Ood,  or  Guitar 618 

The  Kemeujeh,  or  Violin 614 

The  Kanoon,  or  Santur 615 

The  Tambourine,  or  Timbrel 615 

Oriental  brass  Castanets 616 

Assyrian    and    Egyptian    Tambourine- 
players  616 

An  Oriental  Orchestra 618 

Ancient  Egyptians  singing 620 

Dancing  to  the  clapping  of  Hands 624 

An  Egyptian  Almeh 626 

Ancient  Egyptian  Almehs 628 

Putting  out  the  Eyes  of  a  Prisoner 635 

Hall  of  Audience  of  the  Shah  of  Persia. .  639 

Pharaoh  upon  his  Throne 640 

Throne  of  the  Shah  of  Persia  at  Tehe- 
ran   642 

The  Sultan's  Throne  at  Constantinople.  643 

Mahmood  Shah,  of  Persia 646 

Bowing  to  the  King 648 

Adoring  the  Assyrian  King:  the  State 

Umbrella 649 

Egyptian  Prostration 649 

Oriental  Guns 671 

Oriental  Pistols 672 

Cotton-mailed  Cavalry  of  Begharmi,  in 

Central  Africa 673 

Turkish  Helmet 674 

Modern  Turkish  and  Ancient  Assyrian 

Helmets 674 

Ancient  and  Modern  Shields 675 

Modern  Oriental  Weapons 678 

Parthian  and  Assyrian  Cavalry 682 

The  Ring  in  the  Nose 688 

Fire-altar  at  Nakhshi-Rustam 700 

Fire-temple  near  Bakoo 701 

Bronze  Ashtaroth 700 

Jupiter  Coryphean,  Smyrna.     Ancient 

Terra  Cotta 706 

Terra-cotta  Statue  of  Boodh.     Discov- 
ered in  an  ancient  Tomb  at  Smyrna. . .  707 
Ear-ring,  with  Cupid 707 


14 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGB 

Koordish  bronze  Cock 710 

Druse  Calf,  of  Bronze Til 

The  Caaba,  or  Temple  at  Mecca T15 

The  Mihrab,  Pulpit,  and  Candlestick  in 

the  Mosk 719 

Pulpit  in  the  Mosk  of  the  Metuallies, 

Cairo 721 

Candlestick.     From   a  Gem  found  at 

Ephesus 722 

Mosk  Fountain 723 

Greek  Priest 732 

Armenian  Bishop,  with  Hood 733 

Whirling  Dervish 733 

Begging  Dervish 734 


Performance  of  the  Whirling  Dervishes.  762 

Self-torture  of  Religious  Devotee 706 

Muslim  Devotee  cutting  himself  like  the 

Prophets  of  Baal 769 

Merchant's  Shop  in  Cairo 777 

An  Oriental  Cafe 779 

Ancient  Razor-blade  and  Beads 781 

Street  in  the  Bazar  at  Cairo 782 

Lid  of  Sarcophagus.    From  the  Tombs 

of  the  Kings  of  Judah 785 

Gate-way  of  Medreseh,  at  Sivas 788 

Ancient  Egyptian  Drill 792 

Modern  Carpenters'  and  Masons'  Tools.  793 
Interior  of  a  Caravauseray,  or  Inn 804 


COLORED  MAPS. 

Physical  Map  or  Bible  Lands faces  Part  I. 

Ethnological  Map  of  Bible  Lands faces  Part  II. 


PART  I. 

CUSTOMS  WHICH  HAVE  THEIR  ORIGIN  IN  THE  PHYSICAL 

FEATURES  OF  BIBLE  LANDS. 

2 


■M 


® 


h 


AM  I 


E'l.ficrttl  Co  i.ith  il  Hee^'n-aK  1, 


THE 

BIBLE  CUSTOMS  OF  BIBLE  LANDS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


PHYSICAL  CHAMACTERISTICS  OF  THE  LANDS  OF  THE  BIBLE  IN 
GENERAL,  AND  OF  PALESTINE  IN  PARTICULAR. 

NO  study  of  the  East  can  be  thorough  and  satisfactory  which 
is  not  based  upon  the  knowledge  of  its  geography,  or,  in 
other  words,  its  physical  features.  Our  first  step,  therefore,  in 
these  interesting  investigations  must  be  to  call  the  reader's  at- 
tention to  our  "Physical  Map  of  Bible  Lands,"  and  to  guide 
him  in  the  study  of  its  most  important  features. 

The  land  portion  of  this  map,  it  will  be  observed,  is  colored 
with  three  different  tints  —  green,  red,  and  white  —  indicating 
three  different  degrees  of  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  green  represents  the  alluvial  lands,  which  do  not  exceed 
1000  feet  in  height ;  the  red  indicates  an  elevation  of  1000  to 
8000  feet;  and  the  lohite  every  thing  above  the  last-mentioned 
height,  necessarily  comprising  only  lofty  mountains  and  mount- 
ain ranges. 

The  first  peculiarity  that  arrests  our  attention  in  the  study 
of  the  map  is  the  comparative  isolation  of  this  region  of  coun- 
try from  the  rest  of  the  world.  It  lies,  indeed,  in  the  very 
centre  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  in  the  heart  of  three  conti- 
nents ;  yet  it  is  bounded  and  surrounded  by  no  less  than  five 
seas,  which,  during  the  early  ages  of  our  race,  must  have  served 
the  purpose  of  so  many  ditches,  or  fosses,  around  a  castle,  while 
the  comparatively  narrow  spaces  which  separate  them  form 
rugged  defenses  of  the  cradle  of  the  human  race.  But  let  us 
examine  more  particularly  these  encircling  natural  barriers. 

The  "stormy  Euxine,"or  Black  Sea,  nearly  destitute  of  har- 


18  •  BIBLE   LANDS. 

bor.4  on  its  southern  and  eastern  coasts,  occupies  the  north-west 
corner,  and  the  Caspian,  a  low  marshy  lake,  lying  eighty-five 
feet  below  sea-level,  and  always  neglected  of  men,  bounds  the 
land  on  the  north-east.  Between  these  two  seas  stretches  the 
great  wall  of  the  Caucasian  range,  rising  at  Mount  Elboorz 
to  a  height  of  18,500  feet,  and  covered  in  many  parts  with 
perpetual  snow.  It  can  be  crossed  only  at  the  "Iron  Gate," 
through  the  defile  of  Dariel,  in  the  centre,  and  at  the  two  ex- 
tremities. The  Persian  Gulf  occupies  the  south-eastern  corner 
of  the  map,  while  the  space  between  its  shores  and  those  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  is  blocked  up  by  the  lofty  ranges  of  Zaghros  and 
Demawend,  and  further  guarded  by  the  deserts  of  Iran.  From 
the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Red  Sea,  whose  navigation  has  ever 
been  unsafe,  lies  the  great  Arabian  Desert — dry,  sandy,  prac- 
ticable only  for  the  hardy  Arab,  and  forming  a  plateau  aver- 
aging 2000  feet  in  height.  The  Isthmus  of  Suez,  on  the  south- 
west, is  but  a  hundred  miles  in  width,  and  consists  of  a  sandy 
tract  broken  only  by  a  salt-water  marsh.  Lastly,  the  broad 
Mediterranean  spreads  out  upon  the  west  and  passes  on  to  the 
^gean,  thickly  studded  with  rocky  islands,  and  thence  to  the 
Propontis  and  the  Euxine.  Here  we  have  a  series  of  defen- 
sive moats,  as  it  were:  these  are  the  straits  of  the  Dardanelles 
and  those  of  the  Bosphorus ;  and  there  is  yet  a  third  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  Sea  of  Azof,  which  is  now  called  the  Straits  of 
Kertch.  Thus  we  see  that  the  spot  selected  by  Divine  Provi- 
dence for  the  birth  of  our  race,  and  the  earliest  experiments 
of  human  life  and  society,  was  isolated  yet  central — isolated, 
that  the  experiments  might  be  less  liable  to  disturbance,  and 
central,  that  hence  the  world  might  be  peopled,  civilized,  and 
Christianized. 

But  we  must  point  out  another  feature  illustrated  by  our 
map.  The  figures  which  mark  the  exact  elevations  of  the  land 
above  the  sea  indicate  that  there  is  a  plateau,  averaging  about 
4000  feet  in  height,  and  varying  from  150  to  300  miles  in  width, 
which  runs  almost  exactly  east  and  west,  though  at  its  eastern 
end  it  is  deflected  toward  the  south  by  the  Caspian  Sea.  On 
the  west  it  comprises  the  whole  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor ;  in 
the  centre,  Koordistan  and  Armenia;  and  eastward  the  king- 
dom of  Persia.  This  plateau,  however,  has  not  a  uniform  level 
surface,  but  presents  a  great  variety  of  forms,  from  the  lofty 


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PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  21 

peak  and  mountain  to  the  fertile  valley  and  fruitful  plain.  The 
average  elevation  of  4000  feet  is  that  of  the  level  ground,  and 
not  of  the  mountains ;  these  are  so  lofty  along  the  edges  of  the 
plateau  as  to  make  it  appear  higher  than  it  really  is.  The  cul- 
minating or  highest  part  of  this  plateau  consists  of  a  plain,  sur- 
rounded by  a  complete  circle  of  mountains,  beneath  which  it 
lies  in  its  rich  livery  of  green,  with  the  Lake  of  Van  occupying 
the  centre,  like  a  jewel  in  its  casket.  The  surface  of  the  lake 
is  5115  feet  above  the  sea-level.  From  this  region  four  great 
rivers  flow  to  three  of  the  neighboring  seas:  the  Fazi  to  the 
Euxine,  the  Aras  to  the  Caspian,  and  the  Tigris  and  Euphra- 
tes to  the  Persian  Gulf*  They  all  carry  fertility  to  the  lands 
through  which  they  flow.  Ancient  traditions  place  the  prov- 
ince of  Eden  in  this  highest  portion  of  Armenia,  anciently 
called  Ararat ;  and  it  appears  to  furnish  all  the  conditions  of 
the  Mosaic  narrative.  This  also  seems  to  have  been  the  site  of 
the  Noachian  deluge,  whose  waters  were  gradually  drained  off 
by  the  streams  to  the  lower  grounds.  No  trace  now  appears 
of  such  a  cataclysm,  nor  could  any  be  looked  for.  The  accom- 
panying vertical  cut  will  give  a  clearer  idea  of  this  region ;  it 
extends  from  the  valley  of  the  Aras  and  Tiflis,  on  the  right, 
to  Bagdad,  or  Babylon,  in  Mesopotamia,  on  the  left,  and  ex- 
hibits the  positions  of  the  lakes  of  Ooroomia  and  Van,  and  of 
Mount  Ararat,  Kavendooz,  and  some  other  peaks. 

The  plateau  we  have  described  contains  every  variety  of 
climate  and  production  to  be  found  in  the  temperate  zone.  It 
even  possesses  its  own  deserts  of  sand  or  salt,  as  in  Iran  and  the 
centre  of  Asia  Minor. 

We  shall  not  speak  of  the  steppes  or  of  the  alluvial  lands 
which  lie  to  the  north  of  the  great  plateau,  for  they  are  scarce- 
ly alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures ;  but  on  the  south  there  are  two 
alluvial  plains  of  great  fertility,  created  by  the  rivers  that  still 
enrich  them,  which  invite  our  attention.  The  one  lies  south 
of  the  great  plateau,  and  under  its  shelter  :  it  is  watered  by  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Tigris;  and  much  of  it  lying  between  these 
rivers,  it  has  received  the  name  of  Mesopotamia.  It  has  been 
occupied  at  different  periods  by  some  of  the  most  renowned 
dynasties,  i  e.,  those  of  Assyria  and  Chaldeain  Scripture  times; 

*  Gen.  ii.,  10-14. 


22  BIBLE   LANDS. 

while  at  a  later  period  it  has  constituted  the  chief  wealth  of  the 
Persian,  Alexandrian,  Parthian,  and  Saracen  empires,  until  re- 
duced to  an  almost  unbroken  desert  by  the  iron  heel  of  the 
Turk. 

The  other  plain  lies  just  within  the  limits  of  an  adjacent  con- 
tinent. It  is  the  land  of  the  Pharaohs,  the  rich  valley  of  the 
Nile,  from  five  to  fifty  miles  in  width  and  five  hundred  and 
fifty  in  length,  the  site  of  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  won- 
derful seats  of  civilization,  which  has  played  no  mean  part  in 
the  Biblical  drama. 

Between  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia  lies  the  little  land  of  Ca- 
naan, or  Israel — Palestine,  the  chief  scene  of  Bible  historj^,  and 
the  most  interesting  spot  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  To  this  we 
must  now  turn  our  attention,  and  consider  some  of  its  physical 
peculiarities. 

The  first  thing  likely  to  impress  one,  in  looking  at  Palestine 
upon  the  map,  is  its  small  size.  How  strange  that  so  diminu- 
tive a  land  should  have  played  so  important  a  part  in  the 
world's  history !  But  this  fact  stands  not  alone.  Greece, 
Switzerland,  and  Holland  are  also  small,  but  have  done  great 
and  memorable  deeds.  Some  have  doubted  whether  Palestine 
could  support  a  population  of  three  millions  even  in  David's 
time,  when  its  limits  were  the  broadest,  and  it  had  become  the 
entrepot  of  the  commerce  of  India.*  Computing  the  surface  of 
the  land  at  11,200  geographical  square  miles,  we  have  an  aver- 
age of  267  souls  to  the  square  mile,  whereas  prosperous  Great 
Britain  has  but  2-16.  It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that 
England  possesses  large  tracts  of  unproductive  soil  belonging 
to  a  favored  class.  German  Bohemia,  though  hillj^,  supports  a 
population  of  25-1  to  the  square  mile,  while  the  fertile  alluvial 
plains  of  Belgium  feed  no  less  than  438.  JModern  China  sup- 
ports 288.  There  are  no  data  by  which  we  can  estimate  the 
present  population  of  Palestine,  but  we  are  safe  in  saying  that 
every  country  of  Western  Asia  has  greatly  deteriorated  in  fer- 
tility during  the  last  twelve  centuries.  Egypt,  according  to 
Herodotus,  anciently  contained  seven  millions  of  inhabitants; 
yet  its  present  population  is  but  two  and  a  half  millions.f 
Babylonia  was  once  the  most  fertile  spot  upon  the  face  of  the 

*  1  Chron.  xxi.,  5.  +  Lane,  i.,  27-29. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  23 

earth.  According  to  Strabo,  barley  produced  three  hundred 
fold ;  and  Pliny  states  that  there  were  two  crops  of  wheat  a 
year.  This  was  accomplished  by  a  system  of  irrigation  which 
converted  the  entire  plain  between  the  two  rivers,  as  well  as 
the  outer  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  below  Nine- 
veh, into  a  continuous  garden,  supporting  a  numerous  popula- 
tion of  well-to-do  farmers  and  gardeners,  the  source  and  secret 
of  the  prosperity  and  power  of  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian 
empires.*  But  now  this  whole  region  is  little  more  than  a 
desert.  The  yearly  incursions  of  the  Arabs  compel  the  in- 
habitants to  seek  the  protection  of  the  walled  towns,  whose 
governors  more  slowly,  but  as  surely,  rob  them  of  their  little 
all.  The  land  lies  uncultivated,  and  the  canals  are  choked 
and  obliterated.  This  explains  the  depopulation  and  ruin  of 
all  the  countries  bordering  upon  the  desert.  The  Turkish 
Government  purchases  a  truce  from  the  Bedawy  sheikhs  by  the 
payment  of  a  yearly  tribute ;  this,  however,  does  not  prevent 
private  parties  of  marauders  from  scouring  the  country  and 
carrying  off  every  thing  movable. 

But  we  must  look  at  some  other  features  of  the  Land  of  Is- 
rael. The  most  interesting  of  these  is  the  course  of  the  Jordan, 
which  flows  through  a  deep  and  most  remarkable  trench,  ex- 
tending in  a  straight  line  from  the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon  to  the 
Gulf  of  Akaba,  on  the  Eed  Sea.  The  vertical  section  of  Pal- 
estine, from  north  to  south,  and  across  the  Bed  Sea  to  the  Afri- 
can hills,  will  throw  light  upon  this  subject.  The  Jordan  bursts 
forth  from  the  side  of  Hermon,  1700  feet  above  the  Mediter- 
ranean, though  one  of  its  springs  is  lower  down,  at  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Dan.  Its  mouth,  where  it  enters  the  Dead  Sea,  at 
a  distance  of  120  miles  from  its  source,  lies  1300  feet  below 
the  Mediterranean  ;  so  that  the  entire  descent  of  this  river,  most 
appropriately  called  "  the  Descender,"  amounts  to  no  less  than 
3000  feet !  Two  lakes  lie  in  its  path ;  the  higher  and  smaller 
is  Ijake  Merom,  the  modern  Hooleh,  all  grown  over  with  the 
papyrus  reed.f  The  Jordan,  issuing  thence,  rushes  through  a 
rocky  chasm  into  the  beautiful  harp-shaped  Lake  of  Chinnereth, 
or  Gennesaret,  twelve  miles  in  length  by  six  in  breadth,  whose 
surface  is  630  feet  lower  than  the  sea,  while  its  depth  is  in 

*  Rcawlinson's  Herodotus,  i.,  267.  t  Macgregor,  306,  Map. 


24  BIBLE   LANDS. 

some  places  no  less  than  200  feet;  so  that,  were  it  drained  of 
its  waters,  it  would  present  a  chasm  800  feet  lower  than  the 
sea,  and  8000  feet  below  the  mountains  of  Naphthali,  near  its 
western  shore.  The  Jordan  descends  700  feet  more  before  it 
reaches  the  Dead  Sea,  which  lies  1300  feet  below  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  about  4000  feet  lower  than  Jerusalem. 

The  Dead  Sea  deserves  its  name.  It  resembles  the  crater  of 
a  volcano,  partially  filled  up  by  a  lake  of  bitter  w^aters,  whose 
level  is  but  slightly  raised  by  the  "  swellings  of  Jordan  "  in  the 
spring  season,  and  beneath  whose  surface  lies  a  depth,  in  some 
places,  of  more  than  1300  feet ;  so  that  the  lowest  part  of  the 
entire  chasm  lies  2600  feet  below  sea -level,  and  5000  feet 
lower  than  the  Mount  of  Olives,  less  than  fifteen  miles  from 
its  shores ! 

But  the  chasm  ends  not  here.  A  narrow  valley  (Araba) 
extends  in  a  straight  line  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Dead  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  and  this  valley  nowhere  rises 
higher  than  787  feet  above  the  sea.  The  entire  distance  from 
the  foot  of  Hermon  to  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  is  603 
miles. 

But  what  bearing  has  this  description  of  the  Jordan  upon 
the  Scripture  history  ?  Much,  every  way.  The  fact,  however, 
to  which  we  desire  now  to  call  attention  is  the  following :  The 
land  of  God's  chosen  people  must  occupy  a  central  position  in 
the  then  civilized  portion  of  the  world.^  But  the  mighty  em- 
pires which  surrounded  them  would  long  ago  have  obliterated 
every  vestige  of  a  divine  revelation  had  not  the  physical  fea- 
tures of  the  land  afforded,  for  many  centuries,  an  effectual  de- 
fense against  all  the  foes  of  the  Hebrews.  It  is  a  hilly  coun- 
try, easily  guarded  by  footmen  against  the  cavalry  and  chariots 
of  Egypt  and  Assyria.  The  Jordan,  fordable  only  in  two 
places,  formed,  with  its  lakes,  the  strongest  line  of  defense  east- 
ward. On  the  south  and  south-west  lay  the  dry  and  thirsty 
desert  defending  the  approaches  from  Egypt ;  while  the  Medi- 
terranean offered  no  secure  landing-place  to  an  enemy  from  the 
west.  The  passes  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea  on  the 
north  were  defended  by  the  ever-friendly  Tyrians  and  Sido- 
nians,  and  the  entrance  into  Coele-Syria,  between  Lebanon  and 
Ilermon,  could  easily  be  held  by  hardy  mountaineers. 

*  P>(5ek.  v.,  5. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  25 

But  the  eastern  approaches  of  the  Land  of  Israel  were  not 
guarded  by  the  Jordan  alone ;  for  the  chief  danger  that  threat- 
ened the  commonwealth  always  lay  in  the  direction  of  Meso- 
potamia, Two  and  a  half  tribes  were  posted  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Jordan,  in  a  rugged  and  hilly  region  ;  and  their  occupa- 
tion as  herdsmen  and  shepherds  fitted  them  to  be  a  hardy  van- 
guard, ever  on  the  watch,  and  at  the  post  of  danger.  Beyond 
these  lay  the  great  Arabian  Desert,  while  the  famous  Lijah  con- 
stituted a  detached  fort,  an  outpost  almost  impregnable  to  any 
foe.  This  consists  of  a  "  lava  bed  "  of  basalt — a  dike  or  field 
of  black  rock,  rising  suddenly  to  a  height  of  thirty  feet,  pear- 
shaped,  twenty-two  miles  long  by  fourteen  wide — made  up  of 
boulders  thrown  together  in  the  utmost  confusion,  and  sur- 
rounded by  the  verdure  of  the  wilderness.  Here  were  the 
sixty  giant  cities  of  Bashan,  hewn  out  of  the  rock ;  they  are 
still  standing,  as  though  vacated  but  yesterday.*  Here  was  the 
stronghold  of  Og  and  his  compeers,  whence  they  waged  war 
upon  the  surrounding  region,  and,  in  case  of  defeat,  retreated 
to  their  almost  impregnable  fortress.f  Hither  Absalom  fled 
and  hid  himself  after  the  murder  of  his  brother  Amnon.:}:  And 
to  this  day  it  is  the  asylum  of  outlaws  and  refugees  from  Turk- 
ish tyranny. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  general  appearance  of  Palestine  as 
it  strikes  the  western  traveler  when  he  first  sets  his  eyes  upon 
it.  It  is  broken  up  into  mountains,  hills,  and  valleys,  while  an 
almost  unbroken  plain  extends  along  the  sea-shore,  and  runs 
across  from  the  sea  to  the  Jordan  valley.  The  mountains  are 
sometimes  lofty,  as  Lebanon  and  Hermon  on  the  north,  reach- 
ing nearly  10,000  feet  in  height.  They  are  often  barren  and 
rocky,  but  there  is  evidence  that  the  lesser  heights  at  least 
were  anciently  terraced,  and  covered  with  plantations  of  vine- 
yards, olive-trees,  and  cereals.  A  process  has,  however,  been 
going  on  for  many  centuries,  which  has  changed  into  naked 
and  craggy  heights  the  hills  once  covered  with  soil  and  ver- 
dure. The  original  soil  was  supported  in  its  place  by  the  roots 
of  the  trees  and  shrubs  which  grew  upon  them.  These  were 
gradually  cut  down,  and  the  cultivated  earth  was  then  sus 
tained  by  means  of  stone  walls,  forming  the  fruitful  terraces 


*  Dent,  iii.,  4.  t  Numb,  xxi.,  33-35.  {  2  Sam.  xiii.,  28,  29,  37 


26  BIBLE   LANDS. 

which  still  adorn  Mount  Lebanon.  As  the  country  was  visit- 
ed with  long  protracted  wars/ which  destroyed  a  large  portion 
of  the  population,  these  walls  were  neglected  and  gave  way 
before  the  winter  rains,  which  swept  the  soil  into  the  plains 
beneath.  At  a  certain  period  in  history,  powerful  tribes  of 
nomads  began  to  roam  over  the  land,  and  continue  to  this  day. 
It  is  their  practice  to  set  fire  to  the  shrubs  and  forests  in  the 
autumn,  in  order  to  insure  a  larger  crop  of  grass  for  their  flocks 
in  the  spring.  Thus  the  soil  is  carried  into  the  plains  by  the 
rains,  while  the  hills  are  converted  into  rocky  wastes.  The 
springs  of  water  are  dried  up,  and  the  rain  diminishes  as  the 
forests  disappear.  This  ruinous  process  still  goes  on  in  West- 
ern Asia,  and  it  would  require  centuries  of  a  different  course 
to  repair  the  injury  thus  inflicted  on  the  land.  It  is  within 
the  memory  of  men  still  living  that  the  island  of  Syra  in  the 
^gean  was  covered  with  forests :  it  has  now  become,  in  the 
manner  described,  a  barren  rock,  with  only  one  small  spring 
of  water.  The  people  of  Malta  now  import  soil  from  Sicily 
for  the  raising  of  vegetables,  while  in  the  days  of  Paul  it  pos- 
sessed trees  and  even  forests.* 

The  foregoing  statements  explain  the  fulfillment  of  the  curse 
pronounced  by  Moses  against  Israel,  in  case  of  disobedience: 
"  The  whole  land  thereof  is  brimstone,  and  salt,  and  burning — it 
is  not  sown,  nor  beareth,  nor  any  grass  groweth  therein,  like  the 
overthrow  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  Admah  and  Zeboim!"f 

We  have  every  reason  to  believe  that,  during  the  early  his- 
toric times,  Palestine  was  covered  with  primeval  forests,  as  is 
still  the  case  with  many  other  parts  of  Western  Asia.  And 
during  the  period  of  the  Old  Testament  narrative  forests  were 
certainly  more  common  than  now ;  groves  crowned  the  sum- 
mits of  many  hills,  which  were  cut  down  by  the  divine  com- 
mand, because  they  had  become  the  seats  of  idolatrous  wor- 
ship.:}: Such  groves  may  yet  be  seen  in  other  portions  of 
Western  Asia,  and  the  people  at  the  present  day,  especially  the 
remnants  of  heathen  tribes,  associate  with  them  ideas  of  super- 
stitious reverence,  and  even  perform  religious  rites  around 
some  venerated  tree,  or  at  the  shrine  of  a  reputed  saint  there 

*  Acts  xxviii.,  3,  8.  t  Deut.  xxix.,  23. 

X  Deut.  vii.,  5  ;  xvi.,  21  ;  2  Kings  xviii.,  4  ;  xxiii.,  14 ;  2  Chron.  xiv.,  3. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  27 

interred.  The  piles  of  sticks  surrounding  some  of  these  trees 
are  the  ofi'erings  of  superstition,  and  happy  does  the  man  es- 
teem himself  who  can  carry  off"  a  twig  or  a  branch  to  be  pre- 
served as  a  talisman.  The  "  wood  of  Ephraim,"  where  Absa- 
lom lost  his  life,  perished  long  ago.  Carmel  and  Lebanon  evi- 
dently once  waved  with  forests,  and  the  noble  cedars,  now  lim- 
ited to  two  or  three  small  localities,  must  have  been  a  common . 
tree  at  a  former  age.  Still  we  may  presume  that  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  country  have  remained  unchanged  from 
the  days  of  Joshua.  We  have  the  distinct  features  of  plain 
and  hill,  the  former  smooth,  and  rich  with  the  alluvial  soil 
which  has  been  washed  down  the  latter;  while  the  hills,  being 
formed  almost  exclusively  of  limestone,  are,  by  the  industry 
of  the  inhabitants,  covered  with  terraces  supported  by  stone 
walls,  which  keep  the  loose  soil  from  being  carried  away  by  the 
rains.  The  plains  produce  cereals,  mostly  wheat  and  barley. 
These  are  also  grown  on  the  hill-sides ;  but  the  chief  products 
of  the  latter  are  the  vine,  the  fig,  the  olive,  mulberry,  and  other 
fruit-trees.  The  more  inaccessible  hills,  and  such  of  the  low 
lands  as  can  not  be  cultivated,  are  used  as  pasturing-grounds 
for  sheep,  goats,  and  larger  cattle.* 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  Western  Asia  no  tree  is  planted 
or  even  allowed  to  grow,  unless  its  fruit  commends  it  to  the 
care  of  man.  Fuel  being  scarce,  all  other  trees  are  cut  down  :f 
the  poplar  alone  may  be  excepted,  whose  tall  trunk  is  needed 
for  house -building.  It  is  still  customary,  however,  to  plant 
trees  of  various  kinds  by  the  graves  of  the  dead,  and  no  person 
would  venture  to  cut  them  down. 

Solitary  trees  also,  not  fruit -bearing,  are  left  to  grow  on 
some  spot  where  the  weary  traveler  seeks  the  shelter  of  their 
shade,  or  slakes  his  thirst  at  a  well  or  spring  of  water.  These 
last  are  usually  the  oak,  the  platanus  or  plane  tree,  and  the 
terebinth,  all  of  which  grow  to  a  great  size,  and  afford  refresh- 
ing shade  to  a  large  company. 

Such  solitary  and  venerable  trees  are  often  seen  on  the  out- 
skirts or  within  the  limits  of  villages ;  an  extensive  platform 
surrounds  the  trunk,  the  soil  having  been  trodden  hard  by  the 
feet  of  many  generations.     Here  grave  councils  are  held,  and 

*  Psa.  Ixv.,  13.  t  Matt,  vii.,  19. 


28  BIBLE    LANDS. 

here  also  occur  the  chief  festivities  on  the  occasion  of  a  marriage 
or  other  causes  of  rejoicing,  the  company  being  seated  upon  lit- 
tle mats  or  rugs,  the  musicians  filling  the  air  with  the  shrill 
sound  of  their  instruments,  and  the  dancers  often  circling  the 
tree,  as  they  hold  each  other's  hands:  here  also  funeral  rites 
are  performed.  The  reader  will  find  many  such  trees  referred 
to  in  the  Bible,  but  we  merely  remind  bira  of  Abraham's  tree, 
probably  a  terebinth,  underneath  whose  shade  the  patriarch 
entertained  the  angels;*  the  oak  which  was  by  Shechem;t 
the  oak  under  which  was  buried  the  nurse  of  Rebekah,:}:  and 
the  juniper-tree  where  Elijah  was  refreshed  by  the  angel  on  his 
way  to  "  Horeb,  the  mount  of  God."§ 

What  we  have  now  said  of  the  general  features  of  the  coun- 
try will  serve  to  explain  many  statements,  otherwise  dark, 
which  are  met  with  in  the  Scriptures.  All  the  houses  were 
built — as  they  are  still — of  sun-dried  bricks  or  of  stone,  wheth- 
er hewn  or  united  in  the  rough  state  with  mud  or  mortar. 
Timber  has  now  become  even  more  scarce  than  anciently. 
From  the  want  of  beams  and  rafters  which  once  supported  the 
roofs  the  latter  have  to  be  arched,  which  peculiarity  is  strik- 
ingly seen  in  all  large  pictures  of  modern  Jerusalem.  It  is  a 
city  of  domes. 

There  was  no  such  thing  as  a  wooden  house  except  for  a 
king,  and  Solomon's  house  of  forty -five  cedar  pillars,  and 
cedar  beams  upon  them,!  must  have  been  more  wonderful  to 
the  people  than  if  built  of  marble,  not  merely  on  account  of 
the  quality  of  the  wood,  but  from  its  being  built  wholly  of  tim- 
ber. Then,  too,  as  has  already  been  observed,  fuel  was  and 
still  is  scarce. 

We  see  also  how  it  was  that  foreign  conquerors  could  sub- 
due the  people  of  the  plains,  while  the  inhabitants  of  the 
hills  successfully  maintained  their  independence.  The  dread- 
ed war -chariots  could  not  climb  the  rocky,  roadless  steeps. 
With  the  advance  of  civilization  good  roads  crossed  the  hills 
in  every  direction,  and  the  cavalry  of  the  Assyrian,  the  Baby- 
lonian, the  Persian,  the  Macedonian,  and  the  Roman  invaders 
met  with  no  resistance  outside  of  the  "fenced  cities;"  and  a 


'  Gen.  xviii.,  4.  +  Gen.  xxxv..  4 ;  Josh,  xxiv.,  25,  26. 

:  Gen.  XXXV..  «  §  1  Kings  xix.,  4.  ||  1  Kings  vii..  2,  X 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  29 

four-wheeled  diligence  now  regularly  plies  between  Jaffa  and 
Jerusalem. 

The  climate  of  Palestine  is  mild  and  salubrious.  The  want 
of  forests  renders  it  liable  to  occasional  droughts,  and  this  lia- 
bility is  doubtless  enhanced  by  the  near  vicinity  of  regions 
where  rain  never  falls,  such  as  Arabia -Petrsea  and  Upper 
Egypt.  Showers  come  from  the  Mediterranean,  while  the 
steady  rains  follow  the  line  of  Hermon  and  Lebanon.  Snow 
is  a  phenomenon  of  rare  occurrence.  It  is,  however,  seen  in 
winter,  resting  on  both  the  above-mentioned  heights,  and  is 
found  in  shaded  spots  in  summer ;  while  the  heat  of  the  latter 
season  is  tempered,  especially  in  the  hill  country  of  Judea,  by 
the  rush  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  Mediterranean  toward  the 
seething  caldron  of  the  Dead  Sea.  But  during  the  months  of 
July  and  August,  when  the  inundation  of  the  Nile  covers 
Egypt  with  water,  a  cool  breeze  prevails  in  Palestine  from  the 
south-west,  which  is  only  occasionally  exchanged  for  the  sti- 
fling siroccos  blowing  from  the  desert. 

A  word  respecting  the  main  features  of  the  other  lands  of 
the  Bible  to  which  the  reader's  attention  will  be  called  in  the 
course  of  the  present  work.  Egypt,  ns  already  stated,  is  a  por- 
tion of  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  extending  five  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  southward  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is 
closed  in  on  the  west  and  east  by  arid  sands  and  barren  mount- 
ains, and  owes  its  fertility  to  the  yearly  overflowings  of  the 
Nile.  This  river  empties  itself  into  the  Mediterranean  by  sev- 
eral mouths,  which  encompass  the  most  fertile  portion  of  the 
land,  in  shape  resembling  an  equilateral  triangle,  and  called 
the  Delta,  or  Lower  Egypt.  At  Alexandria,  on  the  sea-shore, 
there  are  forty  days  rain  during  the  whole  year;  there  are 
five  days  at  Cairo  above  the  Delta,  and  none  at  all  at  the  first 
cataracts. 

Syria  may  be  called  the  continuation  of  Palestine.  It  occu- 
pies the  upper  or  northern  half  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Med- 
iterranean ;  its  southern  portion  includes  the  northern  part  of 
the  mountain  ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  with  the 
plain  of  Damascus;  then  northward  comes  the  plain  of  Anti- 
och,  branching  off  to  the  low  shore  of  Seleucia  in  the  west,  and 
reaching  out  eastward  to  the  desert ;  north  of  this  is  Mount 
Amanus  and  Mesopotamia. 


30  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Asia  Minor  is  an  irregular  parallelogram,  pushing  out  west- 
ward from  the  Asiatic  continent.  It  is  a  part  of  the  great  pla- 
teau we  have  already  described,  whose  edges  are  worn  down 
by  storms  and  streams,  and  have  formed  low,  irregular,  alluvial 
plains  all  around  its  margin.  This  plateau  is  crossed  from 
west  to  east  by  two  irregular  chains  of  mountains,  Taurus  on 
the  south,  and  Anti-taurus  on  the  north,  which  advance  east- 
ward almost  to  the  Caspian  Sea ;  their  eastern  portion  is  called 
Koordistan  and  Armenia.  Finally,  the  great  Caucasian  chain, 
stretching  across  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Black  Seas,  forms  an 
almost  impenetrable  barrier  to  the  north. 

The  countries  we  have  thus  briefly  outlined  are  doubtless 
the  most  interesting  portions  of  the  earth's  surface.  It  would 
be  difl&cult  to  say  whether  their  scenery  is  most  remarkable 
for  its  beauty,  its  grandeur,  or  its  extraordinary  variety.  The 
climate  is  salubrious,  and  so  temperate  with  respect  to  both 
heat  and  cold  as  to  produce  the  most  perfect  intellectual  and 
physical  development  of  man,  and  even  of  the  brute  creation. 
It  is,  moreover,  the  portion  of  the  world  which  has  been  longest 
occupied  by  the  human  race,  and  to  which  belong  by  far  the 
fullest  and  the  most  startling  pages  of  history.  Its  surface  is 
everywhere  studded  with  remains  of  the  human  industry  of 
more  than  six  thousand  years.  A  wonderfully  large  number  of 
races  and  nations  have  there  sought  immortality  by  their  own 
works,  or  by  destroying  the  works  of  others.  The  remains  of 
cities,  of  temples,  palaces,  and  fortifications  are  met  with  on 
every  hand,  each  telling  its  own  tale.  In  Egypt,  imperishable 
granite  speaks  of  races  long  gone  by.  There,  as  well  as  in 
Palestine  and  Lower  Mesopotamia,  "  tells  "  or  mounds  of  stu- 
pendous size,  and  built  of  brick  by  human  hands,  point  to  a 
history  still  farther  back,  which  we  are  just  beginning  to  deci- 
pher; while  in  Asia  Minor,  the  most  ancient  Egyptian,  As- 
syrian, and  Grecian  remains  lie  side  by  side  with  monuments 
and  epitaphs  in  languages  yet  unknown,  and  with  pyramids  of 
sun-dried  bricks,  whose  hidden  treasures  are  yet  to  tell  a  tale 
of  long  gone  ages. 

To  these  interesting  features  we  must  add  that  which,  to  the 
Christian,  is  the  most  thrilling  of  all — the  history  of  man's  re- 
demption was  here  enacted.  Here  patriarchs,  prophets,  apos- 
tles, and  protomartyrs,  lived,  preached,  and  suflfered,  and  more 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  31 

than  all,  here  dwelt  the  Son  of  God!  These  lands  we  have 
attempted  to  delineate;  others  have  studied  and  sketched  their 
ancient  remains.  They  have  identified  almost  every  spot  men- 
tioned in  history,  sacred  or  profane,  but  they  have  taken  little 
interest  in  the  present  condition  of  the  lands  of  the  Bible;  and 
despising  their  present  population,  so  dwarfish  and  degraded 
by  the  side  of  the  giants  of  ancient  days,  they  have  determined 
to  forget,  and  have  certainly  disregarded,  alike  their  persons 
and  their  customs.  We  have  traced  a  totally  different  path 
for  ourselves.  It  is  less  startling  to  the  imagination.  But 
when  the  reader  has  perused  these  pages,  we  trust  that  their 
picture  of  the  lands  of  the  Bible  as  they  now  are,  will  have 
thrown  much  valuable  light  upon  the  pages  of  Holy  Writ. 

We  can  not,  however,  proceed  in  our  plan  without  a  few 
words  on  the  Topography  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
which  has  reference  not  only  to  Palestine  and  Syria,  but  to 
several  of  the  neighboring  countries  as  well.  The  identifica- 
tion of  the  spots  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  has  received  much 
attention  on  the  part  of  Biblical  scholars  during  the  last  half- 
century,  and  the  volumes  written  on  this  branch  of  knowledge 
form  a  valuable  portion  of  our  literature.  No  student  of  the 
Bible  should  be  ignorant  of  the  most  important  of  these  works ; 
but  it  does  not  enter  into  our  plan  to  attempt  a  discussion  or  in- 
vestigation of  these  matters.  As,  however,  the  subject  of  to- 
pography is  intimately  related  to  an  inquiry  into  the  present 
condition  of  Bible  lands,  as  illustrative  of  the  text  of  Scripture, 
we  can  not  avoid  giving  it  a  brief  and  general  notice. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  land  of 
Palestine,  with  regard  to  whose  location  there  never  has  been 
a  doubt,  was  eminently  adapted  for  the  purposes  which  God 
had  in  view  in  choosing  to  himself  a  peculiar  people,  and  mak- 
ing them  the  depository  of  a  divine  revelation.  It  is  probable 
that  no  other  spot  could  be  found  on  the  face  of  the  earth 
equally  well  fitted  for  such  an  object.  We  must  bear  in  mind 
that  the  whole  world  was  devoted  to  idolatry,  and  that  the 
chosen  people  of  God  would  be  constantly  liable  to  lose  the 
knowledge  of  the  true  God,  and  imitate  the  heathen  rites  of 
their  neighbors;  so  that  they  must  needs  be  isolated  in  their 
position.  This  isolation  was  further  rendered  necessary  by  the 
political  condition  of  the  world.  During  the  centuries  in 
3 


32  BIBLE   LANDS. 

which  the  Jews  occupied  Palestine,  many  dynasties  were  rising 
around  them  by  the  destruction  of  their  neighbors,  and  falling 
in  their  turn  under  the  blows  of  a  more  powerful  enemy.  The 
prevailing  policy  consisted,  in  many  cases,  in  razing  the  con- 
quered cities  to  the  ground,  putting  to  the  edge  of  the  sword 
all  who  were  able  to  bear  arms,  and  carrying  away  the  women 
and  children  into  hopeless  captivity.  No  one  can  look  upon 
the  map  of  Palestine,  as  we  have  shown,  without  being  struck 
with  its  remarkably  advantageous  position,  both  for  the  pur- 
pose of  isolation  and  for  defense  against  an  invading  foe.  And 
the  strength  of  this  position  is  abundantly  proved  by  the  his- 
tory of  the  Israelites;  for  they  were  able  to  maintain  their  in- 
dependence against  the  two  most  powerful  monarchies  of  an- 
cient times  for  the  space  of  seven  hundred  years ;  the  mighty 
armies  of  their  enemies,  like  the  locusts  in  numbers,  repeat- 
edly broke  over  the  line  of  the  Jordan,  or  through  the  south- 
ern desert,  and,  taking  possession  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  cut 
their  little  land  in  two;  but  they  were  soon  ejected,  and  the 
Israelites  regained  their  liberty.  Finally,  the  first  to  give  way 
were  the  two  and  a  half  tribes  that  occupied  the  outposts  on 
the  eastern  border.*  These  were  followed,  only  nineteen  years 
later,  by  the  remaining  tribes  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  at  the 
fall  of  Samaria,  their  capital.  The  mountains  of  Judea  proved 
an  internal  fortress,  which,  after  the  rest  of  the  country  had 
been  wasted,  and  the  inhabitants  had  been  removed,  still  held 
its  own — though  sometimes  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to  its 
mighty  foes — for  the  space  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  years 
longer.  Though  conquered  by  Babylon,  the  southern  king- 
dom was  revived  by  Cyrus,  and  did  not  finally  perish  until 
nearly  eight  hundred  years  later  than  the  rest  of  the  country, 
and  this  under  the  strong  arm  of  Rome,  the  mistress  of  the 
world. 

We  remark,  again,  upon  the  general  subject  of  Biblical  to- 
pography, that  the  Bible  is  a  volume  containing  a  large  number 
of  separate  books,  evidently  written  by  different  men,  at  dif- 
ferent and  often  distant  periods  of  time,  extending  over  two 
thousand  years.  Scattered  through  these  books  are  found  de- 
scriptions, often  minute,  of  various  localities,  of  towns,  villages, 

*  B.C.  740  ;  1  Chron.  v.,  26;  comp.  with  Isa.  ix.,  1. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  33 

buildings,  streets,  hills,  valleys,  streams,  wells,  and  other  local 
objects  not  in  the  land  of  Palestine  alone,  but  also  in  the  neigh- 
boring countries.  Men  of  talent  and  learning  have  for  many 
years  been  engaged  in  verifjnng  these  statements  and  in  iden- 
tifying the  spots  thus  described.  The  discoveries  and  identifi- 
cations have  been  innumerable.  Old  walls  have  come  to  light, 
streams  have  been  traced,  monuments  discovered,  inscriptions 
deciphered,  mountains,  hills,  and  valleys  have  been  identified, 
forming  a  mass  of  evidence  truly  wonderful  and  unprecedent- 
ed, which  has  established  beyond  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  the 
authenticity  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 

These  discoveries  and  identifications  are  still  going  on,  and 
we  have  reason  to  believe  that  many  are  yet  in  store  to  reward 
the  patient  labor  of  the  student  of  the  Word,  We  have  yet  to 
learn  that  any  one  item  of  topographical  information  contained 
in  the  Scriptures  has,  on  examination  of  the  ground,  proved  at 
fault.  We  have  not  seen  this  fact  brought  forward  as  an 
argument  to  establish  the  authenticity  of  the  Scriptures,  yet  it 
has  always  seemed  to  us  one  of  the  most  complete  and  unan- 
swerable, and  one  which  ought  to  satisfy  the  mind  of  every 
caviler. 

It  is  also  worthy  of  note  that  these  topographical  inquiries 
are  nearly  always  more  or  less  connected  with  questions  of  his- 
tory. In  seeking,  for  instance,  to  identify  a  certain  locality  or 
certain  ruins,  we  endeavor  to  decipher  an  inscription,  either 
entire  or  fragmentary,  which  may  have  been  brought  to  light. 
These  inscriptions  often  contain  the  name  of  the  town  sought 
for,  and  then  the  evidence  is  complete;  but  other  particulars 
come  to  light  at  the  same  time.  The  inscriptions  before  us  are 
perhaps  not  all  written  in  the  same  language  or  characters. 
The  record  may  be  either  in  Greek  or  in  Latin,  in  Phoenician, 
hieroglyphic,  or  the  cuneiform  character;  and  this  mere  fact  at 
once  proves  that  the  town  in  question  was  once  in  possession 
of  the  peoj)le  whose  written  characters  are  before  us — a  historic- 
al fact  frequently  of  great  importance.  Again,  the  characters 
or  letters  of  a  people  have  differed  at  different  periods  of  their 
history,  and  a  mere  glance  at  an  inscription  will  often  enable 
one  to  form  a  correct  judgment,  respecting  the  period  of  the 
world's  history  to  which  it  belongs.  And,  finally,  the  reading 
of  the  inscription  will  often  bring  to  light  important  facts,  or 


o-i  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  names  of  persons  which  may  be  identical  with  those  men- 
tioned in  the  sacred  record.  To  the  first  of  these  categories 
belong  the  late  important  discoveries  made  at  Jerusalem,  in 
the  foundations  of  the  Temple  area.  Large  blocks  of  stone 
have  been  found  forming  the  very  basis  of  the  artificial  plat- 
form of  Mount  Moriah,  which  have  rude  marks  or  characters 
upon  them.  Now  these  characters,  upon  examination,  prove 
to  be  Phoenician,  which  were  used  by  the  Hebrews  until  the 
captivity,  and  are  corroborative  of  the  statements  made,*  viz., 
that  Solomon  "commanded,  and  they  brought  great  stones, 
costly  stones,  and  hewed  stones,  to  lay  the  foundation  of  the 
house ;  and  Solomon's  builders  and  Hiram's  builders  did  hew 
them."  Solomon  employed  in  the  building  of  the  Temple 
skillful  artisans  of  that  nation,  as  well  as  Jews,  and  both  peo- 
ple used  the  same  characters. 

The  late  discovery  of  a  monument  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  be- 
longs to  the  other  category  of  inscriptions  above  specified. 
The  writing  upon  it  not  only  proves  that  the  country  in  which 
it  was  discovered  was  occupied  by  the  people  of  Moab,  but  the 
occurrence  of  the  name  of  the  Moabite  king,  Mesha,  enables  us 
to  identify  him  as  the  hero  of  the  tragical  story  narrated  in 
2  Kings  lii.,  24-27. 

Should  we  enter,  however,  upon  an  account  of  even  the  most 
notable  instances  of  identification,  we  should  be  obliged  to  pass 
in  review  the  remarkable  discoveries  made  at  Nineveh,  and 
others  scattered  over  all  the  surrounding  region.  We  will  only 
say  that  coins  are  even  more  frequently  found  than  inscriptions 
among  old  ruins,  and  being  composed  of  less  perishable  materi- 
als they  are  generally  in  a  better  state  of  preservation.  They, 
moreover,  contain  information  upon  the  very  points  we  seek 
to  elucidate,  ^.  e.,  the  names  of  the  reigning  sovereigns,  while 
the  best  preserved  and  most  elaborate  inscriptions  often  throw 
no  light  of  any  importance  upon  any  subject  whatever. 

There  is  yet  another  mode  of  identification  of  which  we  can 
fortunately  avail  ourselves  when  all  other  resources  fail  us. 
Western  Asia  has  been  overrun  by  various  conquerors,  who 
have  laid  it  waste,  destroj^ed  its  cities,  ruined  its  "pleasant 
places,"  and  either  put  to  the  sword  or  can-ied  into  permanent 

*  1  Kings  v.,  17, 18. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  35 

captivity  the  greatest  part  of  its  inhabitants.  Many  of  their 
ancient  rites  and  customs  have  been  supplanted  by  others,  and 
the  very  languages  spoken  by  the  aboriginal  people  have  been 
all  but  lost,  foreign  languages  being  substituted  in  their  stead. 
But  in  spite  of  all  these  changes,  the  names  of  towns,  cities, 
rivers,  mountains,  and  even  smaller  localities,  have  generally 
remained  the  same,  their  conquerors  having  adopted  them 
from  the  conquered  with  such  changes  alone  as  are  required 
by  the  genius  of  the  language  newly  introduced.  It  is  fortu- 
nate for  the  historian  and  the  Biblical  scholar  that  for  the  orig- 
inal languages  of  Syria  and  Palestine  a  cognate  language  has 
been  substituted^ — the  Arabic — the  best  able,  on  account  of  its 
affinity  to  them,  to  preserve  unchanged  the  names  of  places  in 
those  interesting  regions. 

The  common  Oriental  name  of  Jerusalem  at  the  present  day, 
given  to  no  other  city  even  by  Muslims,  is  Elkoods — the  holy. 
Now  we  find  this  to  have  been  one  of  its  favorite  names,  both 
in  Old  and  New  Testament  times.'^  The  Hebrew  shekel  (a 
silver  coin  worth  seventy-five  cents)  bore  the  inscription  "Jeru- 
salem Kadusha,"  or  Jerusalem  the  Holy;  hence  the  name  of 
the  coin  throughout  the  East  was  Kadusha^  and  Jerusalem  was 
so  called,  and  by  the  Greeks  Cadytis.\  We  have  another  in- 
stance of  this  preservation  of  names  in  the  case  of  Egypt, 
which  is  always  called  Misraim  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  after 
the  son  of  Ham.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  in  the  Arabic, 
Turkish,  and  Persian,  the  only  name  of  the  land  of  the  Pha- 
raohs is  Misir.  Tyre  was  anciently  called  Zoor,  and  is  now 
known  in  Syria  by  no  other  name  than  Soor.  Palmyra  is  a 
Greek  name  for  Tadmor,  the  ancient  Hebrew  and  the  modern 
Arabic  name  for  the  city  of  palms.:}:  As  Drs.  Smith  and 
Robinson  were  prosecuting  their  researches,  they  one  day  came, 
as  they  supposed,  to  the  vicinity  of  the  ancient  Ajalon,  and 
began  to  inquire  of  the  native  Arabs  if  they  knew  of  such  a 
place.  At  first  they  expressed  entire  ignorance,  but  soon  after 
one  of  them  suddenly  awoke,  exclaiming,  "Ayalo!  Ayalo!" — 
here  it  is,  close  by  us.  The  Turks  are  not  so  correct;  for  exam- 
ple, whenever  they  find  a  word  commencing  with  an  S  followed 

*  Neh.  xi.,  1,18;  Isa.  xlviii.,  2;  lii.,  1;  Dan.  ix.,  24;  and  so  likewise  Matt, 
iv.,  5;  xxvii.,  53  ;  Rev.  xxi.,  2. 

t  Herodotus,  i.,  418  ;  ii.,  208,  334.  t  1  Kings  ix.,  18. 


BQ  BIBLE   LANDS. 

by  a  consonant,  they  prefix  an  I;  thus  they  change  Smyrna 
into  Ismyr,  Stavro  into  Istavro,  etc.  Sometimes  they  clip  off 
the  final  syllable  or  syllables,  and  exchange  a  soft  consonant 
for  a  hard  one;  as  Pilibe  for  Philipopolis,  and  Edirne  for 
Adrianopolis. 

One  of  the  circumstances  which  invests  the  study  of  Biblical 
topography  with  the  highest  importance,  lies  in  the  fact  that  a 
large  class  of  passages  in  Holy  Writ  can  not  be  understood,  much 
less  fully  appreciated  in  all  their  power  and  beauty,  without  a 
conscientious  examination  of  sites  and  localities.  Some  of  the 
most  vexed  questions  of  sacred  history  have  thus,  fortunately, 
been  settled  forever,  for  they  could  be  settled  in  no  other  man- 
ner: they  will  never  come  up  again,  for  facts  are  stern  argu- 
ments, and  localities  are  among  the  toughest  of  facts.  The 
Scriptures  are  now  far  better  understood  than  they  were  before 
Christian  scholars  could  be  induced  to  leave  their  quiet  studies 
and  pursue  their  investigations  upon  the  ground.  It  is  thus 
that  the  impostures  of  the  monks  of  the  Middle  Ages  have 
been  exposed,  and  that,  to  mention  but  one  instance,  the  true 
site  of  our  Lord's  crucifixion  and  burial  is  being  acknowledged 
to  be  not  at  the  so-called  "Church  of  the  Sepulchre,"  but  at 
the  "  Dome  of  the  Kock."  It  is  also  by  the  study  of  the  locali- 
ties that  the  erroneous  tradition  of  many  ages  has  been  correct- 
ed, and  the  true  Sinai  has  been  fully  ascertained  whereon  the 
divine  law  was  given  to  man.  The  spot  is  so  well  fitted  for 
the  grand  and  awful  scene,  that  we  w^onder,  on  beholding  it, 
or  even  on  gazing  upon  the  accompanying  reproduction  of  a 
photograph,  that  a  moment's  doubt  could  dwell  upon  the  mind. 
As  we  look  upon  the  awful  crags  of  the  Ras  Safsafeh,  we  can 
easily  picture  in  our  imaginations  the  whole  sublime  scene,  the 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  Hebrews  standing  on  that  vast  am- 
phitheatre, while  the  Holy  Mount  burns,  and  smokes,  and  utters 
the  divine  law  in  peals  of  thunder.  Before  such  ocular  demon- 
strations, the  cavils  of  unbelievers  vanish  like  the  mists  of  the 
night,  and,  "  falling  upon  their  faces,  they  worship  God,  and 
confess  that  he  is  in  us  of  a  truth."* 

We  must  not  forget,  however,  that  the  science  of  Biblical  to- 
pography is  yet  comparatively  in  its  infoncy.     "  There  is  yet 

*  1  Cor.  xiv.,  25;  Stanley,  "Sinai  and  Palestine,"  pp.  39-44. 


iiiaiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^^^^ 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  39 

much  land  to  be  possessed,"  both  in  Palestine  and  in  the  sur- 
rounding countries ;  and  surely  no  study  can  be  more  attract- 
ive or  interesting.  We  believe  that  many  important  historical 
questions  will  yet  be  solved,  and  that  it  will  be  done  by  this 
kind  of  investigation.  Take,  for  instance,  the  question  of  the 
Deluge,  and  the  original  condition  of  the  human  race  before 
that  remarkable  event  occurred.  There  is  a  large  class  of 
good  men  and  women  who  conscientiously  think  it  a  sort  of 
heresy  to  suppose  there  was  any  limit  to  the  extent  of  the  flood- 
waters  over  the  earth's  surface,  just  as  Galileo  was  esteemed  a 
heretic  for  disbelieving  that  the  sun  made  a  daily  flight  of  six 
hundred  millions  of  miles  round  the  earth.  Other  good  men, 
however,  with  equal  reverence  for  the  Scriptures,  think  the 
flood  to  have  been  less  extensive,  and  that  the  sacred  narrative 
does  not  necessarily  imply  a  flood  that  should  encompass  more 
than  a  certain  district  of  the  earth.  They  believe  that  Moses 
described  the  country  of  Eden — wherein  the  garden  was  plant- 
ed— as  it  existed  in  his  day,  and  that  the  supposition  of  a  partial 
deluge  extending  over  that  portion  of  the  earth  alone  which 
was  inhabited  by  the  race  whose  spiritual  history  forms  the 
theme  of  the  Bible  narrative,  answers  all  the  conditions  of  the 
Mosaic  account,  while  it  sets  aside  some  perplexing  difficulties. 
Now  this  matter  can  probably  be  fully  settled  only  by  a  care- 
ful topographical  survey,  and  for  our  own  part  we  have  long 
desired  to  see  it  accomplished  by  conscientious  and  competent 
inquirers. 

Finally,  the  study  of  the  topography  of  the  Scriptures  ia  not 
only  important  because  it  elucidates  them  and  proves  their  au- 
thenticity, but  also  because  it  has  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
upon  the  character  and  opinions  of  the  people  whose  customs 
and  habits  now  become  so  valuable  as  exponents  of  those  of 
the  ancient  Hebrews.  It  is  often  said  that  the  general  charac- 
teristics of  a  country  have  a  great  influence  in  forming  the 
character  of  its  inhabitants,  and  we  certainly  see  the  fact  strik- 
ingly exemplified  when  we  contrast,  for  instance,  the  ancient 
people  of  Egypt  with  those  of  Greece.  Besides  this,  most  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Western  Asia  are  Orientals,  and  belong  to 
the  great  family  of  which  the  Hebrews  were  members.  The 
very  language  spoken  in  Syria  and  Palestine  is  cognate  to  that 
in  which  the  Old  Testament  was  originally  written,  and  the 


40  BIBLE    LANDS. 

Arabs  hold  a  near  blood  relationship  to  the  Jews.  Moreover, 
we  must  not  forget  the  influence  of  local  traditions,  and  the  ef- 
fect produced  upon  a  people  by  having  before  their  eyes,  from 
generation  to  generation,  from  childhood  to  old  age,  the  grad- 
ually crumbling  ruins  of  some  celebrated  city  or  monument 
whose  every  stone  tells  a  story  intelligible  to  the  most  ignorant 
and  supine.  It  is  impossible  to  overrate  the  influence  which 
the  traditional  history  of  Sinai  has  exerted  upon  the  Arab 
mind,  preparing  it  for  the  monotheistic  faith  of  Islam,  and  even 
upon  the  mind  of  Mohammed  himself  and  his  immediate  fol- 
lowers ;*  and  the  veneration  still  entertained  by  all  classes  for 
Jerusalem,  called  by  Muslims  "el  Koods  esh  Sherif" — the  holy, 
the  glorious — can  be  traced  to  nothing  else  but  traditional  his- 
tory. 

*  Stanley,  "Sinai  and  Palestine," p.  56. 


WATER,  AND  LIFE   UPON   THE   WATER.  41 


CHAPTER  11. 

WATJSJi,  AND  LIFE  UPON  THE  WATER. 

The  abundance  or  scarcity  of  water  and  its  quality  exert  a 
greater  influence  upon  the  character  of  a  people  than  is  gener- 
ally supposed.  The  fresh  draughts  enjoyed  by  the  mount- 
aineer on  the  very  brink  of  perennial  snows  have  an  almost 
electrical  effect  upon  him,  while  the  muddy  water  used  by  the 
people  of  Mesopotamia  and  Egypt  imparts  to  them  sluggishness 
both  of  body  and  mind,  and  fits  them  to  be  the  slaves  of  gov- 
ernors and  kings. 

Almost  the  only  perennial  stream  that  flows  through  the 
land  of  Palestine  is  the  Jordan,  the  "Descender,"  called  by  the 
Hebrews  "the  River,"  as  is  the  Nile  by  the  Egyptians.  It 
starts  from  the  cool  slopes  of  Hermon,  between  Sidon  and  Da- 
mascus, widens  on  reaching  Galilee  into  the  Lake  of  Tiberias, 
and  flows  thence  in  rapid  descent,  dashing  and  twisting  in 
every  direction  till  it  reaches  the  plain  of  Jericho  and  the 
Dead  Sea.  Nearly  all  the  other  streams  of  this  land  better  de- 
serve the  name  of  winter  torrents  than  of  rivers.  Springs  here 
are  not  numerous,  and  often  disappear  in  time  of  drought, 
owing  to  the  lack  of  forests,  the  hardness  of  the  rock,  and  the 
slight  elevation  of  the  hills.*  This  feature,  however,  is  not  pe- 
culiar to  Palestine.  Western  Asia  generally,  though  more  fa- 
vored with  rain,  is  only  comparatively  a  country  of  springs 
and  rivers,  with  the  exceptions  of  the  high  mountainous  regions 
and  a  broad  belt  thickly  wooded  running  all  along  the  north 
side  of  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor,  and  extending  from  the 
shores  of  the  Black  Sea  to  a  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty 
miles  inland.  Even  Mesopotamia,  which  lies  so  near  the  lofty 
Koordish  mountains,  was  in  ancient  times  watered  by  arti- 
ficial means. 

This  celebrated  land  became  the  rich  and  beautiful  garden 


Hosea  xiii.,  \L 


42 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


that  it  was  by  means  of  its  many  canals,  which  received  their 
supply  of  water  from  the  two  great  rivers,  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Tigris,  distributing  it  all  over  the  face  of  the  country. 
These  canals  having  at  the  present  time  fallen  into  decay,  the 
country  has  of  necessity  again  become  a  waste. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  existence  of  a  valuable  spring  of 
water  has  often  determined  the  site  of  a  village  or  city.     A 


Public  Fountain  at  Jeiusalem     (Eccles.  xu  ,  0  ) 

structure  of  mason-work,  more  or  less  costly  or  ornamental,  has 
been  erected  to  save  the  precious  element  from  waste,  and  make 
it  more  accessible.  The  spot  is  often  beautifully  ornamented 
with  shade- trees;  a  town  grows  up  around  it;  and  a  woman 
from  every  family  in  the  place  comes,  at  least  once  in  a  day, 
with  ajar  on  her  shoulder,  to  obtain  the  needed  supply  for  her 
household.  This  duty,  however,  is  usually  performed  by  the 
younger  members  of  the  family,  the  girls  beginning  early  to 
accustom  themselves  to  a  task  which  has  withal  the  attraction 


WATER,   AND    LIFE    UPON   THE   WATER. 


43 


of  social  gossip,  while  jar  after  jar  is  slowly  filling  from  the 
trickling  stream.* 

The  jars  thej  use  are  of  various  forms,  sometimes  with  han- 
dles and  sometimes  without;  again  with  broad  rounded  bases, 
when  they  are  carried  upon  a  small  circular  cushion  placed 
upon  the  head;  or  having  almost  pointed  bases,  which  rest 
upon  the  cushioned  shoulder,  un- 
less the  bearer  prefers  to  balance 
the  vessel  farther  back,  with  its 
side  pressing  against  the  shoulder- 
blade.  But  it  is  a  fact  worthy  of 
note  that  the  forms  of  the  mod 
water-jars  are  almost  always  a 
production  of  the  ancient  art 
used  in  the  same  locality,  but  oi 
coarser  material  and  plainer  style 
than  the  old.  This  is  proved  both 
by  sculptures  and  by  specimens  oc- 
casionally brought  to  light  among 
old  ruins.  The  mode  of  carrying- 
water  is  alluded  to  in  the  Scrip- 
tures.f  Thejar  of  water  is  brought 
home  and  set  in  the  corner  of  the 
dwelling  upon  the  earth,  or  on  a 
stand  specially  prepared  for  it;  by 
its  side  is  placed  an  earthern  cup 

r  T_  1  Woman  carrying  Water.    (Geu.  xxiv.,46.) 

or  one  of  brazen  ware  or  glass, 

according  to  the  taste  or  wealth  of  the  owner,  for  the  common 
use  of  the  household.  This  cup  is  often  turned  over  so  as  to 
cover  the  mouth  of  the  vessel,  in  order  to  prevent  any  thing 
from  falling  into  it.  Water  for  drinking,  however,  is  usually 
kept  in  a  smaller  earthen  jar  or  cruse,  which  is  open  at  the 
top  or  perforated  with  small  holes  to  pour  in  the  water.:};  In 
the  latter  case  it  has  a  spout,  as  well  as  a  handle,  through 
which  the  fingers  are  passed  when  using  it,  while  the  thumb 
clasps  the  neck.  The  end  of  the  spout  is  first  applied  to  the 
mouth,  and  then  gradually  withdrawn   to  the  distance  of  a 


*  1  Sam.  ix.,  11. 

t  1  Sam.  xxvi.,  11  ;  1  Kings  xix.,  6. 


t  Gen.  xxiv.,  15;  Mark  xiv.,  13. 


44 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


foot  or  so,  the  water  all  the  while  continuing  to  flow  in  a  jet 
into  the  open  mouth ;  it  is  then  brought  skillfully  to  its  first 
position  at  the  close  of  the  draught*  It  is  not  an  unusual 
sight,  however,  to  see  a  girl  or  a  woman  who  is  bringing  her 
pitcher  from  the  well  or  fountain  take  it  down  from  her  head 
or  shoulder,  and  give  some  one  to  drink  of  it,  which  is  uni- 
formly done  by  resting  the  side  of  the  jar  upon  one  hand,  while 
it  is  balanced  at  a  proper  angle  with  the  other:  he  who  drinks 
touches  the  pitcher  only  with  his  lips.f  Nor  is  it  considered 
improper  for  a  man,  though  a  stranger,  to  ask  a  woman  to  let 
down  her  pitcher  and  give  him  to  drink.ij:  As  most  Orientals 
like  an  occasional  draught  of  water  during  the  night,  a  cruse 
is  usually  placed  so  near  the  bed  spread  upon  the  floor  that  the 


Ancient  (1.)  and  Modern  (2.)  Water-pitchers.    (Matt,  siii.,  14.) 

sleeper  can  reach  it  by  merely  raising  his  head  from  his  pillow 
and  stretching  out  his  hand.  Mothers  are  particularly  careful 
to  be  provided  with  the  means  of  giving  a  refreshing  draught 
of  water  to  their  little  ones  when  they  wake  up  in  the  night. 
This  habit  evidently  prevailed  among  the  Ilebrews,  for  we  find 
distinct  references  to  it  in  the  Scriptures.§ 

Whenever  a  larger  provision  of  water  is  needed,  earthen  jars 
of  considerable  size — sometimes  of  a  capacity  to  contain  twenty- 
five  gallons — are  ranged  in  rows  and  buried  in  the  earth,  filled 
with  water  and  covered  over  the  mouth  with  a  flat  stone,  the 
porous  texture  of  the  jar  keeping  the  water  cool  by  evapora- 
tion.    When  the  Jews  were  in  possession  of  Palestine  their 


*  The  Spaniards  have  borrowed  this  custom  from  the  Arabs. 

t  Gen.  xxiv.,  18.         t  Jolm  iv.,  7.         §  1  Sam.  xxvi.,  11,  12;  1  Kings  xix.,  C. 


WATER,  AND   LIFE    UPON   THE   WATER.  45 

frequent  washings  and  purifyings  doubtless  compelled  them 
thus  to  collect  considerable  quantities  for  religious  purposes, 
and  they  must  often  have  used  such  stone  jars,  or  "  water-pots," 
as  are  mentioned  in  the  account  of  the  marriage  feast,  where 
our  Lord  performed  his  "beginning  of  miracles"  by  changing 
water  into  wine.*  We  shall  also,  by -and -by,  have  occasion 
to  remark  that  wine  was,  and  is  still,  kept  in  similar  jars.f 
Such  jars  are  used,  not  for  water  and  wine  alone,  but  also  to 
serve,  as  bins  and  barrels  do  in  other  lands,  to  store  various 
kinds  of  provisions  for  the  household,  such  as  wheat,  barley, 
flour,  loaves  of  bread,  oil,  olives,  dried  vegetables,  and  fruits. 
Thus  stored  they  are  uninjured  by  the  heat,  and  are  safe  from 
the  depredations  of  the  rats  and  mice. 

But  the  fountain  was  not  the  gathering- place  for  youthful 
maidens  only.  It  was  doubtless  also  what  it  now  is,  the  place 
where  the  clothes-washing  of  the  whole  village  was  carried  on, 
this  operation  being  performed  in  the  open  air.  The  matrons 
set  a  large  kettle  or  boiler  against  an  old  wall  or  some  huge 
rock,  with  small  stones  to  steady  it  underneath,  and  after  wash- 
ing, spread  the  clothes  to  dry  upon  the  surrounding  shrubs. 
Should  the  village  be  of  any  considerable  size,  the  curling 
smoke  is  seen  rising  by  the  fountain  almost  every  day  of  the 
week.  Hence  this  spot  is  often  wholly  monopolized  by  the 
female  portion  of  the  community.  Even  the  passing  traveler 
stops  at  a  respectful  distance,  and,  handing  his  little  brass  trav- 
eling-cup to  some  romping  child  who  has  followed  its  moth- 
er thither,  slakes  his  thirst,  and  passes  on.:}:  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, the  more  provident  and  more  generous  villagers  prefer 
to  shelter  their  worthy  dames  from  rain  and  sunshine  while 
performing  duties  so  indispensable  to  the  general  comfort. 
They  put  up  a  rude  building,  where,  screened  from  the  gaze' 
of  outsiders,  their  children  can  also  enjoy  occasional  ablu- 
tions. We  know  two  considerable  cities  which  possess  hot- 
water  springs  on  their  outskirts,  where  all  the  washing  of  the 

*  John  ii.,  6.  In  Cana  "we  saw  large,  massy  stone  water-pots,  not  preserved 
nor  exhibited  as  relics,  but  lying  about.  From  their  appearance,  and  the  number 
of  them,  it  was  quite  evident  that  a  practice  of  keeping  water  in  large  stone  pots, 
each  holding  from  eighteen  to  twenty -seven  gallons,  was  once  com.mon  in  the 
country." — Clark's  "Travels,"  p.  271. 

t  Jer.  XXXV.,  5.  t  Job  xxii.,  7. 


46  BIBLE    LANDS. 

town  is  done.  The  spot  is  crowded  all  day  long  with  women 
and  children,  so  that  men  can  visit  it  only  at  about  sunset, 
when  the  women's  work  is  finished  and  they  are  returning  to 
their  homes. 

Mineral  springs  are  abundant  in  Western  Asia,  and  most  of 
them  formerly  had  protecting  structures  built  over  them,  some 
of  whose  remains  are  yet  standing.  The  Pool  of  Bethesda* 
was  probably  supplied  with  water  from  an  intermittent  spring, 
which  also  possessed  mineral  qualities.  This  characteristic  in 
springs  of  ebbing  and  flowing  is  not  at  all  uncommon.  Be- 
thesda is  now  dry,  but  the  Pool  of  Siloam,f  which  is  of  the 
same  nature,  and  was  probably  supplied  from  the  same  source, 
has  an  intermittent  ebb  and  flow  recurring  every  few  minutes.;}: 
Near  Beirut  is  a  fountain  of  this  kind,  gushing  forth  from  the 
foot  of  Lebanon  in  so  copious  a  flow  that  its  waters  are  utilized 
as  a  mill-stream  to  supply  flour  for  the  city ;  yet  it  is  periodic- 
ally dry  for  hours  at  a  time. 

The  insufficiency  of  water  compelled  men  from  the  earliest 
times  to  supply  their  necessities  by  digging  wells.  Most  of  the 
springs  being  appropriated  by  towns  and  villages,  and  the  best 
lands  around  them  being  under  cultivation,  the  nomadic  tribes, 
and  all  who  occupied  themselves  with  the  raising  of  cattle, 
were  driven  to  the  wilderness,  by  which  is  meant,  not  the  dry 
and  grassless  waste,  but  such  portions  of  country  as  were  not 
supplied  with  settled  inhabitants.  Here  sheep  were  kept  in 
the  more  grassy  spots,  while  bushes  and  shrubs  offered  the  best 
food  for  the  flocks  of  goats  and  herds  of  larger  cattle,  includ- 
ing asses  and  camels. 

These  tracts  of  country  were  and  are  still  poorly  supplied 
with  water.  Wells  were  dug,  therefore,  which  were  considered 
a  valuable  possession,  often  being  made  objects  of  strife,  and 
continuing  in  the  hands  of  the  stronger  party.g  There  are 
many  such  wells  still  existing,  scattered  over  extensive  tracts 
of  the  country,  and  they  are  sometimes,  we  have  reason  to  be- 
lieve, of  great  antiquity.  Such,  for  instance,  is  the  well  near 
Shechem,  called  "Jacob's  Well;"||  such  are  the  three  wells  of 
Beer-sheba,  one  of  which  is  represented  in  the  accompanying 


*  John  v.,  2-4.  t  John  ix.,  7.  t  Lvnch,  p.  421. 

§  Gen.  xxi.,  25 ;  xxvi.,  20,  21.  ||  John  iv.,  12. 


WATER,  AND   LIFE    UPON   THE   WATER. 


47 


illustration,  with  its  watering- troughs.  The  mouth  of  such  a 
well  is  often  covered  with  a  large  stone,  requiring  the  strength 
of  several  men  to  drag  it  sufficiently  aside  to  render  the  water 
accessible.*  This  having  been  effected,  a  jar  or  leathern  buck- 
et is  let  down  by  the  shepherd  or  traveler  by  means  of  a  rope, 
every  one  being  obliged  to  supply  himself  with  these  conven- 
iences.!    In  other  cases  there  is  a  flight  of  stone  steps  by  which 


Oue  of  the  Wells  of  Beei-bheb.i,  with  its  Watering  troughs.    (Gcu.  xxvi.,32,  33.) 

one  descends  to.  the  mouth  of  the  well.:}:  Troughs  of  stone 
usually  stand  near  the  well,  which  are  filled  with  water  for  the 
use  of  the  flocks  and  herds.§  In  some  parts  of  Western  Asia 
the  wells  are  supplied  with  a  long  pole,  balanced  on  the  top  of 
a  perpendicular  post;  at  one  end  of  the  pole  is  fastened  a  buck- 
et with  its  chain,  and  at  the  other  a  weight  is  fixed  to  facili- 
tate the  raising  of  the  bucket  when  filled. ||  There  are  many 
wells  to  be  found  which  are  now  dried  up.     They  occur  both 


*  Gen.  xxix.,  3,  7,  8.  t  John  iv.,  11. 

t  Gen.  xxiv.,  10.  §  Gen.  xxiv.,  20;  Ex.  ii.,  16. 

II  This  contrivance  is  used  in  Egypt  for  raising  the  water  of  the  Nile,  and  is  there 
called  shadoof. 

4 


48 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


on  the  roadside,  upon  the  track  of  the  nomad  tribes  in  their 
spring  and  autumn  migrations,  and  among  the  ruins  of  towns 
and  villages.  The  large  stone  perforated  in  the  centre  often 
still  covers  the  mouth  of  the  well,  and  the  deep  grooves  worn 
by  the  bucket-rope  in  its  sides  attest  the  many  refreshing 
draughts  drunk  here  by  man  and  beast  of  former  generations, 
before  the  well  became  choked  up  with  sand  or  soil.  Some- 
times the  stone  has  been  removed,  and  there  remains  only  a 
treacherous  opening  on  a  level  with  the  ground.  The  filling 
up  of  wells  is  still,  as  anciently,  regarded  a  legitimate  act  of 
hostility  ;*  but  this  is  often  produced  by  natural  causes.  The 
pit  into  which  Joseph  was  cast  by  his  brethren  was  either  a 
dried-up  well,  or  one  which  had  been  dug  without  water  being 

found.f  David's  spies 
were  hid  in  a  well  that 
was  dry,  its  mouth  be- 
ing on  a  level  with  the 
ground :  the  woman  of 
the  house  effectually 
concealed  them  by 
placing  a  covering  over 
the  well's  mouth  and 
spreading  ground  corn 
(Numb,  (the  modern  "  boor- 
ghoor")  thereon,  as  if  to 
dry.:}:  The  pit  into  which  an  ass  might  be  fallen,  spoken  of 
by  our  Lord,§  may  have  been  a  dried-up  well  of  the  ordinary 
kind,  the  larger  well  used  for  watering  gardens,  or  a  mortar  pit 
covered  with  boards  or  branches. 

Cisterns  also  abound  throughout  the  country.  They  are  not 
confined  to  the  cities  and  villages,  where  they  are  often  built 
of  solid  masonry,  but  are  often  seen  likewise  in  the  most  soli- 
tary part  of  the  wilderness.  These  latter  consist  of  a  large 
tank  more  or  less  deep  in  the  earth,  built  around  with  stone- 
work, the  walls  rising  several  feet  above  ground  and  some- 
times roofed.  A  door  in  one  side  of  the  structure  leads  down 
a  flight  of  steps  extending  even  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank ;  so 


Well  at  Thyatira,  built  of  ancient  Marbles 
xsiv.,  7.) 


♦  Gen.  xxvi.,  15;  2  Kings  iii.,  19,  25. 
t  2  Sam.  xvii.,  18,  19. 


+  Gen.  xxxvii.,  2i. 
§  Luke  xiv.,  5. 


iilM 


WATER,  AND   LIFE    UPON   THE   WATER. 


51 


that  by  it  the  water  is  always 

accessible,  however  high  or  low 

it  may  be  in  the  cistern.*    Wc 

have   also    seen   in   Northern 

Syria,  close  to  the  ruins  of  Ge- 

bel  Simon,  a  cistern  more  than 

a  hundred  feet  in  depth  and  as 

many  in  width,  hewn  out  of  the 

solid  rock,  and  accessible  only 

through  an  opening  at  the  top, 

which  was  covered  with  a  large 

stone.      The    cistern   under   a 

part  of  the  Temple  platform  at  Jerusalem,  though  not  so  deep, 

is  much  greater  in  extent,  and  is  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock, 

which  is  left  in  the  form  of  rude  pillars  to  support  the  roof. 


§ 

w 

pil 

B 

k 

-*. 

1^8 

IHteft  1 1 

'-1 

'■ 

-:^ 

luteiiorof  aCistein  ueai  Aleppo.    (2(.hio)i. 
xxvi.,  10.) 


Ici   iLie   icini  Ic 


One  of  the  most  ancient  forms  of  a  cistern,  made  for  the  sup- 
plying of  water  for  the  garrison  of  a  citadel  or  fort  upon  a  com 
manding  height,  consisted  of  a  nearly  circular  shaft  some  fifteen 
feet  in  diameter  and  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
in  depth,  cut  into  the  solid  rock  at  an  angle  of  about  forty- 
five  degrees,  the  descent  into  which  was  by  regular  steps.  This 
kind  of  cistern,  however,  we  have  seen  only  in  the  northern  part 

*  "In  the  neighborhood"  (of  Birejik,  in  Mesopotamia)  "  were  several  cisterns 
or  tanks,  excavated  in  the  rock  side,  with  steps  to  enable  the  drawers  of  water  to 
descend." — Fletcher,  p.  354. 


52 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Perpendicular  Plan  of  Rock  Cisteiii 
Tocat. 


of  Asia  Minor;  and  whether  any  one  of  this  form  is  anywhere 
alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures  is  doubtful.  The  frequent  men- 
tion of  cisterns,  however,  proves 
that  in  some  form  they  were  as 
commonly  used  as  now.*  One  of 
the  "Giant  Cities"  of  the  Lijah, 
which  is  in  an  excellent  state  of 
preservation,  contains  so  many 
cisterns  hewn  out  of  the  hard  ba- 
salt that  the  modern  Arabs  have 
called  the  place  "  Brak,"  or  the 
Cistern.f  And  we  hardly  need  to 
speak  of  the  two  large  ancient  cis- 
terns shown  to  travelers  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  bearing  the  name 
of  "  The  Thousand  and  One  Pillars,"  from  the  numerous  stone 
pillars  which  bear  the  roof.  One  of  them  is  still  in  use.  It  is 
also  well  known  that  a  considerable  portion  of  Alexandria,  in 
Egypt,  is  built  upon  vast  cisterns,  yearly  filled  with  the  water 
of  the  Kile.:}: 

Orientals  are  exceedingly  fond  of  gazing  upon  water,  whether 
running  or  still.  The  houses  of  the  wealthy  often  possess  a 
tank  or  basin  only  a  few  feet  in  diameter,  set  in  the  middle  or 
just  outside  of  their  principal  room  or  divan,  which  on  the  side 
toward  the  court  is  entirely  open.  A  fountain  at  the  rim  is  ever 
running,  and  there  is  often  at  the  centre  of  the  basin  a  jet  whose 
incessant  play,  while  it  tends  to  cool  the  atmosphere,  strikes 
the  ear  with  a  soothing  music.  Here  are  spread  carpets  and 
cushioned  sofas,  and  here  the  host  receives  and  entertains  his 
guests.  For  this  jet  of  water  a  suppl}'^  is  needed  at  some  eleva- 
tion above  the  basin ;  and  where  nature  has  not  provided  it. 
Orientals,  sometimes  at  great  expense,  construct  ample  reser- 
voirs which  afford  a  steady  supply.  The  "  Pools  of  Solomon," 
near  Bethlehem,  seem  to  have  been  built  for  this  purpose,  as 
well  as  to  water  the  extensive  gardens  which  doubtless  adorned 
the  country  houses  of  that  wealthy  monarch. §  We  find  their 
counterpart  in  the  reservoirs  or  "  bends  "  built  by  the  sultans 


*  2  Kings  xviii.,  31. 

I  Thevenot,  Part  I.,  ]>.  124. 


+  Macgregor,  p.  1 72. 
§  ?:ccles.  ii.,  5,  6. 


HI 


if' iVllilillllli'ii  ii 


L 


WATER,  AND  LIFE  UPON  THE  WATER. 


55 


in  the  vicinity  of  Constantinople.  These  are  situated  in  the 
forests  of  Belgrade.  A  narrow  valley  is  closed  up  with  a  wall 
of  solid  masonry,  and  soon  becomes  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water, 
which  affords  a  regular  supply  for  the  gardens  of  the  grandees 
of  the  empire  and  their  palaces.  Similar  to  this  was  the  pool 
made  by  Hezekiah,*  and  others,  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  as 
the  "  Pool  of  Gibeon,"  that  of  Hebron,  of  Samaria,  etc.f 

Water  is  usually  conveyed  from  a  reservoir  or  spring  in  the 
mountains,  by  means  of  pipes  of  baked  clay,  to  the  town  for  the 
supply  of  its  public  and  private  fountains  and  baths.  As  the 
distance  over  which  it  is  thus  conveyed  is  often  great,  narrow 
valleys  are  spanned  by  aqueducts  of  wood  or  solid  masonry. 
Such  was  the  "conduit"  of  Hezekiah,:}:  and  such  is  now  the 
aqueduct  of  Belgrade,  near  Constantinople.  A  similar  struc- 
ture near  Smyrna  was  built  by  the  Saracens,  for  the  aqueduct 
is  not  a  Western  but  an  Eastern  invention.  Orientals  have  even 
made  an  approach  to  the  discovery  of  the  hydraulic  principle, 
by  which  water  seeks  its  own  level,  a  fact  which  the  ancients 
seem  not  to  have  known.  When  the  distance  is  not  great,  they 
lay  pipes  down  the  hill  into  a  valley  and  up  again  on  the  up- 
per side,  and  suppose  that  the  water  reaches  the  latter  height  by 
the  impetus  which  it  acquires  in  running  down  the  hill.  Hence, 
when  the  valley  is  broad,  they  erect  columns  or  towers,  that 
the  water  rising  to  their 
summits  may  acquire  a 
new  impetus,  and  thus 
get  over  the  entire  val- 
ley. Some  of  these  tow- 
ers, however,  are  built 
within  the  towns,  and 
are  used  merely  to  dis- 
tribute the  water  to  the  '  ^ 
different  houses  or  quar- 
ters. 

Orientals  are  general-  ^"^^^  ^'""^'• 

ly  good  connoisseurs  of  water.  This  being  almost  their  only 
beverage  (with  the  exception  of  an  occasional  tiny  cup  of  coffee 


*  2  Kings  XX.,  20. 

t  2  Sam.  ii.,  13  ;  also  iv.,  12  ;  and  1  Kings  xxii.,  38. 


t  2  Kings  XX.,  20- 


I 


56  BIBLE   LANDS. 

without  sugar),  they  learn  to  distinguish,  by  the  sense  of  taste, 
the  smallest  shade  of  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  water  of 
different  springs.  There  are  in  Constantinople  shops  in  which 
nothing  but  water  is  sold,  the  price  of  a  glass  varying  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  reputation  of  the  spring  whence  it  is  brought. 
Nor  would  it  be  easy  to  deceive  the  customers.  The  water  of 
a  spring  near  Nicomedia  is  often  conveyed  to  Constantinople,  a 
distance  of  sixty  miles  by  water,  for  the  use  of  the  pashas  and 
grandees;  and  a  steamer  regularly  plies  between  the  capital 
and  the  island  of  Marmora,  seventy-five  miles  off,  in  the  sea 
of  that  name,  in  order  to  supply  the  sultan's  seraglio  with  the 
water  of  a  celebrated  spring.  This  may  perhaps  somewhat 
serve  to  explain  the  longing  of  King  David  for  a  draught  from 
the  "  well  of  Bethlehem,"  his  own  native  city,  of  which  be  had 
been  accustomed  to  drink  when  a  child.  But  when  the  good 
man  found  it  had  been  procured  at  the  risk  of  the  life  of  some 
of  his  bravest  followers,  he  showed  his  noble  heart  by  refusing 
to  taste  of  it,  and  pouring  it  as  an  offering  to  the  God  of  battles.* 
Our  statement  also  serves  to  illustrate  the  estimate  placed  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Jericho  upon  the  favor  they  asked  of  the 
Prophet  Elisha,  and  the  value  of  the  miracle  he  performed  by 
"healing  the  spring  of  the  waters"  which  supplied  that  city.f 

Water  has  often  to  be  conveyed  over  the  desert,  as  the  trav- 
eler would  otherwise  perish  from  thirst.  It  is  carried  in  leath- 
ern sacks  or  "  bottles,"  made  of  the  entire  skin  of  an  ox,  usual- 
ly tanned.  The  openings  at  the  feet  and  neck  are  sewed,  one 
hole  only  being  left  for  pouring  in  and  drawing  out  the  water. 
This  opening  is  carefully  tied  up  after  filling,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent a  leakage.  Bat  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  so  intense,  that 
these  "bottles"  have  to  be  daubed  over  with  oil  or  grease, oth- 
erwise the  water  evaporates  in  a  few  days.  Earthen  vessels 
are  rarely  transported  in  such  journeys,  on  account  of  their 
liability  to  break.  Smaller  bottles  are  everywhere  in  use 
made  of  an  entire  goat-skin ;  but  sheep-skins  are  never  em- 
ployed, not  possessing  sufficient  strength. 

In  the  accompanying  illustration  we  have  placed  side  by  side 
different  kinds  of  skin-bottles,  all  of  which  are  faithful  copies 
of  well-known  originals— the  ancient  from  the  Egyptian  and 


*  2  Sam.  xxiii.,  15,  16.  +2  Kings  ii.,  10-22. 


WATEK,  AND   LIFE    UPON   THE   WATER. 


57 


Ancient  (1)  and  Modern  (2)  Skin-bottles.    (Gen.  xxi.,  14;  Josh,  ix.,  14;  Matt,  ix.,17.) 

Assyrian  remains,  and  the  modern  from  the  works  of  Lane  and 
others — lest  we  should  be  charged  with  partiality  were  we  to 
copy  our  own  drawings.  The  identity  of  the  forms  is  certain- 
ly very  close  and  noteworthy.  There  is  also  a  kind  of  jar, 
cut  out  of  pine  wood,  found  in  some 
parts  of  the  country,  which  answers 
the  purpose  of  carrying  water,  and 
keeps  it  quite  cool  if  hung  on  the 
shady  side  of  the  traveler's  horse  or 
camel.* 

The  Arabs  have  repeatedly  been 
known,  when  driven  to  extremities 
by  thirst,  to  kill  one  of  their  camels, 
and  drink  the  water  which  is  found 
in  its  stomach,  nature  having  won- 
derfully enabled  that  animal  to  swal- 
low at  once,  and  carry  within  its  own  body,  a  provision  of 
water  sufficient  to  last  it  many  days. 

We  now  turn  from  the  consideration  of  this  precious  element, 
to  the  life  led  upon  the  water  by  the  sailor  and  the  fisherman. 

The  oldest  record  found  in  the  Scriptures  of  the  construc- 
tion of  a  craft  to  float  upon  water  is  that  of  Noah's  ark.  We 
have  no  information  of  a  positive  nature  respecting  this  remark- 
able structure  except  what  is  contained  in  the  sacred  text  ;f  but 
though  the  dimensions  are  therein  minutely  given,  the  shape  or 
form  is  not  otherwise  described.  The  name  nspi  in  the  origi- 
nal Hebrew  is  the  same  as  that  rendered  Ki^wrug,  a  chest,  in  the 
Greek  of  both  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments.  Considering 
all  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  it  is  probable  that  Noah's  ark 
was  a  large  floating,  house,  thirty  feet  in  height  by  fifty  in 


Wooden  Water-jug. 


*  Pococke,  i.,  p.  131. 


t  Gen.  vi.,  14-16. 


58 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


breadth,  and  about  five  hundred  feet  long,  built  of  the  wood 
of  the  wild  cypress  ("gopher"),  which  grows  upon  all  the  high 
mountains  of  Western  Asia,  and  particularly  of  Armenia.  This 
wood  is  of  the  same  enduring  nature  as  the  cedar.  But  the 
name  "gopher"  has  been  applied  to  a  variety  of  trees,  some 
of  which  yield  the  "pitch"  with  which  the  ark  was  covered 
"  within  and  without."*  The  ark  had  a  slanting  roof,  and  was 
not  intended  for  sailing  purposes,  but 
snnply  to  float  upon  the  water  and 
pi'eserve  its  precious  freight.  Tradi- 
tion agrees  with  this  description.  The 
city  of  Apamea,  in  Asia  Minor,  was 
built  at  the  foot  of  a  high  mountain, 
upon  which  its  inhabitants  claimed 
that  Noah's  ark  rested  after  the  Del- 
uge; hence  they  called  their  city 
"Apamea  of  the  ark,"  to  distinguish 
Cum uiAiKiinea.  (Gen. viii.,  10,11,1s.)  |^.   fj.Q,j^    other  cities    of   the  same 

name;  it  also  probably  indicates  the  early  existence  there  of 
an  arka'ic  worship.     Silver  coins  are  still  extant  of  this  city, 
struck  by  Alexander  Severus,  Macrinus,  or  Philip,  represent- 
ing "two  persons  in  an  ark  which  rests  upon  a  rock  surrounded 
by  water:  a  bird  is  seen  flying  with  a  branch  in  its  claws,  and 
another  rests  on  the  ark.  ___  ___ 

A  man  and  a  woman 
stand  in  front,  with  their 
right  hands  raised.  On 
the  ark  is  the  Greek  word 
NQE(Noah),andwemust 
therefore  designate  the 
gentleman  and  lady  with- 
in the  ark  b}''  the  name 
of  the  Patriarch  and  his 
"better  half."t 

The  Hellenic  tradition 
of  the  Deluge,  also,  repre- 
sents Deucalion  and  his  \ 
flood  by  floating  in  a  box  or  chest,  until  the  waters  had  retired. 


Assyrian  Warrior  swiminin";  on  au  inflated  Skin. 

'ife  as  having  been  saved  from,  the 


Gen.  vi.,  14. 


+  Arundell,  i. 


WATER,  AND   LIFE   UPON   THE   WATER. 


59 


One  of  the  earliest  forms  of  a  boat  used  by  mankind  consist- 
ed of  the  inflated  skins  of  animals.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact, 
however,  that  probably  the  only  place  in  the  world  in  which 
this  primitive  mode  of  transportation  is  still  in  use  is  the  course 
of  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates,  in  Mesopotamia;  while  tbe  only 
ancient  pictures  of  this  manner  of  floating  are  found  among  the 


Inflated  Skiu  Raft :  from  Assyriau  Sculpture.    (Isa.  sliii 


sculptures  of  Nineveh  on  the  former  of  these  rivers.  The  ac- 
companying sketches  are  copied  thence,  and  illustrate  the  man- 
ner of  crossing  the  river  by  a  single  warrior,  after  inflating  the 
skin,  precisely  as  is  done  now  in  the  same  localities;  also  the 
raft  supported  by  a  number  of  inflated  skins,  and  conveying 
stone  for  building  the  palace  of  Sennacherib;  the  only  point 
in  which  it  differs  from  the  modern  Kelek  is  in  the  shape  of  the 


'^.i  tm  ^^^ 


li^isa^ml^ 


Mjikni  Ktkk,  \Mth  leut 


60 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


oars.  We  have  drawn  the  raft  now  used  to  show  this  striking 
resemblance.  It  is  employed  in  the  conveyance  of  produce  to 
Bagdad,  where  the  wood  is  profitably  sold,  and  the  bags  are  sent 
home  on  the  backs  of  donkeys.  A  similar  raft  or  float  exists  upon 
the  Nile,  only  earthen  jars  are  used  instead  of  inflated  skins.* 
The  Nineveh  sculptures  also  represent  a  peculiar  boat  still 

in  use  upon  those  rivers : 
it  resembles  an  oval  bas- 
ket, and  is  made  of  willow 
branches,  and  daubed  with- 
in and  without  with  bitu- 
men. It  closely  resembles 
a  similar  basket-boat  found, 
according  to  Catlin,  among 
the  Mandan  tribe  of  North 
American  Indians,  whose 
principal  festival  appears  to  be  a  commemoration  of  the  Deluge. 
Besides  these,  there  were  boats  of  the  ordinary  form  plying 
upon  these  rivers,  which  still  exist,  but  are  now  confined  to 
the  portion  of  the  Tigris  lying  below  Bagdad,  on  account  of  the 
shallowness  of  the  water.  In  Egypt  also  we  have,  upon  the 
ancient  monuments,  the  fac-simile  of  the  boats  which  to-day 


Aucieut  Kufa. 


Moderu  Kufa. 


ply  up  and  down  the  Nile,  with  their  lateen-sails  about  two 
hundred  feet  in  length,  and  following  the  same  rules  of  navi- 
gation as  in  the  time  of  Ilerodotus.f 

Both  Egyptian  and  Assyrian   remains  contain  pictures  of 


*  Pococke,  i.,  84,  pi.  8. 


+  Bruce,  i.,  44,  etc. 


WATER,  AND   LIFE    UPON   THE   WATER. 


61 


Oriental  Ships.     (Psa.  civ.,  26.) 


ancient  ships  which  floated  upon  the  Mediterranean,  and  have 
thus  afforded  us  the  opportunity  to  compare  them  with  those 
of  the  modern  Levant. 

No  one  who  has  sailed  on  the  waters  of  Western  Asia  can 
have  failed  to  notice  the  difference  between  their  ships  and 
sailing  craft,  and  those  of  Europe  and  America.  This  differ- 
ence consists  chiefly  in  the  lofty  stern  of  Eastern  vessels,  while 
in  those  of  the  West  the  entire  line  of  the  bulwarks  is  nearly 
parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  sea.  The  time  is  not  far  distant, 
however,  when  the  old  form  still  prevailed  in  Europe.  The 
pictures  we  possess  of  the  famous  Dutch  fleets,  the  Spanish 
Armada,  and  the  ships  which  landed  Queen  Anne  and  the 
Prince  of  Orange  on  the  shores  of  England,  show  that  the 
mariners  of  that  day,  and  even  of  a  later  period,  affected  still 
loftier  sterns  than  many  of  the  ancients. 

But  though  numerous  steamboats  and  sailing  vessels  built 
on  the  modern  pattern  are  seen  in  all  parts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, yet  the  Oriental  adheres,  in  the  main,  to  the  ancient  form, 
which  he  deems  better  adapted  to  his  habits  and  the  waters  in 
which  he  sails. 


62  BIBLE   LANDS. 

The  peculiarity  of  form  to  which  we  have  alluded  character- 
izes the  craft  of  every  size  on  the  Black  Sea,  through  the 
^gean  Sea,  and  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean.  A 
narrow  bow  usually  rises  to  a  considerable  height,  while  the 
sides  are  low  and  spreading  out  above,  so  as  to  keep  the  deck 
dry.  The  stern  is  sharp  like  the  bow,  but  rises  high,  while  the 
cumbrous  rudder  reaches  still  higher,  and  has  a  very  long  cross- 
pole,  one  end  of  which  is  held  by  the  steersman.  This  impor- 
tant personage — always  the  captain  or  his  mate — sits  cross- 
legged  upon  a  little  quarter-deck,  from  which  high  position  he 
can  best  watch  the  course  of  the  ship,  which  he  steers  not  by 
the  compass,  but  solely  with  the  eye.  At  the  extreme  end  of 
the  stern  is  often  seen  a  small  low  bench,  upon  which  the 
steersman  sometimes  sits  for  a  change.  Here  the  captain  often 
rests  his  head  when,  as  is  his  custom,  he  sleeps  upon  the  quar- 
ter-deck. This  little  bench  may  generally  be  seen  in  the  fish- 
ing crafts,  particularly  those  which  ply  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,* 
a  circumstance  which  explains  the  nature  of  the  "  pillow  "  upon 
which  rested  the  head  of  our  Lord  during  the  sudden  storm 
narrated  in  Mark  iv.,  88.  Passengers  of  distinction  alone  are 
allowed  a  place  upon  the  quarter-deck. 

The  little  skiffs  which  glide  upon  the  surface  of  the  cur- 
rents in  the  Bosphorus  at  Constantinople,  with  an  ease  and 
swiftness  unequaled  by  any  other  craft,  and  have  the  name  of 
Kurlanguch^  or  "the  swallows,"  do  not  deviate  from  the  general 
form  we  have  described  ;  but  their  extreme  length  of  bow  and 
stern  makes  up  for  their  diminished  height.  They  have  two 
little  decks,  and  the  passengers  sit  on  the  bottom  of  the  boat 
in  order  to  steady  the  frail  little  bark. 

In  one  respect,  however,  modern  sailing  craft  differ  from 
those  of  Bible  times  :  we  refer  to  the  mode  of  steering.  It  can 
not  be  doubted  that  the  original  model  of  the  ship  was  taken 
from  the  duck  and  other  aquatic  birds.  The  paddles  or  oars 
were  rude  imitations  of  their  feet;  and  as  they  also  use  them 
for  the  purpose  of  altering  their  course,  two  broad  paddles 
were  placed  on  the  two  sides  of  the  ship  near  the  stern,  and 
employed  as  rudders.  It  is  doubtless  to  this  sort  of  steering 
gear  that  Luke  refers  in  the  narrative  of  Paul's  shipwreck.f 

*  MacGregor,  "Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan,"  p.  358.  +  Acts  xxvii.,  40. 


WATER,   AND    LIFE    UPON    THE    WATER.  63 

A  more  thorough  study  of  nature,  however,  led  to  the  adop- 
tion of  the  single  rudder  now  in  universal  use,  in  imitation  of 
fishes,  which  alter  their  course  by  the  motion  of  their  tails;  but 
the  steering  paddle  is  still  often  used  in  addition  to  the  rudder. 

An  observer  can  not  fail  to  notice  that  an  eye  is  carved  or 
painted  on  each  side  of  the  bows  of  many  modern  Oriental 
ships,*  This  was  also  the  case  in  ancient  times.  Imagination 
gave  life  and  sense  to  the  craft:  it  peered  into  the  storm  with 
its  eyes,  and  pressed  forward  to  its  goal.  This  is  referred  to  in 
the  narrative  of  Paul's  last  voyage:  "And  when  the  ship  was 
caught,  and  could  not  bear  up  into  the  wind,  we  let  her  drive."t 
"Could  not  bear  up  into  the  wind  "  would,  by  a  literal  transla- 
tion, be  rendered,  "  Could  not  keep  her  eyes  to  the  wind."  The 
correctness  of  our  interpretation  is  proved  by  several  pictures 
of  ancient  ships  which  have  been  found  painted  upon  the  wall 
of  a  house  unburied  at  Pompeii ;  these  may  be  seen  in  Cal- 
met's  large  Dictionary,  vol.  iii.,  fragment  214.  The  same  proc- 
ess of  imagination  is  found  indicated  in  almost  every  language. 
In  English  we  do  not  speak  of  a  ship  in  the  neuter  gender,  but 
in  the  feminine:  "She  has  reached  her  destination;"  "She  is 
going  ten  knots." 

Orientals  now,  like  the  ancients,  use  oars  or  sweeps  in  every 
kind  of  vessel,  however  large.  They  are  rendered  necessary 
by  the  frequent  dead  calms  which  occur  along  the  rock-bound 
coast,  in  the  numerous  bays,  and  among  the  lofty  islands. 
That  portion  of  the  oar  which  is  within  the  vessel  is  made 
thick  and  heavy,  and  is  even  loaded  with  lead,  that  it  may  bal- 
ance the  much  longer  portion  which  extends  beyond  the  ship's 
side.  Each  oar  or  sweep  is  worked  by  two  or  even  three  men 
together.  Not  many  years  ago,  common  ships  had  as  many 
oars  as  in  ancient  times ;  in  the  Sambikeh,  for  instance,  which 
was  of  the  size  of  a  common  galiot  or  small  galley  (or  ship 
of  war),  only  a  little  longer,  there  were  at  least  twelve  oars  on 
each  side,  and  forty-eight  oarsmen  in  all ;  it  had  but  one  mast, 

♦This  custom  also  prevails  in  China.  "On  either  side  of  the  bow  there  is 
never  wanting  a  huge  eye.  "We  asked  a  Chinese  seaman  the  significance  of 
that  ornament.  He  promptly  replied:  'Junk  no  have  eyes,  no  can  see.'  It  is 
a  remarkable  coincidence  that  not  only  the  boats  but  the  houses  of  the  Alaska  In- 
dians are  furnished  with  eyes."— Seward's  "Travels  Round  the  World," p.  105. 

t  Acts  xxvii.,  15. 

5 


64  BIBLE   LANDS. 

and  a  very  large  sail.*  The  number  of  these  sweeps  does  not 
now  usually  exceed  two  on  each  side  of  the  ship,  and  is  often 
but  one.  But  during  the  Greek  revolution,  fifty  years  ago,  the 
piratical  vessels  significantly  called  "  Mysticks "  often  carried 
twenty  pairs  of  oars. 

Modern  Orientals  have  discovered  the  inconvenience  of  hav- 
ing only  one  mast  in  large  ships,  but  the  smaller  craft  never 
carry  more.  It  is  short,  and  inclines  forward.  Near  its  base 
rests  a  long  yard,  which  reaches  to  the  end  of  a  broad  lateen- 
sail.  To  an  Occidental  eye  this  looks  very  clumsy,  especially 
the  bagging  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  sail,  and  the  thick  ribs 
of  extra  cloth  lining  it  there.  But  it  is  the  form  best  adapted 
to  the  sudden  gusts  and  squalls  they  meet  upon  the  waters  they 
navigate.  We  have  seen  boats  with  a  neater  sail  upset  in  an 
instant,  while  these,  slightly  leaning  over  for  a  moment,  seemed 
to  stand  up  more  firmly  as  the  breeze  grew  stiffer;  the  wind 
striking  the  upper  part  of  the  lateen-sail  from  below  lifts  up 
and  steadies  the  vessel.  In  Egypt  some  of  the  gala  boats  on 
the  Nile  "spread  a  sail  of  many  colors,  as  was  done  anciently 
in  the  same  land."f 

We  have  described  thus  minutely  the  ships  and  boats  of 
modern  Western  Asia,  because  we  believe  they  present  a  most 
correct  picture,  on  the  whole,  of  those  which  existed  when  the 
Scriptures  were  written.  The  Jews  were  not  much  addicted  to 
a  sea-faring  life,:}:  yet  even  in  David's  time  they  held  posses- 
sion of  sea-ports  upon  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Sea.  These 
could  not  be  of  any  considerable  size,  and  the  ships  of  the  an- 
cients rarely  exceeded  one  thousand  two  hundred  tons  burden. 
Often  no  regular  harbor  existed,  and,  on  the  occurrence  of  a 
storm,  most  of  the  shipping  was  drawn  up,  as  it  is  now,  upon 
the  beach  of  a  tideless  sea.  This  process  is  described  so  far 
back  as  the  siege  of  Troy,  by  Homer's  immortal  verse.  In 
Solomon's  day,  the  servants  of  King  Hiram  cut  the  cedars  of 


*  Thevenot,  Pari  I.,  chap.  Ixii.,  p.  224. 

t  Tlievenot,  Part  L,  chap.  Ixvi.,  p.  2;W.     "Wilkinson,  ii.,  p.  Ifi7. 

t  The  graphic  pictures  of  the  horrors  of  sea-sicliness  contained  in  Psa.  cni.,  25- 
27,  and  Prov.  xxiii.,  84,  sliow  tliat  the  Hebrews  were  as  little  fond  of  the  sea  as 
are  their  posterity ;  and  this  ajiplies  to  all  Orientals  in  an  eminent  degree,  pro- 
fessional seamen  alone  excepted ;  at  the  same  time,  sea-captains  all  agree  that  no 
people  suffer  the  infliction  with  greater  resignation. 


WATER,   AND   LIFE    CPON   THE   WATER.  65 

Lebcanon,  and,  making  them  into  rafts,  floated  them  to  Joppa, 
the  port  appointed  by  the  Jewish  king.*  In  the  same  manner, 
the  timber  which  grows  abundantly  on  the  northern  coast  of 
Asia  Minor  is  cut  down  by  the  sultan's  servants,  made  into 
rafts  at  Sinope  and  other  ports  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  conveyed 
to  the  capital,  for  the  supply  of  the  imperial  navy  yard,  and  for 
house-building. 

In  Bible  times,  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  was  covered  with  many  a 
vessel  and  boat  employed  either  in  fishing  or  in  a  carrying- 
trade  between  the  large  and  flourishing  cities  which  stood  on 
both  sides  of  that  beautiful  sheet  of  water.  A  constant  com- 
munication was  kept  up  between  those  of  the  tribes  which 
dwelt  on  the  western  shore  and  their  brethren  on  the  eastern, 
on  whom  devolved  the  defense  of  the  land  against  such  ene- 
mies as  came  upon  them  from  the  desert.  History  mentions  at 
one  time  as  many  as  three  hundred  ships  of  various  sizes  which 
sailed  upon  the  lake.  But  the  five  cities  upon  its  shores  were 
long  ago  destroyed  by  the  repeated  invasions  of  foreign  foes. 
The  people  were  either  killed  or  scattered ;  and  frequent  inroads 
of  the  wandering  Arabs  have  maintained  the  insecurity  of  life 
and  property  in  that  vicinity.  For  the  last  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  there  has  been  but  one  boat  reported  by  travelers 
upon  the  lake;  but  there  were  six  in  1870.f  The  Turkish 
tax-gatherers  effectually  prevent  the  revival  of  the  fisheries  by 
imposing  the  exorbitant  tax  of  five  hundred  dollars  per  annum 
on  every  fishing-boat. 

The  "ferry-boat"  employed  to  reconduct  King  David  home:]: 
must  have  resembled  the  craft  then  in  use  upon  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  or  the  ferries  now  plying  upon  the  Orontes  near  Anti- 
och,  which  are  drawn  across  by  means  of  a  rope  stretched  from 
shore  to  shore ;  this  is  also  done  on  the  Upper  Euphrates,  and 
on  many  rivers  of  Asia  Minor.  As  for  the  Dead  Sea,  it  has, 
ever  since  the  catastrophe  which  overtook  the  "cities  of  the 
plain,"  possessed  a  most  insalubrious  climate,  and  its  navigation 
has,  in  modern  times,  been  accomplished  only  by  an  American, § 
but  not  without  loss  of  life. 

The  modern  seamen  of  Western  Asia  use  no  compass.    They 


*  1  Kings  v.,  8,  9.  +  MacGregor,  "Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan,"  pp.  352- 

t  2  Sam.  xix.,  18.  §  Lieutenant  Lvnch,  U.  S.  N. 


66  BIBLE   LANDS. 

sail  almost  wholly  in  sight  of  land.  They  are  skillful  in  discern- 
ing the  signs  of  the  weather,  and  avoid  a  storm  by  running  into 
some  place  of  safety.  They  generally  spend  the  winter  in  a  se- 
cure harbor,  with  the  exception  of  short  trips  when  the  weather 
is  settled  and  fair.  In  all  these  respects  they  resemble  the  an- 
cients as  they  are  particularly  described  in  the  disastrous  voy- 
age of  St.  Paul  on  his  way  toward  Eome.*  Our  remarks,  how- 
ever, do  not  apply  to  the  Greeks  of  Europe  and  the  Archi- 
pelago, who,  since  the  independence  of  their  country,  have 
adopted  many  European  improvements.  Before  that  revolution 
they  diifered  in  no  respect  from  their  neighbors  on  the  Asiatic 
continent.  The  famous  five  ships  of  Canaris  and  his  compan- 
ions, which  destroyed  so  many  Turkish  men-of-war,  were  noth- 
ing more  than  saccolevas,  such  as  are  now  seen  sailing  up  and 
down  the  channel  of  Scio.  The  noted  pirate-ships  that  preyed 
upon  the  merchant  navy  of  Europe  for  a  dozen  years,  from 
1821,  were  vessels  of  the  same  kind,  propelled  by  forty  oars, 
which  suddenly  attacked  the  becalmed  merchantmen,  and,  when 
pursued  by  a  ship  of  war,  slipped  into  some  rock-bound  cove, 
sunk  their  vessel  under  its  waters,  and  escaped  to  the  surround- 
ing cliffs,  to  put  to  sea  again  as  soon  as  the  enemy  was  out  of 
sight.  These  robbers  of  the  sea  somewhat  resembled  in  their 
habits  and  the  fashion  of  their  craft  the  celebrated  pirates  who 
infested  the  southern  shores  of  Asia  Minor  just  before  the 
Christian  era,  and  who  were  destroyed  by  Pompey.  But  the 
most  perfect  counterpart  of  the  latter  in  modern  times  is  found 
in  the  famous  Algerine  corsairs,  so  long  the  terror  of  the  sea, 
who  levied  black-mail  on  the  commerce  of  Europe. 

We  must  in  this  place  make  a  brief  reference  to  some  of  the 
statements  contained  in  the  Book  of  Jonah,  a  composition  which 
contains  very  remarkable  internal  evidences  of  its  authenticity, 
but  which  has,  nevertheless,  been  made  the  subject  of  much 
controversy.  The  Tarshish  therein  mentionedf  is  probably 
the  Tarsus  of  the  New  Testament:}:  and  the  Tarsoos  of  modern 
times,  situated  near  the  coast  of  Cilicia.  It  points  out  the  fact, 
which  is  confirmed  by  other  testimony,  that  there  was  much 
trade  going  on  along  the  shore,  and  between  the  different  ports 


*  Acts  xxvii.,  12,  1.'5.  t  Jonah  i.,  3. 

t  Acts  ix.,  11,  30;  xi.,  25. 


WATER,   AND    LIFE    UPON   THE    WATER.  67 

of  the  Mediterranean.  Two  opposite  courses  have  been  followed 
bj  those  who  have  discussed  the  miracle  concerning  Jonah  and 
the  fish.  Some  have  sought  to  represent  the  entire  narrative 
as  a  myth  or  allegory;  while  others  have  converted  as  many 
incidents  as  possible  into  miraculous  interpositions  of  the  Deity. 
Some  of  the  latter  class,  for  instance,  have  insisted  that  the  fish 
must  have  been  a  whale,  because  the  English  translators  have 
so  rendered  the  word  keios;  and  in  order  to  meet  the  difficul- 
ties which  they  thereby  create,  they  suppose  that  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  may  just  at  that  period  have  swarmed  with  whales, 
which  it  never  did  before  or  since;  or  they  triumphantly  ask 
whether  God  can  not  commission  a  whale  to  go  from  the  North 
Pole  and  meet  Jonah  at  an  appointed  instant,  swallow  him, 
hold  him  three  days  in  its  mouth,  and,  throwing  him  up  on  the 
coast  of  Syria,  return  to  the  frozen  sea?  There  is  no  doubt 
that  God  could  have  done  it,  and  much  harder  things  besides 
— he  could  even  create  a  whale  on  the  spot.  But  the  question 
is  not  whether  he  could  do  these  things,  but  whether  he  has 
done  them.  And  we  must  never  forget  that  it  is  as  wrong  to  add 
to  the  words  of  the  Book  as  to  take  away  from  them.*  There 
is  a  harmony  and  a  beautiful  adaptation  of  cause  and  effect  in 
all  the  works  of  God :  and  we  have  no  reason  to  think  that  he 
sets  aside  this  law  in  what  we  call  his  miraculous  interpositions, 
though  they  are  of  too  rare  occurrence  to  allow  us  always  to 
trace  the  connection.  Some  men  would  have  thought  it  more 
befitting  if  the  Son  of  God  had  changed  the  stones  into  bread  to 
feed  the  multitude  in  the  desert;  but  he  preferred  to  feed  them 
all  with  "five  loaves  and  two  small  fishes."  Now  it  should  be 
noticed  that  the  word  Icetos  used  in  Matt,  xii.,  40,  is  not  restrict- 
ed in  its  meaning  to  a  whale  or  cetacean  ;  "  it  may  denote  any 
sea-monster,  either  a  whale  or  a  shark,  a  seal,  or  a  tunny  of 
enormous  size."f  Now  we  find  that  the  white  shark  exists 
in  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  as  well  as  in  the  Eed  Sea 
and  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  often  attains  the  length  of  thirty 
feet.  Though  it  generally  first  bites  its  prey,  it  frequently  swal- 
lows it  entire.  Cases  are  on  record,  sustained  by  the  most  un- 
doubted authority,  in  which  entire  bodies  were  found  in  the 
stomach  of  this  fish,  such  as  a  man,  a  man  clad  with  armor, 

*  Rev.  xxii.,  18.  t  Smith's  "Diet,  of  the  Bible, "art.  Whale. 


68 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


and  even  a  horse!  Moreover,  naturalists  have  recorded  that 
sharks  have  the  habit  of  throwing  up  again  whole  and  alive 
the  prey  they  have  swallowed.* 

With  these  facts  before  us,  we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  agent  employed  in  the  punishment  of  the  prophet 
Jonah  was  a  white  shark,  or  similar  fish.  We  do  not  thereby 
deny  the  miraculous  interposition  of  the  Almighty,  for  we  rec- 
ognize that  his  being  preserved  "in  the  belly  of  the  fish  three 
days  and  three  nights  "  was  not  an  event  which  accorded  with 
the  usual  order  of  nature,  any  more  than  the  preservation  of 
the  young  Hebrews  in  the  midst  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  "  burn- 
ing fiery  furnace." 


Shell-fish  eaten  in  the  Levant.    (Deut.  xxxiii.,  19.) 

Fish  have  ever  formed,  as  now,  an  important  article  of  food 
with  the  people  of  Bible  lands.  The  law  of  Moses  distinguish- 
ed between  the  species  having  scales  and  those  which  have  not; 
and  many  still  observe  this  distinction,  and  do  not  eat  the  latter. 
But  many  do  not  make  any  distinction  between  them,  both 
Moslems  and  Christians,  and  hold  in  high  estimation  the  eel 
and  other  scaleless  fish.  They  also  consume  a  great  variety 
of  shell-fish* ;  and  it  is  evident  that  this  was  also  practiced  by 


*  Couch,  "History  of  Fishes 


83. 


WATER,  AND    LIFE    UPON   THE   WATER.  69 

the  ancients,  for  among  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities  which  stood 
upon  the  sea-shore  are  found  many  shells  of  different  kinds, 
which  were  doubtless  thrown  away  after  the  living  animal  had 
been  eaten.  The  principal  of  these  were,  and  are  still,  the 
oyster,  the  clam,  the  pecten,  the  solen,  the  pinna,  the  echinus, 
and  the  sepia.  Some  of  these  indeed,  particularly  the  oyster, 
have  ceased  to  exist  where  they  were  once  abundant.  The 
spawn  of  some  fish,  particularly  the  mullet,  are  much  relished.* 
Shrimps,  crabs,  and  lobsters  are  also  caught — the  first  with  a 
scoop-net,  the  others  with  the  hand,  by  wading  in  the  water, 
and  the  lobsters  with  a  baited  osier-trap.  These  and  the  star- 
fish are  all  represented  in  the  carved  pictures  of  the  sea-coast 
of  the  Mediterranean  found  among  the  remains  of  ancient 
Nineveh.  Moses  says  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean shore,  "They  shall  suck  of  the  abundance  of  the  seas, 
and  of  treasures  hid  in  the  sand  "f — language  aptly  expressive 
of  the  habits  of  most  shell-fish  which  dwell  in  the  sand  of  the 
sea-shore,  as  well  as  graphically  descriptive  of  the  manner  of 
eating  them. 

Jerusalem  was  supplied  with  fish,  as  now,  mainly  from  Joppa, 
a  distance  of  forty  miles ;  fish  also  used  to  be  brought  from  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  which  is  twice  that  distance.  The  narrative  of 
the  New  Testament  shows  that  that  sheet  of  water  was  well 
stocked  with  fish,  as  it  still  is,  and  that  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  people  dwelling  on  its  shores  were  fishermen.  The 
modes  of  catching  fish  were  the  same  as  are  still  in  use  in  all 
parts  of  Western  Asia.  They  are  taken  with  the  hook,:}:  or  with 
a  scoop-net  fastened  around  a  hoop  and  suspended  from  the 
end  of  a  pole.  This  is  chiefly  used  in  catching  the  small  sar- 
dines which  abound  in  the  waters  of  the  Levant,  particularly  in 
the  harbors,  and  which  are  eaten  either  fresh,  salted,  or  pre- 
served in  oil.  But  fishing  on  a  larger  scale  is  done  by  means 
of  a  long  net,  some  three  or  four  feet  in  width,  with  pieces  of 
lead  attached  along  one  side  to  sink  it,  and  of  cork  on  the  other 
to  keep  it  afloat.  The  operation  is  performed  by  men  occupy- 
ing two  boats.  To  one  of  these  is  made  fast  one  end  of  the  net, 
while  the  remainder  is  piled  up  in  the  other  boat.  The  latter 
is  rowed  rapidly  off  in  a  curved  line,  while  one  of  the  crew 

*  Pococke,  i.,  18.         f  Deut.  xxxiii.,  19.  |  Amos  iv.,  2;  Matt,  xvii.,  27. 


70 


BIBLE   LANDS, 


gradually  drops  the  net  into  the  water.  The  net  is  now  spread, 
resting  in  a  perpendicular  position  in  the  water.  The  two 
boats  then,  holding  each  one  end  of  it,  row  quickly  to  the  shore. 
The  fishermen  jump  into  the  shallow 
water,  and,  holding  the  net-ropes,  drag 
it  to  the  shore,  where  they  sit  down., 
and  slowly  and  carefully  collect  all 
the  fish,  shell-fish,  and  refuse  which 
their  net  has  scooped  up,  "gathering 
the  good"  into  baskets,  and  "casting 
the  bad  away  " — a  scene  we  have  wit- 
nessed many  a  time  ;*  but  which  no 
^  picture  of  ours  could  portray  more 
^  graphically  than  the  accompanying 
S  copy  of  an  Egyptian  sculpture. 
d  Much  of  the  fishing  can  only  be 
§.  carried  on  in  the  night,  when  the 
^  moon  does  not  shine.f  After  the  net 
M  is  spread  out  in  the  water,  pieces  of 

0  pitch-pine  are  lighted  and  placed  in 

1  a  roughly-made  wire  basket  attached 
to  the  extremity  of  a  pole.  This  pole 
is  made  fast  to  the  bows  of  the  boat, 
which  is  then  rowed  round  in  a 
curved  direction,  beginning  at  some 
distance  from  the  net,  and  gradually 
approaching  the  open  space  between 
the  two  ends  of  it.  The  fish  are  at- 
tracted by  the  light;  but  a  man  stand- 
ing upright  upon  the  bows  holds  a 
long  pole  in  his  hand,  terminated  at 
the  farther  end  by  a  wooden  ball  of 
considerable  size,  and  ever  and  anon 
strikes  the  water  on  either  side  of  the 

boat,  so  as  to  produce  a  loud  report  and  drive  the  fish  toward 
the  net;  instead  of  this,  large  stones  are  sometimes  flung  into 
the  water.  In  a  dark  night,  the  appearance  of  the  flames  gliding 
upon  the  sea,  and  of  the  man  standing  up  in  their  light  and 


Hab.  i.,  15 ;  Matt,  xiii.,  47,  48. 


t  John  xxi.,  3. 


WATER,  AND   LIFE    UPON   THE   WATER.  71 

brandishing  a  spear-like  pole,  produces  a  truly  singular  and 
unique  effect.  Tlie  difference  between  this  mode  of  fishing 
and  that  of  the  drag-net  is,  that  the  latter  is  larger  and  heav- 
ier, and  is  only  used  near  the  shore,  while  the  former  may  be 
employed  anywhere,  and  is  drawn  directly  into  the  boat.  This 
net  is  not  unfrequently  used  in  the  day-time,  as  well  as  the 
striking-pole  or  the  stones.* 

A  common  sight  upon  the  sea-shores  of  the  Levant  consists 
of  the  fishermen's  nets,  scores  of  yards  of  it  spread  out  to  dry. 
The  rocks  and  old  stone-walls  are  preferred,  being  heated  by 
the  sun,  and  absorbing  more  rapidly  the  moisture  of  the  net.f 
So  likewise  may  the  "fishers"  often  be  seen,  "sitting"  upon 
the  shore  or  in  their  boats,  "mending  their  nets,"  whose  meshes 
are  not  unfrequently  broken  by  the  struggling  fish.:}; 

The  people  of  the  East  are  fond  of  bathing,  and  many  of 
them  are  expert  swimmers.  There  are  in  some  of  the  islands 
valuable  sponge  fisheries,  which  are  wholly  worked  by  native 
divers.  During  the  inundation  of  the  Nile  in  July  and  August, 
when  the  valley  is  changed  into  a  lake,  with  the  towns  standing 
out  of  the  water  like  so  many  islands — it  is  quite  common  to 
see  troops  of  people,  especially  children,  both  boys  and  girls, 
swimming  from  one  village  to  another.  It  is  worthy  of  notice 
that  they  all  swim  "hand  over  hand,"  alternately  raising  each 
arm  out  of  the  water,  and  thus  never  presenting  the  whole 
breast  but  only  one  side  to  the  stream.  Western  swimmers, 
on  the  contrary,  bring  their  hands  together  at  each  stroke,  and 
then  separate  them,  which  is  a  much  slower  mode  of  locomo- 
tion. The  American  Indians,  who  are  generally  expert  swim- 
mers, uniformly  practice  the  Oriental  mode.§  It  is  interesting 
to  find  that  in  ancient  times  also  Orientals  practiced  the  same 
mode  of  swimming  as  their  descendants ;  for,  among  the  many 
Assyrian  sculptures  which  represent  persons  in  the  act  of  swim- 
ming, we  have  not  discovered  one  that  gives  a  different  testi- 


*  See  Luke  v.,  6,  7;  John  xxi.,  G-11.  In  the  passages  referred  to,  the  net 
would  have  been  drawn  up  into  the  boat  had  not  the  weight  of  the  fishes  prevented. 
The  "fisher's  coat"  mentioned  in  the  latter  passage  was  probably  the  same  as  is 
now  worn  by  fishermen  ;  it  is  a  short  aba,  or  jacket  of  felt,  reaching  not  quite  to 
the  knees,  and  usually  provided  with  a  hood.  It  is  "  girded  about  the  loins  "  with 
a  leathern  strap. 

t  Ezek.  xxvi.,  .'5.  X  Matt,  iv.,  21.  §  Catlin  i.,  162. 


72  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Inon3^  The  accompanying  illustration  will  serve  as  a  speci- 
men. This  curious  fact  will  be  found  to  explain  and  illus- 
trate several  passages  of  Scripture,  such  as  Isa.  xxv.,  11 :  "  He 
shall  spread  forth  his  hands  in  the  midst  of  them,  as  he  that 
swimmeth  spreadeth  forth  his  hands  to  swim :    and  he  shall 


Assyrian  Swimmer:  from  an  ancient  Sculpture.    (Isa.  xxv.,  11.) 

bring  down  their  pride  together  with  the  spoils  of  their  hands." 
The  ultimate  lifting  up  of  each  arm  and  bringing  it  down  with 
force,  well  expresses  the  repeated  blows  by  which  Moab  was  to 
"  be  trodden  down  as  straw  for  the  dunghill."* 

*  Isa.  xxv. ,  10. 


PRODUCTIONS   OF  THE   SOIL. — CEREALS.  73 


CHAPTER  III. 

PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  BOIL.— CEREALS. 

We  have  no  general  description  in  the  Bible  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  soil  in  Palestine,  but  its  frequent  incidental  allu- 
sions enable  us  to  ascertain  the  fact  that  they  have  not  va- 
ried in  modern  times.  Moses,  describing  the  Land  of  Canaan 
to  Israel  in  the  desert,  speaks  as  follows :  "  The  Lord  thy  God 
bringeth  thee  into  a  good  land,  a  land  of  brooks  of  water,  of 
fountains  and  depths  that  spring  out  of  valleys  and  hills;  a 
land  of  wheat,  and  barley,  and  vines,  and  fig-trees,  and  pome- 
granates ;  a  land  of  oil  olive,  and  honey ;  a  land  wherein  thou 
shalt  eat  bread  without  scarceness,  thou  shalt  not  lack  any 
thing  in  it."*  This  description  is  intended  to  set  forth  the  su- 
periority of  the  Land  of  Canaan  over  Egypt.  The  rains  of 
heaven  never  descend  upon  most  of  the  latter,  and  it  was  and  is 
still  a  narrow  valley  of  alluvial  soil,  closed  in  on  the  east  and 
west  by  perfectly  barren  mountains  and  sandy  plains,  and  wa- 
tered by  the  Nile,  which  has  formed  a  delta  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  sea.  No  springs  are  to  be  found  in  it.  The  only  water 
drunk  is  taken  from  the  river,f  which  overflows  its  banks  at  a 
stated  season  of  the  year,  and  waters  the  gardens  and  fields  that 
produce  the  sustenance  of  the  people.  The  products  of  the 
soil  are  somewhat  more  tropical  than  those  of  Palestine.  The 
vine  and  the  olive,  the  fig  and  the  pomegranate  are  indeed 
common,  but  enjoyed,  as  formerly,  only  by  the  wealthy.  The 
principal  productions  of  the  soil  are  wheat — or  "  corn,"  as  the 
Scriptures  call  it:}: — barley,  rice  and  cotton  (the  two  last  hav- 
ing been  introduced  in  more  recent  times) ;  and  Moses  assures 
his  people  that  they  shall  not  lack  the  articles  of  food  to  which 
they  had  been  accustomed  during  their  sojourn  of  two  hundred 
years  in  the  land  of  bondage. 

*  Deut.  viii.,  7-9.         t  Exod.  vii.,  24.         J  Gen.  xli.,  57;  Exod.  ix.,  31, 32. 


74  BIBLE    LANDS. 

The  honey  of  Palestine,  known  to  be  of  an  excellent  quality,* 
and  the  numerous  flocks  upon  the  hill-sides,  entitled  it,  and, 
though  to  a  very  inferior  degree,  still  entitle  it,  to  the  name 
of  "  a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey."f  The  Jews  were 
eminently  an  agricultural  people.  Commerce  was  discouraged 
among  them,  for  the  purpose  of  isolating  them  and  preventing 
their  adopting  the  idolatrous  practices  of  their  neighbors.  It 
is  worthy  of  note  that  the  sea-coast,  of  which  they  finally  took 
possession  after  a  long  struggle  with  the  remnant  of  the  Philis- 
tines, does  not  possess  a  single  natural  harbor,  and  to  this  day 
remains  almost  wholly  closed  to  navigation  and  commerce. 
The  nearest  ports  are  Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  Providence  never 
allowed  the  Jews  to  obtain  possession  of  these.  It  was  only 
at  a  late  period  in  the  Jewish  history,  i.  e.,  when  the  Messiah 
was  about  to  appear,  that  many  of  these  people  settled  in  the 
principal  cities,  first  of  the  Persian  and  then  of  the  Macedonian 
and  Roman  empires,  and  doubtless  prepared  the  heathen  for 
the  reception  of  Christianity,  by  their  profession  of  a  monothe- 
istic religion. 

The  division  of  the  land  into  fields  for  the  purpose  of  culti- 
vation is  made,  at  the  present  day,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
remotest  times.  Neither  wall,  hedge,  nor  fence  surrounds  such 
fields ;  their  limits  are  marked  either  \>y  some  natural  boundary, 
such  as  a  river,  the  bed  of  a  torrent,  the  edge  of  a  valley  or  hill, 
the  highway,  or,  what  is  more  generally  the  case,  by  means  of 
large  stones  mostly  buried  in  the  soil.  The  repeated  injunc- 
tion contained  in  the  Old  Testament,  not  to  "  remove  the  old 
landmarks,"  apply  equally  to  the  present  time.:}: 

The  standard  measure  of  land  throughout  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire is  called  a  deunum,  and  is  the  area  which  one  pair  of  oxen 
can  plow  in  a  single  day;  it  is  equal  to  a  quarter  of  an  acre, 
or  a  square  of  forty  arshuns  (nearly  one  hundred  feet).  There 
seems  to  be  but  one  allusion  to  this  fact  in  the  Scriptures;  it 

*  1  Sam.  xiv.,  2.5-27  ;  Matt,  iii.,  4. 

t  Deut.  xxxi.  20.  This  expression,  however,  may  have  originated  in  a  simihir 
custom  to  what  now  prevails  in  the  more  fertile  portions  of  Abyssinia,  where  the 
indispensable,  and  often  the  onhf  article  of  food  eaten  at  a  meal,  consists  of  butter 
and  honey  mixed  togetlier  in  a  ])late,  into  which  the  brc^id  is  dipped  (Bruce  iv., 
232).     "We  have  rcjteatedly  eaten  this  dish  in  various  parts  of  Western  Asia. 

X  Deut.  xix.,  14  ;  Job  xxiv.,  2  ;  Prov.  xxii.,  28;  xxiii.,  10. 


PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  SOIL.— CEREALS.         75 

is  found  in  1  Sam.  xiv.,  14,  where  the  exploit  of  Jonathan  and 
his  armor-bearer  is  described;  twenty  of  the  enemy  are  stated 
to  have  fallen  within  the  space  of  "  a  half  acre  of  land  "  of  "  a 
yoke  of  oxen  " — an  expression  better  rendered  by  the  words, 
"  within  the  space  of  half  a  deimum  of  land."  This  measure 
is  referred  to  in  ancient  profane  writers,  so  that  no  change  has 
occurred  in  this  respect. 

In  speaking  of  the  products  of  the  soil,  we  are  obliged  to  no- 
tice at  the  same  time  the  condition  of  agriculture  among  the 
Hebrews.  All  they  knew  upon  this  subject  had  been  derived 
from  the  Egyptians,  among  whom  they  had  so  long  dwelt. 
From  them  they  acquired  the  use  of  the  plow  and  of  the 
various  tools  and  implements  which  we  see  figured  on  Egyp- 
tian monuments;  yet  they  doubtless  found  them  employed  by 
the  Canaanites,  and  thus  ready  to  their  hands  at  the  time  of  the 
conquest.  A  close  examination  of  these  instruments  enables 
us  to  ascertain  the  fact  that  no  change  whatever  has  occurred  in 
the  art  of  agriculture  up  to  the  present  time  in  Western  Asia. 
The  ox  is  still  inferior  in  size,  and  is  not  unfrequently  seen 
yoked  with  the  ass.*  There  are  districts,  however,  where  this 
valuable  animal  will  compare  well  with  those  of  more  Northern 
climes;  just  as  would  seem  to  have  been  the  case  in  the  time 
of  the  Psalmist,  who  particularly  notices  "  the  Bulls  of  Bashan."f 
The  buffalo  now  abounds  in  Asia  Minor,  and  is  found  in  Syria 
and  Palestine;  but  he  h^as  been  introduced  since  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era.  His  great  strength  renders  him  very  use- 
ful to  the  farmer,  both  in  plowing  and  drawing  heavy  carts. 

The  plows  of  Palestine  are  small  and  light,  consisting  of  a 
long  piece  of  wood,  having  one  extremity  fastened  to  the  yoke, 
and  the  other  attached  to  a  shorter  piece  obliquely  tran verse; 
one  end  of  the  latter  is  set  in  the  share,  the  other  is  held  by 
the  right  hand  of  the  plowman,  who  with  his  left  grasps  the 
goad— a  long  stick  armed  with  a  pointed  piece  of  iron  sharp- 
ened with  a  file.:}:  The  farmer  usually  makes  his  own  plows, 
the  shares  being  purchasable  in  the  towns,  and  resembling 
in  form,  though  not  in  size,  the  point  of  an  arrow  or  spear, 
with  a  socket  to  receive  the  wooden  part  of  the  plow,  to  which 


*  Dent,  xxii.,  10.  t  Psa.  xxii.,  12. 

J  1  Sam.  xiii.,  21 ;  Luke  ix.,  62. 


76 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


it  is  made  fast  with  a  peg  or  nail.     The  yoke  is  very  thin 
and  light,  and  about  twice  the  length  of  ours;    so  that  the 

oxen  stand  farther  apart, 
and  the  plow  can  the 
more  easily  be  made  to 
turn  and  avoid  an  ob- 
struction which  might 
break  it.  The  whole  thing, 
however,  is  so  light  that 
one  often  sees  a  farmer 
going  to  his  work  in 
the  morning,  or  returning 
home  at  night,  bearing 
his  plow  upon  his  shoul- 
der; or  he  rides  a  di- 
minutive donkey,  with  a 
couple  of  plows  fastened  to  the  saddle  behind  him.  The  horse 
is  never  used  for  plowing.  The  illustrations  give  a  good  idea 
of  an  Arab  farmer  at  work,  and  of  plows  and  other  tools  used 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.* 


^^^ — 

.  Modern  Plow  (Lnke  ix.,  62) ;  2.  Share  (Isa.  ii., 
4) ;  3.  Yoke  (Neh.  xix.,  2) :  4.  Mattock,  and  5.  Goad 
(Judg.  iii.,  31). 


Arab  Farmer  plowing.    (Isa.  xxviii.,  24.) 

With  such  instruments  (and  their  small  cattle  can  not  draw 
heavier),  the  earth  can  not  be  furrowed  to  a  great  depth.  The 
sod  is  not  turned  over  either  to  the  right  hand  or  to  the  left, 
but  merely  scratched  a  few  inches  below  the  surface.  It  ar- 
gues well  for  the  productiveness  of  the  soil  that  such  a  mode 
of  cultivation  has  continued  to  yield  crops  adequate  to  the 


*  A  thousand  yenrs  ago  there  was  essentially  the  same  difference  as  now  between 
the  European  and  the  Asiatic  plow. — See  Lacroix's  "Middle  Ages." 


PRODUCTIONS   OF   THE   SOIL. — CEREALS.  77 

entire  support  of  a  large  population  for  a  long  succession  of 
centuries. 

The  corn  of  Egypt  is  as  famous  now  as  in  ancient  times. 
Nor  is  that  of  Palestine  inferior  in  quality.  This  remark,  in- 
deed, applies  to  the  whole  of  Western  Asia.  We  ourselves 
have  seen  a  single  grain  produce  thirteen  ears,  each  of  which 
contained  from  twenty  to  twenty  five -grains,*  and  we  have 
been  assured  by  a  friend  in  whose  word  we  place  the  most  ex- 
plicit confidence,  that  "he  has  seen  between  Booldoor  and  Is- 
parta,  in  Asia  Minor,  a  single  root  of  wheat  which  bore  more 
than  one  hundred  stems,  each  terminating  in  an  ear." 

The  time  of  plowing  commences  as  soon  as  "  the  early  rain  " 
of  the  end  of  September  or  beginning  of  October  has  softened 
the  ground,  and  is  continued  through  the  winter,  when  the  soil 
is  not  too  heavy  with  moisture,  even  up  to  the  beginning  of 
March,  at  which  time  the  more  delicate  seeds  are  put  into  the 
earth.  Whenever  there  are  facilities  for  irrigation,  however, 
the  plowing  goes  on  through  the  year,  and  several  crops  are 
obtained  of  beans  and  other  vegetables.  It  is  a  very  common 
sight  to  see  several  yoke  of  oxen,  each  drawing  a  plow,  follow- 
ing one  another  in  the  same  field,  thus  supplying  by.  repeated 
plowing  the  insufficiency  of  each  operation.  A  wealthy  farm- 
er will  so  employ  his  oxen  to  go  over  each  of  his  fields,t  while 
those  who  possess  but  one  pair  aid  each  other  in  turn. 

After  the  plow  has  passed  twice  over  the  soil — the  second 
time  at  right  angles  to  the  first — and  the  sods  have  been  bro- 
ken up  and  smoothed  with  a  wooden  harrow,:}:  the  farmer  walks 
over  the  ground,  scattering  the  seed  around  him,§  which  he 
takes  from  a  bag  or  bushel-measure.  It  is  then  covered  with  a 
harrow;  but  sometimes  a  flock  of  sheep  or  goats  is  driven  over 
the  ground  for  the  purpose  of  treading  down  the  seed  into  the 
soil.  This  was  also  done  anciently  in  Egypt.l  Wheat  and 
barley  are  sowed  in  the  autumn,  and  the  later  crops  in  Feb- 
ruary. 

The  crop  of  barley  is  harvested  in  Palestine  about  the  first 
of  April,  but  that  of  wheat  in  May.  The  season  of  gathering 
in  the  crops  in  Western  Asia  differs  according  to  the  latitude. 


Gen.  xli.,  22.  t  1  Kings  xix.,  19.  %  Isa.  xxviii,,  25. 

Luke  viii.,  5-8.  ||  Wilkinson,  "Ancient  Egyptians,"  ii.,  12,  fig.  358. 


78  BIBLE    LANDS. 

but  Still  more  according  to  the  elevation  above  the  sea  of  any 
locality.  There  are  cultivated  fields,  high  up  on  lofty  mount- 
ains, at  a  considerable  distance  from  any  habitation.  The  own- 
ers erect  a  booth,  or  a  mud -hut,  and  take  up  their  quarters 
there  as  soon  as  the  grain  begins  to  ripen,  in  order  to  preserve 
it  from  the  depredations  of  wild  boars  and  other  animals. 
These  upland  crops  often  do  not  ripen  until  late  in  July. 

The  full  meaning  of  the  promise  contained  in  Lev.  xxvi.,  5, 
i.  e.,  that  "  the  threshing  should  reach  unto  the  vintage,  and  the 
vintage  unto  the  sowing  time,"  will  be  apprehended  by  remem- 
bering that  in  Palestine  generally  the  wheat  harvest  ordinarily 
begins  the  end  of  May,  and  the  vintage  the  end  of  August, 
while  plowing  and  sowing  can  rarely  be  done  before  No- 
vember. 

The  standing  grain  is  cut  with  a  sickle,  being  gathered  by 
the  left  arm  for  the  purpose,  bound  in  sheaves  with  a  band 
of  its  own  straw,  and  laid  down  on  the  ground  upon  the  spot. 
Both  men  and  women*  engage  in  this  operation,  and  they  ad- 
vance in  a  diagonal  line  across  the  field.  They  are  not  the 
common  farm-laborers,  but  are  hired  by  the  day  for  the  work. 
At  the  regular  "  meal-time,"  they  gather  under  the  shade  of  a 
tree  and  sit  round  a  common  dish  furnished  by  the  master  of 
the  field:  the  food  they  prefer  is  lehe?!  or  sour  milk,  salad  or 
pickles,  which  are  cooling  and  refreshing  in  the  midst  of  their 
heating  employment.  The  poorest  among  the  people,  the  widow 
and  the  orphan,  are  not  unfrequently  seen  following  the  reap- 
ers, gleaning  such  ears  of  grain  as  may  have  been  left  behind.f 
The  crop  is  sometimes  pulled  up  by  the  roots  with  the  hand 
instead  of  being  cut  with  the  sickle.:}:  The  weather  being  hot 
and  the  sun  oppressive,§  a  cruse  or  jar  of  water  is  kept  in  the 
shade  of  a  tree  or  bush,  and  thither  the  laborers  resort  to 
quench  their  thirst.|| 

The  threshing-floor  is  prepared  upon  some  level  spot,  just 


*  Ruth  ii.,  8,  9.  t  Lev.  xix.,  9. 

I  The  word  translated  "pruning-liook"  in  our  version  occurs  three  times  in  the 
Old  Testament,  i.  c,  in  Isa.  ii.,  4 ;  Joel  iii.,  10;  and  Mic.  iv.,  3.  In  every  case 
the  marginal  reading  is  scythe,  an  instrument  quite  unknown  in  the  East.  The 
context,  however,  sufficiently  indicates  that  the  sacred  writer  had  reference  to  the 
sickle,  though  it  is  mentioned  elsewhere  by  another  name. 

§  2  Kings  iv.,  18,  19.  ||  Ruth  ii.,  9. 


PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  SOIL. — CEREALS.         79 

outside  of  the  village  or  town,*  and  sometimes  within  its  limits. 
When  this,  however,  is  not  of  easy  access,  the  threshing-floors 
are  situated  at  a  little  distance,  and  among  the  fields.f  But 
whatever  spot  is  selected  for  the  purpose,  it  must  lie  somewhat 
higher  than  the  surrounding  ground,  so  that  the  rain  may  run 
off  from  its  surface  without  injuring  it.  In  preparing  the  thresh- 
ing-floor, the  ground  is  beaten  hard  by  artificial  means,  and  clay 
is  laid  over  it  and  smoothed  with  a  stone  roller,  after  which  it 
soon  dries  in  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  size  of  the  floor  de- 
pends upon  the  number  of  owners,  or  of  heaps  usually  threshed 
at  one  time ;  and  it  must  be  observed  that  all  the  crop  is  gen- 
erally threshed  at  once,  so  that  but  one  process  is  gone  through 
with  on  the  same  spot  during  the  season.  The  sheaves  are 
gathered  by  the  laborers,  and  brought  to  the  threshing-floors 
upon  their  shoulders,  or  upon  the  backs  of  asses,  mules,  or 
camels.  In  many  portions  of  the  country,  the  sheaves  are  piled 
into  a  rude  cart,  upon  which  they  are  kept  from  falling  by  a 
wicker-work  about  four  feet  high.:}:     These  carts,  or  arabas,  are 


Ox  exit  beauug  Shei\es     (Amo' 


probably  similar  to  those  used  by  the  Hebrews,  and  drawn  by 
a  pair  of  oxen.§  Their  wooden  wheels  are  solid,  and  thickest 
in  the  middle,  encircled  by  an  iron  hoop,  which  is  made  fast 
around  the  edge  by  means  of  large-headed  nails.     These  wheels 


*  1  Chron.  xxi.,  15,  IG.  t  Gen.  1.,  10. 

t  Amos  ii.,  13.  §  i  Sam.  vi.,  7. 


80 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


are  firmly  fixed  upon  the  axle-tree,  wliich  revolves  with  them 
under  the  body  of  the  cart,  giving  forth  unearthly  sounds.  The 
entire  construction  of  this  cart  will  be  seen  in  the  illustration 
here  given :  it  is  interesting  both  on  account  of  the  great  an- 


Orientrtl  Ox-cait.    (1  Sam.  vi.,  7.) 

tiquity  of  its  origin,  and  because  it  is  the  only  wheeled  vehicle 
known  in  Bible  lands  at  the  present  time.  A  similar  cart  was 
used  by  a  nation  at  war  with  the  Egyptians ;  for  it  is  depicted 
on  one  of  their  monuments,  with  its  solid  wooden  wheels,  and 
the  frame  upon  the  cart.  The  hieroglyphic  name  is  Tokhari 
(see  illustration  on  following  page).  The  iron  rings  hung  on 
the  wheels  to  increase  the  noise  are  alone  wanting;  but  these 
are  by  no  means  in  general  use  even  now. 

The  sheaves  are  thrown  upon  the  threshing-floor  in  piles 
eight  or  ten  feet  high.  They  are  threshed  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
When  mares  are  kept  in  the  field,  which  is  the  case  in  many  of 
the  great  plains  of  Western  Asia,  their  owners  employ  or  hire 
them  out,  during  the  harvest  season,  to  tread  the  grain  upon 
the  threshing-floors,  which  is  done  as  follows:  the  heaps  ol' 
sheaves  are  fiist  spread  out  evenly  upon  the  floor,  in  a  diametei- 
(jf  fifty  or  sixty  feet.  Seven  or  eight  of  the  horses  are  then 
tied  to  each  other  by  a  single  rope,  so  as  to  stand  abreast  from 
the  centre  to  the  circumference  of  the  circle.  The  driver  holds 
the  end  of  the  rope  with  one  hand,  or  fastens  it  to  an  upright 
post  in  the  centre,  while  with  the  other  he  whips  the  animals 


PRODUCTIONS   OF   THE   SOIL. — CEREALS. 


81 


a  circle  around  liiin,  as  he 
riie  outside  horses  of  course 


to  keep  them  moving  abreast  ii 

stands  in  the  middle  of  the  heap. 

have  the  most  traveling  to  do,  and 

so  he  frequently  changes  their  rel- 
ative position  bj  holding  in  turn 

each   of  the    extrem.ities   of  the 

rope,  so  that  the  horses  at   the 

other  end  of  the  line  alternately 

walk  at  the  circumference  or  at 

the  centre.*     In  many  parts  of 

the  country,  however,  cattle  are 

made  use  of  in  the  same  manner 

as  horses.f    Horses  were  general-   | 

ly  too  dear  in  ancient  times  to  be   ° 

owned  by  farmers,  or  to  be  put  to   t 

such  a  use;  and  Herodotus  states   | 

that  swine  were  thus  employed.:};   I 

The  illustration  on  the  following  £ 
page,  however,  would  seem  to  | 
prove  that  oxen  were  used  an- 
ciently, as  now,  by  the  Egyptians 
in  threshing  their  grain.  It  is 
copied  by  Wilkinson  from  one  of 
the  monuments  of  that  land.  But 
the  most  generally  adopted  mode 
of  threshing  consists  in  the  use  of 
a  sort  of  sled  made  of  thick  boards, 
four  or  five  feet  in  length,  with 
many  pieces  of  flint  or  iron  set 
firmly  in  the  wood  of  the  under  surface.  This  is  drawn  by  a 
pair  of  oxen.§  Several  sets  of  small  wheels  are  sometimes  used 
instead  of  flints.  Two  or  three  of  these  sleds  are  often  at  work 
on  a  single  heap ;  and  it  is  a  striking  fact  that  in  all  Western 
Asia,  and  even  in  India,  it  is  the  universal  custom  to  allow  the 
oxen  or  other  animals  thus  employed  freely  to  eat  of  the  crop 
they  are  helping  to  harvest.||  The  driver,  generally  a  little  boy, 
or  perchance  a  girl,  stands  erect  upon  the  sled,  goad  in  hand,  or 

*  Isa.  xxviii.,  28.  t  Amos  iv.,  1 ;  Mic.  iv.,  13.  J  IIerodotus^lL7l4. 

§  2  Sam.  xxiv.,  22  ;  Isa.  xli.,  1.5 ;  Varro,  "  De  re  Riistica,"  i.,  ,'52. 
!l  Deut.  XXV.,  4. 


82 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


sits  cross-legged,  or  enjoys  the  luxury  of  a  stooi  or  primitive 
chair.  In  this  mode  of  threshing,  however,  the  whole  pile  ol' 
sheaves  is  not  leveled  at  once,  as  is  usual  in  the  former,  but  is 
allowed  to  stand  in  the  centre,  while  the  edges  are  gradually 
brought  down  and  threshed  until  the  whole  pile  is  finished. 


Oxeu  treadiug  the  Corn.    (Deut.  xxv 


The  object  aimed  at  by  these  processes  is  nut  simply  to  separate 
the  grain  from  the  ears,  but  also  to  cut  and  crush  the  straw,  by 
which  it  is  believed  that  the  nourishing  properties  it  contains 
are  more  fully  developed.  Horses  and  cattle  certainly  prefer 
straw  thus  prepared  to  that  merely  cut  by  any  other  process. 
This  article,  with  barley,  constitutes  the  chief  sustenance  of 


Thrcffhiiiji-lloor, 


PRODUCTIONS  OF   THE   SOIL. — CEREALS.  83 

horses,  cattle,  and  camels,  for  hay  is  nowhere  made  in  Pales- 
tine.* The  grain  and  straw  having  thus  been  threshed,  are 
heaped  high  in  a  long  ridge  or  pile,  preparatory  to  winnowing, 
for  which  purpose  the  chief  instrument  used  is  a  large  wooden 
shovel  or  "fan."f  The  sheaves  had  before  been  handled  with 
a  wooden  fork  of  the  same  size. 

About  the  month  of  May  begins,  all  over  Western  Asia,  the 
refreshing  sea-breeze,  which  continues  through  the  summer  un- 
til the  "  former  rains  "  at  the  end  of  September.:}:  It  is  only 
along  the  Black  Sea  shore  of  Asia  Minor  that  this  breeze  is  in- 
terrupted by  the  frequent  showers  which  come  from  the  south- 
west, and  which,  while  they  maintain  a  rich  vegetation  through 
the  summer,  entail  the  necessity  of  putting  the  crops  under 
cover  as  soon  as  cut.  In  Palestine  and  Syria,  however,  not  a 
drop  of  rain  usually  falls  after  the  first  of  May,  though  we  have 
known  a  thunder-shower  to  occur  on  the  first  of  June ;  but  the 
event  is  rare,  and  is  attended  with  much  inconvenience  to  the 
farmers.§  The  sun's  heat  increases,  and  the  only  danger  to  the 
crops,  as  they  lie  upon  the  threshing-floors,  arises  from  the  ac- 
cidental or  spontaneous  combustion  occasioned  by  carelessness 
in  cutting  the  crops  when  not  perfectly  dry  in  the  field.  In 
such  a  case  the  flames  spread  with  fearful  rapidity,!  so  that  the 
utmost  exertions  can  scarcely  save  any  thing  lying  within  the 
threshing-floors ;  should  there  be  trees  or  bushes  near  by,  there 
is  danger  of  their  taking  fire,  and  thus  the  conflagration  some- 
times spreads  quite  a  distance,  consuming  vineyards  and  olive- 
trees,  before  it  can  be  arrested.  The  sea-breeze  sets  in  about 
nine  or  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  is  felt  far  in  the  interior. 
We  have  been  refreshed  by  it  two  hundred  miles  from  the  sea- 
shore. It  continues  until  after  sunset,  when  it  suddenly  drops 
and  the  evening  is  perfectly  calm.  During  the  night  there  is 
a  land-breeze,  which  blows  in  the  opposite  direction,  toward 
the  sea ;  but  it  is  never  strong.  The  sea-breeze  is  at  its  height 
about  two  or  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  when  it  is  of  such 
a  strength  that  the  waves  come  dashing  upon  the  shore;  and 
it  is  at  this  time  that  the  greatest  activity  prevails  upon  the 

*  Gen.  xxiv.,  32;  1  Kings  iv.,  28 ;  Isa.  xi.,  7. 

t  Isa.  XXX.,  24;  xli.,  IG;  Matt,  iii.,  12. 

t  Dent,  xi.,  14;  Jer.  v.,  24;  Joel  ii.,  23,  24. 

§  1  Sam.  xii.,  lG-18;  Prov.  xxvi.,  1.  ||  Psa.  xxxv.,  5. 


I 


84:  BIBLE    LANDS. 

threshing-floors,  where  the  men  may  be  seen  tossing  up  the 
threshed  grain  with  their  wooden  shovels.  The  wheat  itself  falls 
to  the  ground,  while  the  straw  or  "chaff"  is  carried  off  by  the 
wind,*  and  forms  a  heap  at  the  distance  of  a  few  yards.  It  is 
removed  in  sacks,  or  in  the  carts  which  brought  the  crop  to  the 
floor,  while  the  wheat  or  barley  is  further  winnowed  through 
sieves  of  different  sizes,  which  clear  out  the  small  stones,  lumps 
of  earth,  and  foreign  seeds.f  The  most  troublesome  of  the  lat- 
ter are  the  tares  (the  weed  commonly  called  darud,  and  in 
botany  Lolium  temuUntum).     Its  kernels  are  somewhat  smaller 


Tares.    (Matl.  xiii.,  25.) 

than  those  of  wheat,  and  the  usual  way  to  separate  them  is  that 
adopted  by  the  women,  who  sit  at  home  with  the  children 
around  a  pile  of  wheat  and  patiently  pick  out  the  tares  one  by 
one.  When  allowed  to  remain  in  any  quantity  among  the 
wheat,  they  mar  the  quality  of  the  flour,  and  produce  bitterness 
of  taste,  and  even  dizziness  and  nausea  after  eating.  The  ac- 
companying illustration  is  a  correct  representation  of  this  nox- 
ious plant,  still  called  in  Greek  by  its  New  Testament  name. 

*Psa.  i.,4.  t  Isa.  XXX.,  24. 


PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  SOIL. — CEREALS.         85 

Our  Saviour's  parable  narrated  in  Matt,  xiii.,  24-80,  refers 
to  facts  respecting  tares,  which  may  need  some  explanation. 
When  the  tares  first  spring  up,  they  are  in  no  way  distinguish- 
able from  the  wheat ;  the  difference,  however,  begins  to  appear 
as  soon  as  the  ear  comes  in  sight.  This  difference,  slight  at 
first,  grows  more  and  more  marked  ns  the  seed  ripens,  so  that 
by  the  time  the  field  has  grown  yellow  the  ears  of  wheat  can 
be  distinguished  from  the  tares  at  a  single  glance.  Hence  it  is 
clear  that,  had  the  servants  attempted  to  "  root  up  "  the  tares 
while  they  were  yet  green,  they  would  have  been  liable  to 
mistake  them  for  wheat,  and  vice  versa.  The  mode  of  sepa- 
ration recommended  by  the  Master  also  deserves  our  attention: 
it  is  the  one  resorted  to  when  the  tares  are  very  abundant,  ren- 
dering the  process  alluded  to  above  altogether  too  tedious :  the 
tares  are  first  pulled  up  with  the  hands,  bound  in  bundles  by 
themselves,  and  burned,  in  order  to  prevent  the  increase  of  the 
noxious  weed.  Unlike  the  thrifty  husbandman  of  the  para- 
ble, who  "sov^red  none  but  good"  or  picked  "seed  in  his  field," 
lazy  farmers  do  not  trouble  themselves  to  pick  the  tares  out  of 
their  seed-wheat  before  sowing  it,  claiming  that  tares  are  pro- 
duced from  wheat  which  undergoes  a  change  by  some  unknown 
process  during  the  progress  of  its  growth. 

While  winnov/ing  is  going  on,  the  tax-gatherer  stands  by 
and  appropriates  one-tenth  as  soon  as  the  work  is  completed.* 
Under  tlie  oppressive  system  adopted  by  the  Muslim  govern- 
ments of  the  present  day,  as  under  the  Romans  of  old,  the  tithes 
are  sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  for  a  sum  of  money  paid  in  ad- 
vance, and  the  tithe-gatherers  go  through  the  land  employing 
every  device  for  the  purpose  of  overreaching  the  cultivators 
of  the  soil,  and  obtaining  from  them  more  than  their  dues.f 
They  are  sustained  in  every  dispute  by  the  local  authorities; 
and,  worse  than  this,  the  farmers  are  strictly  ordered  not  to 
thresh  their  grain  before  the  tax-gatherers  are  ready,  which  is 
the  means  of  additional  extortions.  We  have  known  crops  to 
remain  heaped  upon  the  threshing-floors  for  many  weeks,  and 
the  distressed  owners  were  not  only  obliged  to  watch  them  by 
day  and  by  night,  but  had  to  contrive  means  to  protect  them 
from  being  wet  by  showers. 

*  1  Sam.  viii.,  15.  t  Luke  iii.,  13. 


86  BIBLE    LANDS. 

From  the  time  that  the  crop  begins  to  be  laid  upon  the 
threshing-floor  until  it  is  entirely  removed,  after  threshing 
and  winnowing,  every  owner  spends  the  night  upon  the  edge 
of  his  heap,  where  he  finds  a  convenient  bed,  and  shelter  from 
the  night-breeze.*  This  he  does  for  the  purpose  of  guarding 
his  property  against  thieves,  and,  when  the  floor  is  at  a  distance 
from  the  village,  to  save  it  from  the  depredations  of  the  wild 
boars.  In  mountainous  districts  even  stags  and  bears  some- 
times come  down  to  get  a  share  of  the  feast.  Along  the  east- 
ern side  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  the  farmers  are  often  com- 
pelled to  cut  down  the  crops  before  they  are  full}^  ripe ;  for  the 
Arabs  come  out  of  the  desert  and  help  themselves  to  the 
standing  grain,  which  they  load  and  carry  away  upon  their 
horses,  t 

The  wheat  or  barley  is  separated  from  the  ear,  when  the 
quantity  is  small,  by  beating  it  out  with  a  stick,  and  afterward 
throwing  it  up  in  the  air  and  letting  the  wind  carry  away  the 
stubble;:}:  and  with  still  smaller  quantities,  we  not  unfrequent- 
ly  see  men  rubbing  several  ears  in  the  palms  of  their  hands 
and  blowing  away  the  chaff  while  tossing  up  the  grain,  which 
they  then  eat  unground  and  raw.§ 

We  have  described  the  chief  processes  of  agriculture,  those 
by  which  the  cereals  are  obtained  from  the  soil,  for  the  support 
of  the  population;  we  must  now  briefly  depict  the  mode  of  con- 
verting them  into  "bread,  the  staff"  of  life.|| 

Windmills  are  very  rare  in  Palestine,  though  they  abound 
in  other  parts  of  Western  Asia,  especially  along  the  coast  and 
upon  the  islands.  Flour- mills  worked  by  water-power  are 
common  in  mountainous  districts,  but  the  inhabitants  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  country,  as  well  as  all  who  dwell  in  tents, 
are  obliged  to  resort  to  the  hand-mill,  with  which  every  house- 
hold is  provided.  The  process  of  converting  wheat  or  barley 
into  flour — for  the  poorer  classes  now,  as  of  old,^  have  often  to 
be  content  with  the  barley — is  as  follows :  a  cloth  is  spread  upon 
the  ground,  and  upon  it  is  set  a  flat  circular  stone  about  two  feet 
in  diameter,  and  two  inches  in  thickness,  whose  upper  surface  is 
somewhat  convex,  and  in  the  centre  of  which  an  iron  peg  is 


*Ruthiii.,7.  +  Judg.  vi.,  .%  4.  t  Ruth  ii.,  17. 

§  Luke  vi.,  1.  ||  Psa.  cv.,  IG.  t  '-  Kings  iv.,  42;  John  vi.,  9. 


PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  SOIL.— CEREALS.         87 

firmlj  set  upright.  A  similar  stone,  with  a  hole  in  its  centre, 
is  set  upon  the  first,  its  lower  surface  somewhat  concave,  so 
that  the  two  fit  well  together.  Upon  the  upper  surface  of  the 
latter,  and  near  the  rim,  is  inserted  a  wooden  or  iron  peg  six  or 
eight  inches  high.  A  small  pair  of  stones  is  turned  by  one 
person ;  the  larger  by  two  women,*  who  sit  upon  the  ground 


The  Haud-mill 


face  to  face,  with  the  hand-mill  between  them,  having  each  a 
lapful  of  grain.  Their  right  hands,  the  one  above  the  other, 
hold  the  wooden  peg,  and  thus  they  continually  turn  the  upper 
stone,  while  the  lower  one  remains  stationary ;  the  left  hand, 
meanwhile,  is  busy  taking  grain  and  filling  with  it  the  hole  in 
the  upper  stone,  and  the  coarsely  ground  flour  is  constantly  is- 
suing from  the  side  opening  between  the  stones  and  falling 
upon  the  cloth.f  In  wealthy  families  this  work  is  done  by 
menials  or  slaves.:}:  The  blind  also  go  from  house  to  house  to 
do  the  grinding,  and  thus  earn  a  pittance.§ 

Every  town  is  furnished  with  public  ovens,  where  bread  is 


*  Matt,  xxiv.,  41. 

I  Exod.  xi.,  f);  Lam.  v.,  13. 


+  Isa.  xlvii.,  1,  2. 
§  Judges  xvi.,  21. 


88  BIBLE    LANDS. 

made  and  sold.  These  ovens  are  built  of  baked  bricks  in  the 
large  towns,  and  occupy  the  innermost  part  of  the  little  shop, 
whose  street  front  consists  of  a  large  counter  upon  which  the 
bread  is  sold.  The  oven  itself  is  a  chamber  whose  smooth 
floor,  some  four  feet  in  diameter,  is  covered  with  flat  bricks, 
and  stands  three  feet  above  the  ground.  The  sides  and  roof 
are  arched,  and  the  flue  of  the  chimney  is  at  the  inner  end. 
As  the  work  commences  at  early  dawn,  since  most  of  the  sales 
take  place  in  the  morning,  the  workmen  spend  the  night  about 
the  place,  and  may  often  be  seen  in  the  summer  season  sleeping 
Hi  the  side  of  the  street.*  The  operation  of  baking  begins  by 
lighting  a  brisk  fire  all  over  the  floor  of  the  oven,  and  when  its 
surface  has  become  sufficiently  heated  the  embers  are  raked  out 
through  the  opening  in  the  front,  and  the  loaves  of  bread  are 
laid  and  arranged  on  the  floor  of  the  oven  with  a  long-handled 
wooden  shovel.  An  iron  door  closes  the  oven  until  the  bak- 
ing is  completed.  These  ovens  are  precisely  of  the  form  and 
size  of  the  one  discovered  in  Pompeii  (dating  from  the  second 
century  of  the  Christian  era),  in  which  were  found  more  than 
eighty  loaves  of  bread  calcined,  but  perfectly  preserved.  A 
little  piece  of  dough  is  always  kept  for  leaven  from  one  baking- 
till  the  next,  when  it  is  mixed  in  the  meal  by  being  worked  in 
the  dough,  and  thus  the  whole  mass  is  leavened.f  The  size  of 
a  loaf  varies  in  different  places,  though  sold  by  weight.  The 
more  common  form  is  round,  somewhat  flattened  down,  and 
five  or  six  inches  in  diameter,  A  flat  loaf  is  also  in  general 
use,  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  twelve  inches  in  diameter, 
round  or  oval  in  form.  These  kinds  are  leavened,  and  the  last 
is  often  used  instead  of  a  dish  or  platter,  upon  which  other  food 
is  placed.  The  more  common  bread  used  in  all  the  interior, 
particularly  in  the  rural  districts,  is  a  flat  cake  of  unleavened 
dough,  no  thicker  than  a  pancake,  of  a  circular  or  oval  form, 
and  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter.;}:  It  is  made  of  the  flour 
obtained  from  the  hand-mill,  with  the  bran  in  it,  and  is  baked 
in  the  following  manner:  Many  houses  are  provided  with  an 
oven  which  consists  of  a  hole  in  the  ground  some  three  feet 
deep,  two  feet  in  width  at  the  top,  and  three  at  the  bottom,  and 
plastered  within  with  clay.     A  brisk  fire  of  branches  and  dried 

*  IIos.  vii.,  4.  t  Matt,  xiii.,  33.  t  Exod.  xii,,  39. 


PRODUCTIONS   OF   THE   SOIL. — CEREALS. 


89 


grass  is  lighted  upon  the  bottom,  where  there  is  a  flue  to  admit 
the  air.*  The  women,  to  whom  exclusively  belongs  this  branch 
of  houseliold  labor,f  take  a  piece  of  dough  of  the  required  size, 
and  quickly  and  repeatedly  passing  it  from  one  hand  to  the 
other,  make  it  into  a  thin  cake.  It  is  then  laid  upon  a  round 
cushion  which  is  introduced  within  the  oven,  where  it  is  press- 
ed against  one  of  its  sides,  to  which  it  adheres  until  it  is 
thoroughly  baked  or  toasted,  when  it  is  removed  by  the  experi- 


A  public  Oveu.    (Hos.  vii.,4.) 

enced  hand  of  the  baker.  The  dwellers  in  tents  carry  and  use 
an  oven  of  similar  form  made  of  earthenware,  and  glazed  with- 
in; it  is,  however,  covered  and  spherical  at  the  top,  and  the 
opening  is  on  one  side,  while  a  small  hole  at  the  bottom  takes 
the  place  of  the  flue.  The  illustration  on  the  next  page  exhib- 
its the  close  resemblance  between  the  modern  and  the  ancient 
Egyptian  portable  oven.  Some  use  iron  platters,  which  are 
heated  by  being  laid  upon  the  fire ;  and  others,  again,  place  the 
unleavened  cake  directly  upon  the  coals.:}:  These  unleavened 
cakes  are  crisp  and  palatable,  but  hard  to  digest;  they  are  al- 


Matt.  vi.,  30. 


t  Lev.  xxvi.,  26. 


t  1  Kings  xix.,  6. 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


ways  eaten  soon  after  baking,  and  vie  in  unwliolesomeness  with 
our  "  hot  biscuit."  This  form  of  bread  is  very  convenient  for 
the  rude  population  of  the  villages,  and  especially  for  the  wan- 
dering Arabs,  who  possess  few  of  the  com- 
modities of  civilization,  and  make  these  thin 
cakes  answer  the  pur- 
pose of  a  plate,  spoon, 
table-cloth,  and  napkin. 
We  have  often  seen 
them  tear  off  a  piece  of 
the  cake,  shape  it  into 
the  form  of  a  spoon,  eat 

Portable  Oyens:  1,  Ancient;  2,  Modem.    (Matt,  vi.,  30.)    f^\i]^      [^     Several     large 

mouthfuls  of  thick  soup  or  curdled  milk,  and  when  it  had  be- 
come too  soft  to  be  further  used  in  this  way,  eat  up  their 
spoon,  and  proceed  by  making  another,  as  often  as  required. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that,  whatever  kind  of  bread  is  eaten, 
whether  the  large  soft  loaf,  or  the  thin  cake,  it  is  never  cut 
with  a  knife,  but  broken  with  the  hand.  Hence  the  expression 
so  common  in  the  Scriptures,  as  well  as  in  other  Eastern  writ- 
ings, "to  break  bread,"  ^.  e,,  to  eat.*  It  is  deemed  wrong  to 
apply  a  knife  to  bread.  So,  likewise,  great  care  is  used  not 
to  let  it  fall  to  the  ground ;  should  it  chance  to  do  so,  it  is 
carefully  picked  up  and  set  upon  the  shelf. 

Flour  is  not  the  only  thing,  however,  nor  bread  the  only 
article  of  food,  into  which  wheat  is  converted.  It  is  soaked  in 
water,  or  even  boiled,  and,  after  being  thoroughly  dried  in  the 
sun,  is  ground  in  a  light  hand-mill,  and  enters  as  an  ingredient 
into  a  variety  of  dishes,  besides  being  the  rival  of  rice  in  the 
national  dish  of  ^3^7f«/5  or  pilmu,  when  it  takes  the  name  of 
hoorghoor.  Wheat  is  often  kept  in  pits,  very  similar  to  wells, 
some  ten  or  fifteen  feet  in  depth,  which  are  carefully  closed,  and 
thus  hidden  from  the  predatory  Arabs.  There  is,  perhaps,  an 
allusion  to  such  a  pit  in  2  Sam.  xvii.,  19.  However  this  may 
be,  the  corn  the  women  spread  upon  the  mouth  of  the  well 
clearly  indicates  that  the  Hebrews  were  in  the  habit  of  pre- 
paring hoorghoor  in  the  manner  we  have  described.  "Parched 
corn  "  is  referred  to  in  Lev.  xxiii.,  14;  Ruth  ii.,  14 ;  1  Sam.  xvii., 


♦  Matt.  XV.,  36;  Acts  xx.,  7;   1  Cor.  x.,  16. 


PRODUCTIONS   OF   THE   SOIL. — CEREALS.  91 

1,7;  XXV.,  18;  2  Sam.  xvii.,  28.  It  corresponds  to  the  kaly  of 
the  Arabs,  and  is  obtained  in  the  following  manner:  When 
wheat  is  being  harvested,  some  of  the  green  ears  are  thrown 
upon  the  coals  of  fire  and  roasted ;  they  are  but  partially  di- 
vested of  the  hull  by  rubbing  between  the  hands,  and  are  very 
much  relished.  Both  roasted  and  raw  wheat  is  eaten  whole,  a 
custom  which  is  referred  to  in  some  of  the  texts  mentioned 
above. 


92  BIBLE    LANDS. 


CHAPTER  lY. 

OAEDEmNO  AND   CULTIVATION  BY  IRRIGATION. 

The  dryness  of  the  climate  of  Western  Asia  renders  impos- 
sible the  raising  of  vegetables  and  certain  varieties  of  fruit- 
trees,  except  with  the  aid  of  artificial  irrigation.  Most  of  the 
country  lies  dry  and  parched  during  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  year,  at  which  period  the  apparent  sterility  is  only  mitigated 
by  hardy  trees  scattered  here  and  there,  and  still  more  hardy 
bushes  which  cover  extensive  tracts.  The  presence  of  a  river, 
or  even  a  torrent,  can  generally  be  detected  at  a  considerable 
distance  by  the  appearance  of  a  richer  vegetation  upon  its 
banks.  The  location  of  a  town,  village,  or  hamlet  is,  in  like 
manner,  marked  by  the  island  of  verdure  which  embosoms  it; 
for  Orientals  always  build  near  a  river,  spring,  or  well  of  water. 
The  village  itself  is  very  generally  unshaded  by  trees.  The  gar- 
dens are  usually  planted  just  outside;  then  come  the  inclosed 
vineyards,  which  are  not  watered  ;*  and  beyond  all  lie  the  cul- 
tivated fields,  looking  perfectly  barren  and  dry  as  soon  as  the 
crop  has  been  removed. 

No  country  in  the  world  depends  upon  artificial  irrigation 
to  such  a  degree  as  the  land  of  Egypt.f  Rain  rarely  foils  be- 
yond a  short  distance  inland  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea;j: 
within  this  narrow  limit  the  only  extraordinary  feature  in  the 
hailstorm  which  constituted  one  of  the  ten  plagues  sent  upon 
King  Pharaoh,  was  its  extreme  severity  ;§  but  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Memphis  and  Upper  Egypt  so  terrible  and  unprece- 
dented a  visitation  must  have  produced  the  greatest  awe  and 
consternation. II 


*  1  Kings  xxi.,  1.  +  Dent.  xi..  10.  11. 

\  Zcch.  xiv.,  18.  §  Exod.  ix..  24. 

II  Exod.  ix.,  28.  The  severity  of  ilie  linilstdrm  which  constituted  one  of  Egypt's 
ten  plagues  is  not  witlioiit  its  ]i:irallel  in  the  siiinc  lands  in  niodcin  times.  Not  many 
years  ago  hailstones  foil  at  Constantinople  which  are  descrihed  as  "  of  the  size  and 
shape  of  small  saucers;"  several  jjcrsons  were  killed  hy  them.     But  the  most  ter- 


GARDENING   AND   CULTIVATION    BY    IRRIGATION.  93 

The  river  Nile  rises  far  to  the  south,  toward  the  centre  of 
the  continent,  and  in  a  region  of  mountains,  forests,  and  exten- 
sive lakes,  which  have  but  recently  been  brought  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  civilized  world  by  the  English  travelers  Speke  and 
Baker.  It  is  swollen  at  appointed  seasons  by  the  rains  of 
those  elevated  tracts,  and  carries  off  the  rich  vegetable  remains 
of  a  tropical  climate.  In  Egypt  the  Nile  is  confined  between 
high  banks;  a  well  upon  an  island  near  Cairo  contains  the  ni- 
lometer,  which  consists  of  a  pillar  with  a  scale  marking  the 
height  reached  by  the  water.  Experience  has  established  both 
the  average  rise  and  that  which  is  required  to  supply  the  wants 
of  the  land.  When  a  sufficient  height  has  been  attained,  the 
order  is  given,  all  the  outlets  are  opened  in  the  river  banks, 
and  the  water  is  allowed  to  spread  over  the  country.  This 
now  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  sea,  the  villages,  built  upon 
the  highest  spots,  alone  standing  out  of  the  water. 

The  quantity  of  water  brought  down  by  the  Nile,  however, 
varies  very  much  from  year  to  year,  doubtless  owing  to  the 
amount  of  rain  falling  in  the  region  of  its  head-waters  and 
those  of  its  tributaries.  An  unusually  abundant  as  well  an 
unusually  scanty  flood  are  alike  detrimental  to  the  crops. 
The  ancients,  therefore,  devised  and  executed  a  stupendous 
work,  by  which  they  prepared  and  enlarged  a  natural  basin, 
existing  at  a  little  distance  from  the  western  bank  of  the  river, 
in  Upper  Egypt.  They  placed  it  in  communication  with  the 
Nile  by  means  of  a  canal  and  sluices;  and  the  author  of  this 
work  erected  two  pyramids,  surmounted  with  colossal  figures, 
in  the  middle  of  this  lake,  which  covered  a  surface  of  more 
than  five  hundred  square  miles.  The  river  begins  to  rise 
about  the  20th  of  June.  When  beyond  a  certain  height,  the 
superfluous  waters  are  made  to  flow  into  the  above-mentioned 
Lake  Fayoom ;  and  when  the  flood  has  proved  insufficient,  the 
sluices  of  this  lake  are  opened  in  December,  and  the  country 
is  supplied  with  the  needed  moisture.  By  this  means  the  land 
is  saved  from  the  frequent  recurrence  of  famine,  to  which  it 

rific  hailstorm  we  have  heard  of  occurred  at  Marmaritza,  on  the  southern  shore  of 
Asia  Minor,  in  ISOI,  while  the  British  fleet  lay  there.  "  On  the  8th  of  Fehruary," 
says  Sir  R.  Wilson,  '•  commenced  the  most  violent  thunder  and  hail  storm  ever  re- 
membered, and  which  continued  two  days  and  nights  intermittingly.  Tiie  liail, 
nv  rather  ice  stones,  were  as  big  as  walnuts." — Clarke,  108. 


94  BIBLE   LANDS. 

would  Otherwise  be  liable.  Lake  Fayoom  is  universally  at- 
tributed to  one  of  the  Egyptian  kings,  Moeris  by  name,  who 
lived  1700  years  B.C.  This  brings  us  to  the  time  of  Joseph, 
who  appeared  before  Pharaoh  to  interpret  his  dream,  in  the 
year  1715  B.C.  Hence  it  would  appear  that  Lake  Fayoom 
did  not  exist  before  the  days  of  Joseph.  Its  use  would  doubt- 
less have  prevented  the  terrible  famine  of  seven  years,  which 
compelled  the  Egyptians  to  sell  their  land,  their  cattle,  and 
their  very  persons  to  their  king.*  Moeris  must  have  been 
the  Pharaoh  who  received  the  Hebrews  into  Egypt,  and  Lake 
Fayoom,  which  anciently  bore  the  name  of  Moeris,  after  the 
king,  was  doubtless  constructed,  as  far  as  it  is  a  work  of  art, 
under  the  impression  of  that  terrible  dearth.  The  great  and 
ancient  canal  which  admits  the  waters  of  the  Nile  into  Lake 
Moeris,  and  through  which  they  are  let  out  again  upon  the 
land,  is  to  this  day  called  by  the  natives  Bahr  Yoosoof,  the 
water  of  Joseph  —  a  further  confirmation  of  the  above  state- 
ment.f  It  is  interesting  thus  to  trace  not  only  the  evidence  of 
the  truth  of  Scripture,  but  the  influence  of  a  great  and  good 
man  upon  the  welfare  of  a  nation  during  the  space  of  thirty- 
five  centuries. 

There  is  another  circumstance  worthy  of  our  attention.  All 
the  water  in  Egypt  comes  from  the  Nile,  and  though  muddy 
at  the  best,  long  use  makes  the  inhabitants  prefer  it  to  any 
other  for  drinking. 

The  annual  flooding  of  Egypt  by  the  Nile,  and  the  deposi- 
tion of  the  abundant  earthy  and  vegetable  matter  with  which 
it  is  then  charged,  has  gradually  raised  the  surface  of  the  en- 
tire valley  in  which  it  flows.  The  proofs  of  this  are  numerous. 
All  the  ancient  historians  agree  in  stating  that  the  Egyptians 
erected  their  principal  buildings  upon  platforms  so  high  that 
they  could  not  be  reached  by  the  swollen  Nile;  but  they  now 
stand  far  below  that  level.  It  is  calculated  that  the  average 
rise  of  the  surface  of  the  whole  valley  of  Egypt  amounts  to 
about  five  inches  in  a  century. 

Marcel,  in  his  "Modern  Egypt,"  makes  the  following  inter- 
esting statement:  "As  the  swollen  waters  of  the  river  pass 
over  its  banks  and  inundate  the  land,  the  heavier  or  sandy 


*  Gen.  xl^^i.,  ir>-23.  +  Pocockc,  i.,  GO. 


GARDENING   AND   CULTIVATION    BY   IRRIGATION.  95 

particles  they  bear  are  naturally  deposited  in  its  immediate 
vicinity,  while  the  lighter  and  the  vegetable  substances  are  car- 
ried beyond,  and  spread  over  the  face  of  the  plain.  When  the 
river  retires  within  its  banks,  its  waters  percolate  through  the 
adjacent  sand  into  a  sort  of  reservoir  formed  by  the  under- 
lying clay ;  and  the  inhabitants  obtain  this  water  by  sinking 
wells  of  moderate  depth  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  river."* 
This  account  agrees  with  Pococke's  statement,  who  says  that 
"all  over  the  land  of  Egypt,  if  they  dig  down  lower  than  the 
surface  of  the  Nile  (in  its  vicinity),  they  find  water,  though  the 
soil  being  mostly  salt,  the  water  is  brackish. "f 

The  foregoing  quotations  furnish  a  simple  and  rational  ex- 
planation of  a  circumstance  which  would  otherwise  seem  diffi- 
cult of  solution,  in  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  ten  plagues. 
When  the  waters  of  the  Nile  had  been  turned  to  blood,  Pha- 
raoh and  his  people,  it  is  said,  dug  wells  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
river,  and,  obtaining  potable  water,  hardened  their  hearts,  and 
refused  to  hearken  to  the  warnings  of  the  prophet — a  state- 
ment which  fully  agrees  with  the  present  condition  of  things 
in  that  land.;}: 

The  surface  of  Egypt  is  cut  up  by  an  infinite  number  of  canals, 
which  convey  the  water  to  every  field  and  patch  of  cultivated 
ground.  A  great  deal  of  the  legislation  both  of  ancient  and 
modern  Egypt  had  for  its  object  the  prevention  or  the  settle- 
ment of  disputes  about  the  use  of  the  precious  element.  This 
is  found  to  occur  wherever  the  supply  of  water  is  small,  and  the 
heat  of  the  climate  requires  man  to  employ  its  aid  in  cultiva- 
ting the  ground.  It  is  so  even  in  pastoral  countries.  The 
herdsmen  of  Abraham  and  the  servants  of  Abimelech  strove 
together  for  the  well  of  Beer-sheba,§  and  the  patriarch  was 
obliged  to  separate  from  Lot,  his  nephew,  on  account  of  the 
disputes  about  water  which  arose  between  their  respective 
herdsmen,  in  consequence  of  the  great  increase  of  their  cattle.|| 

The  waters  of  the  Nile  are  celebrated  for  their  fertilizing 
power.  In  whatever  spot  they  are  allowed  to  leave  their  pre- 
cious deposit,  there  a  rich  and  vigorous  vegetation  springs  up  at 
once.     The  barren  sand  itself  can  not  resist  the  fructifying  in- 

*  "Modern  Egypt,"  p.  72.  t  Pococke,  i.,  24.  t  Exod.  vii.,  24. 

§  Gen.  xxi.,  25.  ||  Gen.  xiii.,  5-7;  xxvi.,  17-22. 

7 


96  BIBLE    LANDS. 

fluence.  Were  it  not  for  this,  the  channels  which  conduct  it  to 
the  sea  would  soon  be  choked  with  the  movable  sand,  and  the 
now  fertile  and  flourishing  Delta  would  be  changed  to  a  broad 
and  uninhabitable  morass.  Green  branches  set  into  the  banks 
sprout  up,  and  soon  become  strong  and  thrifty  trees,  whose 
roots  mingling  with  plants  and  reeds  of  spontaneous  growth, 
give  them  a  firmness  which  resists  the  wear  of  centuries.  It  is 
only  by  conveying  the  waters  of  the  ISTile  to  the  Suez  Canal 
through  an  ancient  channel,  which  had  for  many  ages  been 
abandoned,  that  this  interoceanic  means  of  communication  will 
be  enabled  to  resist  the  encroaching  sand  of  the  desert 

The  Egyptian  husbandman  sows  his  seed,  according  to  its 
nature,  at  various  stages  of  the  inundation.  Rice,  for  instance, 
is  thrown  upon  the  water  when  it  has  become  confined  within 
the  limits  of  the  little  square  beds  into  which  the  soil  is  di- 
vided for  the  purpose.  These  beds  are  separated  by  narrow 
causeways,  or  paths  of  raised  earth,  upon  which  the  laborer 
treads,  dry-shod,  as  he  passes  from  bed  to  bed  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  his  task.  It  is  probably  to  this  or  a  similar  process 
that  Solomon  has  reference  when  he  says,  "  Cast  thy  bread 
upon  the  waters;  for  thou  shalt  find  it  after  many  days.* 
"Waters,"  in  the  plural,  sometimes  indicates  a  division  of  wa- 
ter— that  is,  numerous  rivulets  or  pools  of  water.  These  re- 
marks are  applicable  not  to  Egypt  alone,  for  the  same  process 
may  be  observed  in  all  parts  of  Western  Asia  as  far  eastward 
as  Persia,  wherever  cultivation  is  carried  on  by  irrigation, 
and  the  land  is  divided  into  small  beds. 

The  wealthy  and  influential  in  Egypt,  both  anciently  and  in 
our  own  day,  have  availed  themselves  of  their  position  to  open 
the  sluices  in  the  river  or  in  the  larger  canals,  in  order  to  water 
their  own  lands,  to  the  great  detriment  of  their  poorer  neigh- 
bors. This  abuse  was  carried  so  far,  that  the  Emperor  Arca- 
dius,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  forbade  it,  under 
penalty  of  death  or  banishment  to  the  oases  of  the  desert.  A 
similar  practice  is  still  common  in  all  parts  of  Western  Asia: 
the  pashas  of  Constantinople  bribe  the  keepers  of  the  Bends, 
or  public  reservoirs  of  the  capital,  and  thus  obtain  a  large  sup- 
I)ly  for  their  flower-gardens  and  the  fountains  that  play  in  their 


Eedes 


GARDENING   AND   CULTIVATION   BY   lERIGATION. 


97 


courts ;  while  the  poor  are  crowding  at  the  public  fountains, 
fiercely  disputing  possession  of  the  slowly -trickling  stream 
which  is  all  that  is  left  for  the  thirsty  multitude.* 

But  the  process  of  watering  can  not,  in  such  a  climate  as 
that  of  Egypt,  be  confined  to  the  yearly  inundation  of  the 
Nile.  Many  plants  require  frequent  irrigation  during  their 
growth. 

The  ancients  are  represented  in  their  monuments  as  water- 
ing their  gardens  from  adjoining  tanks,  by  means  of  pails  or 
pots  suspended  from  the  extremities  of  a  yoke  borne  across 
the  shoulders,  or  with  pails  simply  held  in  the  hand.  This 
work  is  done  at  the  present  day  by  the  lowest  class  of  menials 
or  servants,  both  in  Egypt  and  in  all  the  East,  and  Moses 
doubtless  referred  to  this  as  a  sign  of  the  degradation  to 
which  the  Hebrews  had  been  reduced  in  the  land  of  bondage.f 

The  usual  mode,  however,  of  watering,  out  of  the  season  of 
the  inundation,  is  by  means  of  the  shadoofs  well  described  in 


the  following  passage  from  Lane's  excellent  work  on  the 
Modern  Egyptians:  "The  shadoof  consists  of  two  posts  or 
pillars  of  wood,  or  of  mud  and  canes  or  rushes,  about  five  feet 
in  height  and  less  than  three  apart,  with  a  horizontal  piece 
of  wood  extending  from  top  to  top,  to  which  is  suspended  a 


*  Prov.  ix.,  17. 


t  Lev.  xxvi.,  13. 


98  BIBLE    LANDS. 

slender  lever  formed  of  a  branch  of  a  tree,  having  at  one  end 
a  weight  chiefly  composed  of  mud,  and  at  the  other,  suspended 
from  two  long  palm-sticks,  a  vessel  in  the  form  of  a  bowl  made 
of  basket-work  or  a  hoop,  and  a  piece  of  woolen  stuff  or  leath- 
er. With  this  vessel  the  water  is  thrown  up  to  the  height  of 
about  eight  feet  into  a  trough  hollowed  out  for  its  reception."* 
This  mode  of  raising  the  water  of  the  river  for  the  purpose 
of  irrigation  was  practiced  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  as  by  the 
moderns;  and,  in  order  to  add  another  illustration  of  the  pres- 
ervation of  ancient  customs  in  the  East,  we  give  the  reader 
pictures  both  of  a  modern  and  of  an  ancient  shadoof,  as  it 
stands  on  the  carved  granite  of  the  Pharaohs. 


Ancient  Shadoof. 


We  have  dwelt  at  length  upon  the  system  of  irrigation 
practiced  in  Egypt,  because  it  is  now,  as  it  has  ever  been,  tlu- 
all-engrossing  characteristic  of  that  peculiar  land. 

Mesopotamia  was  also  a  country  full  of  rivers  and  canals, 
and  as  celebrated  in  ancient  times  for  its  fertility  as  the  valley 
of  Egypt;  but  it  is  so  no  longer,  and  the  causes  which  have 
wrought  so  great  a  change  are  worthy  of  a  passing  notice. 

Mesopotamia  consists  of  a  great  plain,  which  stretches  from 
the  Koordish  Mountains  on  the  north,  and  the  Taurus  on  the 
west,  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  is  watered  by  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris;   the  first  of  which,  rising  in   the  mountains 


*  Lnne,  "Modern  Egyptians,"  vol.  ii. 


GARDENING   AND   CULTIVATION   BY   IKRIGATION.  99 

of  Ararat,*  flows  westward,  then  southward  through  Mount 
Taurus,  and  finally  emerging  into  the  plain,  separates  it  from 
the  Arabian  desert  as  it  courses  south-easterly  to  the  sea.  The 
Tigris  has  its  source  near  the  same  spot,  but  keeps  closer  to 
the  Koordish  Mountains,  whence  it  receives  some  important 
tributaries,  and  gradually  approaching  the  Euphrates,  unites 
with  it,  forming  a  single  channel  which  empties  into  the  Per- 
sian Gulf 

These  rivers  are  swollen  every  spring  by  the  melting  snows. 
Their  waters  contain  no  fertilizing  power,  like  the  Nile,  which 
is  charged  with  vegetable  matter;  but  the  land  they  irrigate, 
instead  of  being  sand,  like  Egypt,  is  composed  of  the  richest 
alluvial  loam.  The  natural  tendency  of  these  rivers  has  been 
to  overflow  their  banks  in  the  spring,  which,  though  productive 
of  immediate  fertility,  has  a  tendency  in  the  course  of  time  to 
injure  the  land;  hence  the  ancients,  by  an  extensive  system 
of  canals  and  lakes,  labored  to  prevent  the  inundation,  and  col- 
lected the  surplus  watere  into  reservoirs,  whence  they  could  be 
drawn  out  for  the  gradual  irrigation  of  the  fields  and  gardens. 

The  Euphrates,  whose  spring  "swellings"  greatly  surpass 
those  of  the  Tigris,  has  also  a  higher  bed,  and  the  ancients  had 
cut  a  broad  canal — now  called  "  Nahr  Melka"  (the  Royal  Ca- 
nal), with  solid  banks  built  of  burned  bricks,  which  eased  the 
river  of  its  excessive  waters  by  conveying  them  to  the  Tigris. 
On  the  west  side  of  the  Euphrates  an  immense  lake  was  dug — 
now  known  as  the  Sea  of  Kerbela — whose  shores  were  also 
strengthened  by  embankments  of  bricks.  This  lake  was  con- 
nected with  the  river  by  a  wide  canal,  and  similarly,  with  an- 
other artificial  lake  of  still  greater  extent,  which  communicated 
with  the  Persian  Gulf.  These  two  lakes  received  the  water 
of  the  inundation  and  distributed  it  among  the  canals  of  the 
neighboring  region.  Moreover,  both  rivers  were  dammed  in 
many  places,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  off  the  waters  into  the 
adjoining  lands — a  sluice  being  left  in  the  middle  of  the  dam 
for  the  passage  of  boats  down  the  stream.  Many  of  these  mass- 
ive walls  may  yet  be  seen,  as  well  as  the  remains  of  number- 
less canals,  some  of  which  are  used  at  the  present  day.f     This 

*  Morier,  i.,  306. 

t  Psa.  cxxxvii.,  1.  In  Jer.  li.,  36,  the  word  traiislntcd  "  sea"  evidently  refers 
to  canals :  see  also  Jer.  1. .  38. 


100  BIBLE   LANDS. 

complete  system  of  irrigation  accounts  for  the  extraordinary 
fertility  of  Mesopotamia,  and  particularly  of  Chaldea ;  for  the 
ancient  Greek  writers  are  agreed  in  representing  it  as  unsur- 
passed in  any  part  of  the  globe.  According  to  Herodotus, 
"there  were  two  crops  of  wheat  every  year,  yielding  two  hun- 
dred and  even  three  hundred  fold,  the  ears  of  wheat  and  barley 
often  attaining  the  length  of  four  digits,  or  three  and  a  half 
inches."*  But  this  remarkable  land,  possessing  in  itself  such 
immense  sources  of  wealth,  was  ill  adapted  for  defense  against 
an  invading  foe.  As  long  as  it  was  superior  in  civilization  to  its 
neighbors,  and  could  contend  with  horses,  chariots,  and  engines 
of  war  against  rude  barbarians,  it  formed  one  of  the  greatest 
empires  the  world  ever  saw.  But  it  was  reduced,  and  gradu- 
ally devastated  by  the  successive  incursions  of  rapacious  ene- 
mies. A  careful  observer  of  its  history  and  present  condition 
can  clearly  trace  its  ruin  to  the  filling  up  of  the  canals  and  the 
destruction  of  the  means  of  irrigation,  by  which  all  the  lower 
part  of  the  country  has  been  changed  into  a  vast  swamp,  and 
the  annual  inundations  have  gradually  laid  a  covering  of  sand 
upon  a  soil  naturally  most  productive.f 

Though  the  rivers  of  Western  Asia  are  liable  to  be  greatly 
swollen  by  heavy  rains  and  the  melting  of  the  snows  upon  the 
mountains,  yet  their  usually  high  banks  prevent  extensive  in- 
undations; such  floods  as  do  occasionally  occur  produce  in- 
jury instead  of  benefit  to  the  surrounding  regions.  Various 
contrivances,  however,  are  employed  in  order  to  apply  their 
waters  to  the  purposes  of  agriculture.  Canals  are  sometimes 
cut  in  the  soil,  and  small  streams  are  turned  off  bodily  in  the 
desired  direction.  At  Antioch,  on  the  Orontes,  at  Hamath, 
higher  up  the  same  river,  and  in  places  in  Asia  Minor  similarly 
situated,  upon  the  banks  of  streams  of  considerable  volume  and 
current,  the  neighboring  gardens  are  watered  in  the  following 
manner:  A  large  wheel  some  fifteen  feet  in  diameter  is  set  up- 
right in  such  a  way  that  the  lower  portion  dips  into  the  flow- 
ing stream.  The  extremities  of  the  axle-tree  are  set  on  the 
one  side  in  the  solid  bank  of  the  river,  which  is  strengthened 
with  masonry,  and  on  the  other  side  in  a  frame  of  strong 
beams  firmly  planted  in  the  river-bed,  or  in  a  stone-wall  built 

*  Clio,  19.S.  t  Isn.  xiv  ,  23. 


GARDENING  AND   CULTIVATION   BY   IKKIGATIOJt  lOJ. 


Pli  uu  l>,l\i.i  wheel 

parallel  to  the  river-bank.  Pieces  of  board  are  fastened  along 
the  edge  of  the  wheel,  which  act  like  paddles  when  struck  by 
the  current,  causing  the  whole  machine  to  revolve.  Wooden 
buckets  are  fastened  to  the  circumference,  and  these  alternate- 
ly dip  into  the  water,  rise  to  the  top,  and  pour  their  contents 
into  a  trough,  whence  the  water  flows  to  the  gardens.  A  low 
dam,  built  diagonally  across  the  river,  turns  the  entire  stream 
upon  "the  wheel"  when  the  water  is  low;  while  the  swollen 


102 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


I 


Stream  sweeps  over  the  dam  without  injuring  the  wheel.  This 
mode  of  conveying  water  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  level  was 
also  practiced  bj  the  ancients ;  for  it  is  spoken  of  as  "  the  ma- 
chine "  by  which  the  water  of  the  Euphrates  was  raised  to  the 
summit  of  the  "  hanging  gardens  "  of  Babylon,  a  height  of  three 
hundred  and  fifty  feet.* 

When  a  perennial  spring  exists  at  the  head  of  a  valley,  it 
is  carried  along  its  sloping  side  by  means  of  a  canal,  and  is 
thence  drawn  off  into  the  gardens  and  orchards  below.  The 
remains  of  ancient  works  of  this  nature  are  numerous  through- 
out the  land,  and  indicate  that  massive  aqueducts  were  often 
constructed  for  the  purpose. 

The  privilege  of  using  this  water  is  paid  for  according  to 
the  quantity,  which  is  measured  by  the  size  of  the  pipes  and 
the  number  of  hours  daily  during  which  it  is  allowed  to  run. 
This  payment  is  made  to  the  owner  of  the  spring,  who  enjoys 
thence  an  important  income.f  The  chief  current,  thus  con- 
ducted through  a  garden,  is  made  to  flow  along  rows  of  such 
fruit-trees  as  most  need  its  moisture,  as  the  pomegranate,  apri- 
cot, quince,  orange,  lemon,  and  mulberry,  which  are  thus  se- 
cured against  the  possibility  of  drought.:}:  The  ground  is 
leveled  and  laid  out  in  beds,  each  of  which  is  bordered  by  a 
rim  of  soil  wide  enough  for  the  gardener  to  walk  upon.  As 
each  bed  in  turn  is  watered,  a  little  heap  of  mud  closes  up  the 
opening  previously  made,  and  the  current  runs  on  to  the  next 
bed.     The  instrument  employed  in  doing  this  has  the  form  of 


1.  Prnning-saw  (Lev.  xxv.,  3) ;  2.  Pocket-knife  (John  xv.,  2) ;  3.  Hoe  (Lnke  xiii.,  8) ; 
4.  Mattock. 

a  hoe,  but  the  handle  is  only  two  feet  long,  while  the  iron  por- 
tion of  it  is  much  larger  than  that  of  our  hoe,  and  is  in  shape 


Diod.  Sic.  lib.  2. 


+  Judges  i..  15. 


Psa.  i.,  3;  Jer.  xvii.,  8. 


GARDENING   AND   CULTIVATION   BY   IRRIGATION.         103 

somewhat  concave.  It  takes  up  at  once  the  requisite  amount 
of  mud,  which  is  laid  across  the  opening,  and  pressed  by  the 
bare  foot  of  the  gardener,  so  as  completely  to  arrest  the  farther 
ingress  of  the  water;  much  of  the  watering,  however,  is  done 
simply  with  the  feet,  and  this  is  particularly  the  case  in  Egypt. 
The  process  is  alluded  to  in  Deut.  xi.,  10,  which  indicates  that 
gardening  was  a  common  employment  of  the  Israelites  while 
in  Egypt,  where  nothing  grew  without  irrigation ;  whereas 
Palestine,  whither  they  were  going,  was  watered  by  the  rains 
and  dews  of  heaven,*  so  that  a  resort  to  irrigation  would  be 
the  exception.  Philo,  however,  describes  a  process  of  watering 
which  existed  in  Egypt  in  his  day,  to  which  some  have  thought 
that  Moses  referred  in  the  passage  just  quoted,  "A  wheel  is 
turned  by  a  man  with  the  motion  of  his  feet,  by  ascending  the 
several  steps  that  are  within  it.  But  as,  while  he  is  thus  con- 
tinually turning,  he  can  not  keep  himself  up,  he  holds  a  stay  in 
his  hands,  and  this  supports  him  ;  so  that  in  this  work  the  hands 
do  the  office  of  the  feet  and  the  feet  that  of  the  hands ;  since 
the  hands,  which  should  act,  are  at  rest,  and  the  feet,  which 
should  be  at  rest,  are  in  action,  and  give  motion  to  the  wheel." 
In  modern  times,  Niebuhr  saw  a  similar  machine  in  Cairo, 
which  he  terms  sakieh  te-dur  hir-regel  (a  watering-machine  that 
turns  by  the  foot).  The  distribution  of  the  water  among  the 
beds  is  doubtless  referred  to  in  Prov.  xxi.,  1. 

But  it  is  more  generally  the  case  that  water  can  be  obtained 
neither  from  a  spring  nor  from  a  river,  but  only  from  a  well, 
and  the  ingenuity  of  the  inhabitants  has  contrived  to  meet  this 
difficulty  by  a  machine  similar  in  principle  to  the  river-wheel, 
already  described.  The  mouth  of  the  well  is  made  wide 
enough  to  introduce  a  wheel  some  eight  or  nine  feet  in  diam- 
eter. To  this  wheel  are  suspended  two  long  ropes  with  wood- 
en buckets,  or  earthen  jars,  fastened  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
carried  up  and  down  as  the  wheel  revolves,  each  bucket  in 
turn  descending  into  the  water,  filling  up,  and  being  raised  to 
the  top  of  the  wheel,  where  it  is  turned  over,  and  discharges  its 
contents  into  a  wooden  trough,  and  thence  into  the  garden. 
This  wheel  revolves  by  means  of  a  smaller  horizontal  wheel 
set  in  motion  by  a  mule  or  an  ass  harnessed  to  a  pole,  which 

*Deut.  xi.,  11. 


104 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Sakkieh,  or  Well-wheel. 

walks  blindfold  round  and  round  the  well,  to  the  incessant, 
monotonous  music  of  the  ungreased  machine.  This  mode  of 
garden  irrigation  is  very  extensively  used  in  Western  Asia : 
we  have  seen  it  in  a  few  places  near  the  sea-shore,  with  the 
substitution  of  a  windmill  for  the  rotating  mule. 

The  soil  in  the  fields  is  rarely  manured,  as  already  shown, 
but  means  are  used  to  enrich  the  soil  wherever  irrigation  can 
be  employed.*  For  this  purpose  the  manure  of  the  horse, 
the  ass,  the  sheep,  and  the  goat  is  exclusively  employed ;  while 
that  of  the  ox  and  the  camel  is  dried  in  the  sun,  and  used  as 
fuel.f  By  these  means  a  garden  is  almost  constantly  in  a  pro- 
ductive state,  a  succession  of  crops  being  obtained  from  the 
same  spot  in  the  entire  course  of  the  year. 

The  vegetables  more  commonly  grown  in  these  lands  are 
beans,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties,  eaten  in  the  pod  and 
also  dried.:}:  The  variety  of  peas  cultivated  is  of  large  size, 
but  used  for  culinary  purposes  only  when  dry.  Beets,  turnips, 
carrots,  and  radishes  are  of  a  fine  quality,  and  produced  in 
abundance.  The  okra  is  extensively  cultivated ;  the  black 
egg-plant  and  the  tomato  are  fiivoritcs,  and  attain  a  large  size. 
Squashes  and  gourds  abound.  One  variety  of  the  latter  is 
made  into  bottles  and  dippers.     The  gourd  is  cut  near  the 


Luke  xiii.,  8. 


t  Ezek.  iv.,  12-11 


t  2  Sam.  xvii.,  28;  Ezek.  iv.,  9. 


GARDENING  AND   CULTIVATION   BY   IRRIGATION.         105 

stem  and  dried,  and  the  seeds  being  shaken  out,  it  becomes  a 
convenient  bottle  to  keep  articles  which  it  is  desirable  to  pre- 
serve from  the  damp,  such  as  pepper,  salt,  etc.  The  gourd 
flask  of  the  hunter  keeps  his  powder  most  eifectuallj  dry,  and 
is  often  tastefully  carved,  A  rude  guitar  is  also  made  of  a 
large-sized  gourd. 

Another  species  of  gourd  grows  to  a  length  of  three  or  four 
feet,  and  is  two  inches  thick.  It  is  made  into  a  very  agreeable 
preserve,  cooked  in  honey  or  grape-juice  boiled  down.  The 
gourd  is  a  climbing  vine  of  rapid  growth,  always  trained  to  run 
up  trees,  trellis,  and  temporary  booths,  the  size  of  its  leaves  af-' 
fording  a  pleasant  shade.  The  fruit,  though  large,  is  not  heavy, 
and  hangs  on  the  vines,  swinging  and  drying  in  the  wind.  The 
gourd-vine,  however,  is  very  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  grubs 
or  worms,  which  attack  the  root,  in  which  case  it  withers  and 
dries  up  immediately,  owing  to  its  light  and  pulpy  texture.* 
The  graceful  form  of  the  gourd,  its  golden  blossoms,  and  the 
beautiful  outline  of  its  leaves,  doubtless  led  to  its  adoption 
in  Palestine  as  an  architectural  ornament,  while  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  took  the  grape-vine  for  their  model,  whose  bac- 
chanalian associations  must  have  been  repulsive  to  the  pious 
Hebrews.  The  gourd-vine  entered  into  the  architectural  de- 
tails of  Solomon's  Temple:  "  And  the  cedar  of  the  house  with- 
in was  carved  with  knops"  (in  the  margin  gourds)  "and  open 
flowers"  of  the  gourd-vine.f 

Lettuce,  parsley,  mint,  and  other  herbs,  are  in  constant  use.:}: 
The  mustard-seed  mentioned  in  Mark  iv.,  31,  32,  grows  on  the 
edges  of  the  fields  in  the  Jordan  valley,  and  often  attains  the 
height  of  a  tall  man.  Our  Lord's  meaning  was  not  that  mus- 
tard was  the  smallest  seed  ever  sown  in  a  garden  in  his  day. 
"  Small  as  a  grain  of  mustard  "  was  doubtless  a  proverbial 
expression  among  the  Jews,  The  Oriental  tailor  in  our  day 
says  to  his  apprentice,  "  Make  your  stitches  as  small  as  sesame 
seeds,"  i.  e.,  as  small  as  possible. 

Lentils  are  produced  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  being 
a  very  nourishing  article  of  food,  they  are  favorites  with  the 

*  Jonah  iv.,  5-7.  The  words  respecting  the  gourd,  Jonah  iv.,  10,  "  which  came 
up  in  a  night,"  literally  "which  was  the  son  of  the  night,"  is  a  poetical  antithesis 
to  "perished  in  a  night."     No  gourd  grows  up  in  a  single  night. 

t  1  Kings  vi.,  18.  J  Matt,  xxiii.,  23. 


106  BIBLE   LANDS. 

hard-working  man.  Thej  are  cooked  whole  in  the  form  of 
soup,*  and  are  called  in  Arabic  ades — the  adesh  which  Esau 
bought  with  his  birthright. 

Cabbages  are  extensively  cultivated,  and  cooked  in  a  variety 
of  ways.  No  garden  is  complete  without  its  patch  of  onions 
and  garlic,  considered  by  an  Oriental  as  among  the  necessaries 
of  life.  These  are  eaten  crude,  as  a  relish,  when  green,  just 
as  Europeans  use  celery  and  radishes.  When  dry,  they  enter 
into  almost  every  dish.  The  dried  and  pressed  beef,  called 
pasiurma,  which  forms  part  of  the  winter  provision  of  most 
families,  is  strongly  flavored  with  them.  They  are  raised  in 
abundance  by  the  modern  Egyptians.  Judging,  from  the 
strong  predilection  of  Orientals  for  these  vegetables,  we  can 
not  wonder  that  the  Israelites  longed  for  "the  leeks  and  the 
onions  and  the  garlic"  of  Egypt.  It  is  said  that  an  eminent 
divine  of  one  of  our  chief  cities  "  used  annually  to  retire  to  a 
secluded  lake  in  the  State  of  Maine  in  order  to  rusticate  and 
eat  onions^  He  must  have  thoroughly  sympathized  with  the 
poor  Israelites  in  their  forty  years'  privation  of  their  favorite 
vegetable  !f 

Before  describing  the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  we  should 
mention  that  nearly  every  garden  has  a  vine  growing  in  it, 
which  is  trained  upon  some  wood-work  or  frame  often  set 
against  the  wall  of  a  house ;  or  it  shades  some  smooth,  grassy 
spot.  Here,  frequently,  is  the  tank  or  basin  from  which  the 
garden  is  watered,  adorned,  it  may  be,  with  a  jetting  fountain. 
This  cool  shade  is  a  favorite  resort  for  the  family  and  friends, 
and  here  they  often  eat  their  meals.  The  vine  is  also  some- 
times trained  so  as  to  shade  the  flat -terraced  roofs  of  the 
houses,  where  the  heat  compels  many  of  the  inhabitants  to 
sleep  at  night. 

We  often  meet  in  the  Bible  with  the  expression  "dwelling 
under  one's  own  vine  and  fig-tree,":};  as  a  figure  of  prosperity, 
security,  and  domestic  felicity  ;  and  it  will  be  seen  by  the  fore- 
going description,  with  that  given  farther  on  of  the  fig-tree, 
that  an  Oriental  can  not  be  said  to  enjoy  the  indispensable 
sources  of  pleasure  and  comfort  when  he  possesses  neither 
vine  nor  fig-tree,  to  whose  grateful  shade  he  may  resort. 

♦  In  Fieiub  "])ot!igc"  (Gen.  xxv.,  ;y).         t  Numb,  xi.,  5.         %  Isa.  xxxvi.,  16. 


GARDENING   AND   CULTIVATION   BY   IRRIGATION. 


107 


Melons  and  cucumbers  are  generally  raised  in  fields  or 
patches  of  ground  of  a  sandy  nature,  watered  by  the  spring 
flood  of  an  adjacent  stream,  or  otherwise  irrigated.  They  are 
exceedingly  refreshing  in  the  heats  of  Palestine  and  Egypt.* 
The  water-melons  of  Jaffa  are  celebrated  for  their  lusciousness. 
Cucumbers  throughout  the  land  are  of  a  superior  kind,  and 
are  often  eaten  raw  and  unpeeled,  even  by  little  children. 
Melon-patches  are  enriched  with  a  sort  of  guano  obtained  from 
the  dove-cotes;  and  for  this  purpose  many  villages  possess  a 
dove  or  pigeon  house,  often  constructed  of  better  materials 
than  the  peasants'  own  homes.  It  is  built  of  stone  of  an  ob- 
long shape,  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in  length,  and  twenty  or  thir- 
ty in  height,  without  a  roof;  the  walls  are  furnished  on  the 
inside  with  shelves  of 
the  same  material.  A 
small  door  on  one  sidt 
is  kept  locked,  and  tht 
key  is  in  the  posses 
sion  of  the  sheik  of  the 
village.  The  pigeons 
feed  in  tbe  surround 
ing  fields,  and  are  pio 
tected  by  the  whole 
community. 

In  Persia  these  pig 
eon -houses  are  large 
round  towers,  rather  broader  at  the  base  than  at  the  top,  and 
crowned  by  conical  spiracles  through  which  the  pigeons  de- 
scend. The  interior  resembles  a  honey-comb,  pierced  with  a 
thousand  holes,  each  of  which  forms  a  snug  retreat  for  a  nest ; 
they  are  often  painted  and  ornamented  externally.f  The  vast 
clouds  of  birds  often  seen  flying  in  the  air  and  alighting  upon 
the  pigeon-house  are  aptly  described  in  Isa.  Ix.,  8.1;.  The  value 
of  the  manure  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  the  yearly  in- 
come of  a  single  pigeon-house  often  amounts  to  three  hundred 
dollars.  In  the  account  of  the  siege  of  Samaria  the  distress 
of  the  inhabitants  is  aptly  described,  not  only  by  the  high  price 


Fit;eoD-houses.    (Isa.  Ix.,  s.) 


*  Numb,  xi.,  5,  6. 

t  The  word  "windows  "  here  means  the  nests  or 
interior  is  divided. 


t  Morier,  ii.,  140. 
pigeon-holes  "  into  which  tlie 


I 


108  BIBLE   LANDS. 

paid  for  food,  but  also  by  the  expression  "  the  fourth  part  of 
a  cab  (or  about  a  pint)  of  dove's  dung  was  sold  for  five  pieces 
of  silver;"*  bj  which  we  understand  that  manure  for  the  gar- 
dens, within  the  city  walls  w^hich  furnished  most  of  the  availa- 
ble food,  was  difficult  to  obtain  on  account  of  the  siege. 

The  common  pigeon  of  Palestine  abounds  in  Egypt,  Persia, 
and  Asia  Minor.  His  color  is  blue,  fi\ding  into  white  below. 
He  builds  his  nest  in  the  rocks,  ruins,  old  cisterns,  and  pigeon- 

_^_  houses  of  the  villages.     He 

is  quite  tame,  for  the  natives 
never  kill  him.  He  is  prob- 
ably the  original  of  the  car- 
rier-pigeons, tumblers,  crested 
pigeons,  and  others,  of  which 
there  is  a  great  variety  in 
Turkey.  Carrier-pigeons  are 
now  found  at  Tarsoos;  but 
no  use  has  been  made  of  their 

Common  Pigeou  of  Palestine.    (Isa.  sxxviii.,    peculiar     instinct     sinCC     the 

^^'^  days  of  the  Crusaders. 

When  the  melons  begin  to  ripen,  the  owners  build  a  "lodge," 
"booth,"  or  "watch-tower,"  generally  consisting  of  four  poles 
set  upright  in  the  ground,  supporting  a  platform  sufficiently 
raised  to  escape  the  damp  and  secure  an  elevated  position  to 
the  watchman,  with  a  roof  and  walls  of  green  branches  to  pro- 
tect him  from  the  burning  sun  and  falling  dew.  Here  sits  the 
watchman  day  and  night,  with  his  cruse  of  water  at  his  side, 
on  the  alert  for  thieves  that  might  steal  the  fruit,  and  especial- 
ly for  the  foxes,  jackals,  and  hares,  whose  more  stealthy  inroads 
are  difficult  to  guard  against.  After  the  crop  has  been  gath- 
ered in,  and  the  "  lodge  "  left  to  weather  the  rains  and  storms 
of  winter,  it  presents  a  peculiarly  forsaken  and  desolate  aspect. 
No  simile  could  be  more  apt  and  striking  to  the  Oriental  mind 
than  that  of  the  prophet  in  Isa.  i.,  8. 

The  sugar-cane  originated  and  still  grows  in  Syria  and 
Egypt,  whence  it  is  conveyed  to  all  parts  of  Western  Asia,  and 
is  esteemed  a  delicacy.f  Two  passages  in  the  Old  Testament 
appear  to  allude  to  it  under  the  name  of  "  sweet  cane.":j:    Some 

*  2  Kings  vi.,  25.       t  Michaud,  "  Croisades,"  211.       %  Isa.  xliii.,  24 ;  Jer.  vi.,  20. 


GARDENING   AND   CULTIVATION   BY   IRRIGATION. 


109 


Watchman's  Booth.    (Job  xxvii.,  18.) 


have  thought  that  these  texts  contain  a  reference  to  a  sweet- 
scented  reed  found  in  one  of  the  valleys  of  Mount  Lebanon ;  but 
the  expression  "  bought  with  money  "  seems  to  imply  that  it 
was  an  article  of  merchandise,  like  the  sugar-cane  at  present ; 
while  the  words  "from  a  far  country,"  immediately  following 
the  mention  of  Ethiopia,  favor  the  idea  of  its  coming  from  the 
Upper  Nile. 


110  BIBLE   LANDS. 


CHAPTER  V. 

VINEYARDS,  AND  THE  USES  OF  TEE  ORAPE  AND  THE  OLIVE. 

The  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  of  the  olive-tree  is  so  fre- 
quently alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures  that  we  propose  to  devote 
particular  attention  to  the  subject. 

The  variety  of  grapes  is  very  great,  and  each  kind  is  best 
adapted  to  a  special  use.  The. fruit  of  the  climbing  vines  ma- 
tures later  than  any  other ;  it  is  also  the  largest,  and  the  skin 
being  thicker,  it  keeps  the  longest,  and  may  be  obtained  in 
very  good  condition  as  late  as  the  month  of  March.  The 
largest  clusters  are  selected  for  keeping,  and  hung  with  strings 
from  the  ceiling  of  a  well-ventilated  room,  which  is  sheltered 
from  the  winter's  cold. 

Of  the  fruit  of  the  vines,  which  are  kept  low,  the  white  varie- 
ties are  generally  preferred,  for  eating  fresh,  on  account  of  their 
superior  flavor  and  the  delicacy  of  their  skins.  Orientals  al- 
ways eat  the  grape  whole,  as  experience  has  taught  them  that 
the  skins  and  the  seeds  contain  an  astringent  quality  which  ren- 
ders this  fruit  at  once  the  most  wholesome  and  harmless  of  any. 
The  raisins  of  the  white  grape  are  also  superior  in  delicacy  to 
the  other  varieties.  The  finest  raisins  are  made  from  a  small 
grape  containing  no  seed.  It  is  called  Sultanine,  or  the  small 
Sultana  grape,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  larger  variety — not 
seedless — bearing  the  same  name,  which  is  also  dried  and  its 
raisins  highly  esteemed.  But  the  smallest  raisin  known  is 
made  from  a  diminutive  black  grape,  grown  exclusively  upon 
the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  It  is  known  in  the  West  by  the  name  of 
currants,  or  "Zante  currants,"  being  exported  from  the  port  of 
Zante.  The  Greeks  call  them  coranti,  which  the  French  have 
translated  into  raisins  de  Corinthe;  and  being  first  introduced 
into  England  from  France,  the  French  name  was  abbreviated 
into  currants.  Our  common  garden  currants*  doubtless  derive 
their  name  from  their  resemblance  in  size. 


Called  in  the  East  Fiank  grapet. 


VINEYARDS. — THE   GRAPE   AND  THE   OLIVE.  Ill 

The  process  of  curing  grapes,  or  of  converting  them  into 
raisins,  is  as  follows :  long  strips  of  coarse  cloth  or  matting  are 
spread  upon  the  smooth  ground — the  poor  use  the  uncovered 
earth  or  rock — and  the  clusters,  being  cut  from  the  vines,  are 
dipped  in  very  strong  lye,  and  laid  upon  the  cloth  to  dry  in  the 
hot  sun,  which  requires  several  days.  The  raisins  are  then 
carefully  separated  from  the  dry  stems,  and  packed  in  bags, 
read}'-  for  use.  They  are,  however,  in  some  parts  of  the  coun- 
try dried  in  clusters.  This  fruit  is  not  simply  an  article  of 
luxury ;  it  forms  an  important  part  of  the  diet  of  the  people, 
and  is  regularly  laid  up  with  other  provisions  of  the  house- 
hold. A  man  often  makes  a  meal  simply  of  bread  and  raisins. 
Among  the  Hebrews  it  seems  not  to  have  been  the  custom  to 
strip  the  raisins  from  the  stems,  but  to  dry  them  in  the  bunch, 
as  is  now  done  in  the  district  of  Malaga,  in  Spain.* 

We  have  seen  as  many  as  thirty-five  varieties  of  grapes 
raised  in  a  single  vineyard,  but  this  is  rare :  three  or  four 
kinds  is  the  ordinary  limit. 

The  general  practice,  however,  is  to  plant  but  one  species  of 
vine  in  a  vineyard.  If  it  be  that  kind  whose  grapes  are  to  be 
eaten  fresh,  they  are  gathered  in  baskets  as  fast  as  the}'-  ripen, 
and  loads  of  them  are  sent  to  market.f  If  it  be  a  vineyard 
whose  fruit  is  annually  made  into  raisins,  the  whole  crop  is 
gathered  and  dried  at  once.  When,  however,  the  article  to 
be  produced  is  wine,  with  a  certain  quantity  of  sirup,  the 
grapes  are  brought  to  the  wine-press  attached  to  the  owner's 
premises,  or  they  are  furnished  by  weight  to  the  wine-makers 
according  to  previous  contract;  the  tax-gatherer  meeting  them 
at  their  entrance  into  the  town,  and  levying  the  accustomed 
tenth  part.:}: 

It  is  more  commonly  the  case,  however,  that  particular  dis- 
tricts grow,  with  success,  some  particular  kind  of  grape,  for 
which  they  become  celebrated.  The  Zante  currants,  grown  on 
the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  have  already  been  mentioned.  The  region 
of  Smyrna  is,  in  like  manner,  celebrated  for  the  "seedless  rai- 
sins "  which  it  exports.  The  promontory  of  Chalcedon,  opposite 
Constantinople,  produces  the  finest  edible  grape  to  be  found  in 


*  1  Sam.  XXV.,  18  ;  xxx.,  12  ;    2  Sam.  xvi.,  1 ;   1  Chron.  xii.,  -tO. 
t  Neh.  xiii.,  15.  t  1  Sam.  viii.,  l.->. 


112  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  East,  called  the  chaoosh  grape.  The  land  of  Judah  is  still 
celebrated  for  the  size  and  excellence  of  its  grapes,  which,  as  a 
general  rule,  succeed  best  in  similar  hilly  districts.  There  was 
situated  the  Yale  of  Eshcol,  whence  the  spies  sent  by  Moses 
procured  the  huge  cluster  of  grapes  mentioned  in  Numb,  xiii., 
23,  24;*  and  it  is  affirmed  that  even  now  clusters  of  grapes 
are  found  in  that  locality  weighing  no  less  than  twelve  pounds; 
bunches  weighing  twenty  pounds  are  often  seen  elsewhere. 
The  cluster  of  Eshcol  was  borne  with  its  branch  upon  a  staff 
between  two  men,  to  prevent  its  being  injured,  and  not  on 
account  of  its  great  weight.  We  ourselves  have  seen  single 
grapes  of  the  size  of  the  largest  damask  plum,  and  have  found 
clusters  measuring  eighteen  inches  in  length.f  We  have  also 
counted  more  than  seven  hundred  grapes  on  a  single  bunch. 

Western  Asia  certainly  ought  to  be  the  most  favorable  cli- 
mate for  the  cultivation  of  this  fruit,  for  it  is  indigenous  to  the 
soil ;  and  the  wild  vines  growing  in  some  parts  of  Armenia 
and  Georgia  are  of  extraordinary  luxuriance  and  size.  Strabo 
speaks  of  wild  vines  in  Armenia  whose  stems  were  so  large 
as  to  require  two  men  to  span  them,  and  some  of  whose  clusters 
measured  two  cubits  in  length  ;:};  and  Gmelin,  in  his  "Travels 
through  Russia  and  Northern  Persia,"  states  that  "  the  wild  vine 
on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea  winds  itself  about  the  loftiest 
forest-trees,  and  its  tendrils,  which  here  have  an  arm's  thick- 
ness, so  spread  and  entangle  themselves  for  and  wide,  that  in 
places  where  it  grows  in  the  most  luxuriant  wildness  it  is 
very  difficult  to  find  a  passage."§ 

The  process  of  planting  a  vineyard  and  guarding  it  with  a 
hedge  or  wall  may  be  described  as  follows :  the  ground  having 
been  selected  and  traced,  a  ditch  is  dug  along  the  outside,  -three 
or  four  feet  in  width  and  two  in  depth,  the  earth  being  piled 
upon  its  inner  edge.  Into  this  pile  stout  posts  are  firmly  set, 
about  four  feet  in  height,  and  branches  are  twisted  and  woven  in 
among  them,  making  a  thick  and  solid  fence  or  hedge.  A  vine- 
yard is  cultivated  for  successive  centuries,  but  the  vines  must 
be  occasionally  changed,  and  at  such  a  time  the  ground  lies  fal- 

*  See  Gen.  xlix.,  11. 

+  In  Armenia  grape-kernels  are  often  seen  an  inch  and  a  half,  and  two  inches 
and  npward,  in  length. — UssiiKU.  L''2!>,  273. 

X  "  Geography,"  bk.  ii.,  ch.  i.,  §  14.  §  "Travels,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  431. 


VINEYARDS. — THE   GRAPE   AND  THE   OLIVE.  113 

low  for  several  years.  The  Hebrews  left  their  vineyards  uii- 
tilled  every  seventh  year,  as  well  as  the  fiftieth  or  Jubilee  year.* 
In  process  of  time  many  wild  plants,  briers,  and  some  few 
shrubs  and  trees  spring  up  and  grow  within  the  shadow  of  the 
hedge,  and,  fed  by  the  moisture  collected  in  the  ditch,  make 
the  inclosure  more  solid  and  capable  of  resisting  incursions 
from  man  or  beast.  Still  the  husbandman  is  obliged,  from 
time  to  time,  to  examine  all  parts  of  the  hedge,  and  close  up 
any  gap  or  breach  made  by  the  foxes,  jackals,  badgers,  hares, 
and  still  more  diminutive  hedgehogs.f  It  is  only  when  the 
vineyard  proves  unproductive,  or  the  quality  of  the  grapes 
hopelessly  bad,  that  the  proprietor  neglects  the  hedge  and  al- 
lows it  to  fall  to  pieces,  so  that  even  the  wild  boar  may  come 
and  join  in  its  destruction.:}:  In  regions  where  trees  and  bush- 
es are  not  abundant  for  making  a  hedge,  as  is  the  case  in  many 
parts  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  uncemented  stone-walls,  or  walls 
built  of  mud-bricks  dried  in  the  sun,  are  used  as  a  substitute. 
In  Isa.  v.,  2,  the  word  fenced  means  lualled.  In  many  parts 
also  a  wall  is  built  of  earth,  in  the  following  manner:  a  box, 
answering  somewhat  the  purpose  of  a  mould,  some  six  feet 
in  length  and  two  or  three  in  height,  without  top  or  bottom, 
is  set  up  on  the  spot  where  the  wall  is  to  be  erected,  and  the 
workmen,  as  they  dig  the  ditch,  throw  the  earth  into  this 
box ;  it  is  there  trodden  by  the  bare  feet  of  their  companions 
until  the  box  is  full,  when  it  is  lifted  off,  leaving  the  earth 
standing  in  a  solid  block,  and  is  set  up  again  at  the  extremity 
of  this  newly  raised  portion  of  the  wall.  The  work  then  pro- 
ceeds as  before  until  the  entire  inclosure  is  completed.  A 
second  row  of  blocks  is  produced  in  the  same  manner:  they 
set  sticks  across  the  top  of  the  wall  already  erected,  so  as  to 
support  the  box  in  this  elevated  position.  When  the  circuit 
has  been  completed  the  second  time,  the  annual  prunings  of 
the  vine  are  laid  across  the  top  of  the  earthen  wall,  and  made 
fast  in  their  places  with  stones  or  mud,  in  order  to  preserve  it 
from  the  action  of  the  rain,  and  to  render  more  difiicult  the  in- 
trusion of  the  lighter  animals.  The  inclosure  being  complete, 
the  ground  is  not  plowed  but  dug,  a  process  which  has  to  be 


*  Lev.  XXV.,  4,  5, 11.  t  Matt,  xxi.,  33. 

t  P.sa.  Lxxx.,  12,  13.     Isa.  v.,  4-6. 


114 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


renewed  3'early  in  the  spring.  The  instrument  used  for  this 
purpose  is  the  same  as  that  employed  in  digging  gardens;  it 
is  a  sort  of  spade  whose  handle  is  six  feet  long,  and  the  blade 
triangular,  with  the  most  prominent  point  downward,  and  sharp 
on  the  two  sides.  A  little  above  the  blade  is  fastened  a  piece 
of  wood  upon  which  the  foot  is  set  in  driving  it  into  the  soil. 
The  long  handle  gives  a  purchase,  which  enables 
the  workman  to  lift  up  a  large  spadeful  of  earth, 
throw  it  forward,  and  break  it  up  with  a  slanting 
stroke  of  his  sharp,  heavy  hoe.  This  tool  is  simi- 
lar to  the  bepalium  of  the  Romans.  It  is  customa- 
ry for  the  men  to  work  standing  together  in  line, 
either  for  the  purpose  of  emulation  or  that  the 
strong  men  may  assist  the  weak.  This  manner 
of  digging  is  more  thorough  than  what  could  be 
performed  by  an  Eastern  plow,  and  does  less  in- 
jury to  the  delicate  roots  of  the  vines.  It  takes 
a  considerable  number  of  workmen  to  dig  over 
an  entire  vineyard,  and  this  constitutes  the  chief 
expense  attending  the  cultivation  of  the  vine. 
During  the  whole  season  when  vineyards  may 
um.  (i8a.v.,6.)  \)q  (jyg^  ^hc  common  workmen  go  very  early  in 
the  morning  to  the  Sook,  or  market-place  of  the  village  or  city, 
where  comestibles  are  sold.  While  "  waiting  to  be  hired,"  they 
take  their  morning  cup  of  coffee  and  eat  a  morsel  of  bread. 
The  owners  of  vineyards  come  to  the  place  and  engage  the 
number  of  laborers  they  need.  These  immediately  go  to  the 
vineyard  ahd  work  there  until  a  little  while  before  the  sun 
sets,  which,  according  to  Oriental  time,  is  twelve  o'clock,  so 
that  "the  eleventh  hour"  means  one  hour  before  sunset.  We 
have  often  seen  men  stand  in  the  market-place  through  the 
entire  day  without  finding  employment,  and  have  repeatedly 
engaged  them  ourselves  at  noon  for  half  a  day's  job,  and  later 
for  one  or  two  hours'  work  in  our  garden.  In  such  a  case  the 
price  has  to  be  particularly  bargained  for,  but  it  is  more  often 
left  to  the  generosity  of  the  employer  to  give  whatever  bak- 
shish he  feels  disposed.* 

When  about  to  plant  a  vineyard,  the  husbandman  selects 


Oriental  Spade  and 
Roman    Bepal 


Matt.  XX.,  l-ir>. 


VINEYARDS. — THE   GRAPE   AND   THE   OLIVE.  115 

and  cuts  the  most  promising  branches  of  one  year's  growth  of 
the  variety  best  suited  to  his  purpose.  These  he  soaks  for  a 
number  of  days  in  spring  water,  until  the  buds  begin  to  burst 
forth,  when  he  plants  them  in  rows  some  eight  feet  apart.  The 
stems  are  generally  not  allowed  to  grow  up  higher  than  two 
feet,  though  in  some  places  they  are  six  feet  high.  The 
branches  are  pruned  every  spring,  being  cut  close  to  the  stem, 
and,  when  not  needed  to  thatch  the  top  of  the  earth-wall,  are 
burned  to  put  them  out  of  the  way,  as  they  are  too  porous 
and  light  to  serve  any  purpose.*  Among  the  poor,  dry  vine- 
branches  are  used  for  heating  the  water  for  washing;  and  in 
the  neighborhood  of  large  towns  they  are  made  into  charcoal, 
which  does  not  give  out  heat  enough  for  cooking  purposes, 
but  is  used  in  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  to  heat  the  tandoor^  a 
warming  apparatus  described  elsewhere. 

Besides  the  general  pruning,  however,  as  soon  as  the  fresh 
branches  have  come  out  upon  the  stems,  and  show  their  young 
blossoms,  the  vine-dresser  goes  from  one  stem  to  another,  cut- 
ting off  the  branches  which  bear  leaves  only,  in  order  to  afford 
more  nourishment  for  those  which  give  promise  of  fruit,  and 
not  sparing  altogether  even  these  last.f 

In  many  instances  vineyards  are  attached  to  the  houses  of  a 
city  or  village,  and  are  greatly  prized  as  being  accessible  and 
enjoyable  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.:}:  They  are,  however,  gen- 
erally situated  at  a  short  distance  from  the  town,  and  each  of 
them  contains  a  "cottage,"  to  which  the  family  resort  in  the 
spring,  at  the  time  of  the  digging  of  the  vineyards,  and  later 
at  the  time  of  vintage,  except  where  it  is  customary  to  remain 
through  the  season  in  these  summer-houses.§  These  vineyards 
are  generally  planted  side  by  side,  a  hedge  or  wall  separating 
one  from  another. 

Besides  the  principal  thoroughfares  which  pass  through  them, 
there  are  narrower  paths  or  lanes  less  frequented,  because  they 
lead  to  fewer  vineyards,  and  many  of  these  are  shaded  by  trees. 
In  the  hilly  country  in  Palestine,  however,  the  paths  among  the 
vineyards  being  beds  of  torrents,  which  carry  the  rain-water 
to  a  lower  level,  have  become  channels  worn  deeper  than  the 


*  John  XV.,  6  ;  Ezek.  xv.,  2-4.  t  John  xv.,  1,  2. 

X  1  Kings  xxi.,  1.  §  Amos  iii.,  15. 


116  BIBLE   LANDS. 

adjoining  ground ;  and  when  the  tops  of  their  boundary  walls 
are  thickly  set  with  the  cactus  or  other  shrubs  and  trees,  a 
shaded  lane  is  produced  which  the  passing  traveler  prefers  to 
the  wider  thoroughfare.  We  have  seen  many  of  these  lanes 
so  narrow  that  two  mounted  travelers  meeting  in  them  could 
not  pass  each  other,  nor  even  turn  round,  and  one  must  needs 
recede  with  his  animal  till  he  finds  some  side  opening.* 

As  may  be  surmised,  such  places  are  favorable  to  deeds  of 
blood  and  rapine,  which  are  apt  to  occur  during  the  summer 
season,  for  which  reason  the  inhabitants  generally  remove  to 
their  vineyards,  and  return  thence  simultaneously  for  the  sake 
of  mutual  protection. f 

The  summer-houses  in  the  vineyards  are  properly  denomi- 
nated "  cottages,"  for  they  are  smaller  than  the  more  permanent 
residences,  or  "  winter- houses,"  and  more  slightly  built  They 
usually  consist  of  a  single  room,  but  sometimes  have  a  small- 
er apartment  above,  with  a  veranda  in  front.  When  the  fami- 
lies remove  thither,  they  carry  only  such  furniture  as  they  con- 
sider absolutely  necessary,  which  is  taken  back  to  town  after 
the  vintage,  the  house  remaining  completely  empty,  the  very 
doors  and  shutters  being  left  open,  or  being  removed  to  avoid 
robbery.  As  there  is  then  in  the  vineyard  nothing  to  attract 
either  man  or  beast,  the  very  gate  is  unfastened,  and  the  acci- 
dental breaches  in  the  wall  or  hedge  are  left  to  be  repaired  in 
the  spring.  It  sometimes  even  happens  that  wild  animals  seek 
a  refuge  in  the  abandoned  house,  so  that  the  forsaken  vine- 
yard, with  its  isolated  "cottage,"  open  through  the  winter  to 
all  comers,  is  an  apt  picture  of  desolation.:}: 

When  a  vineyard  is  large,  however,  and  especially  when  it 
is  situated  in  a  lonely  district,  the  structure  to  be  occupied  by 
the  proprietor  is  often  of  a  more  solid  character.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  towers  of  solid  masonry  were  formerly  erected  in 
such  cases.  We  have  frequently  seen  in  Western  Asia,  and 
on  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  structures  of  a  simi- 
lar character,  which  were  suggestive  to  us  of  the  political  con- 
dition of  former  days.  They  consist  of  a  square  building  of 
solid  masonry,  rising  to  the  height  of  forty  feet,  on  the  top  of 
which  is  a  story  containing  several  apartments,  well  supplied 

*  Numb,  xxii.,  23-27.  t  Judg.  xxi.,  19-23.  J  Isr.  i.,  8. 


VINEYARDS. — THE   GRAPE   AND   THE   OLIVE.  117 

with  windows,  whose  elevated  position  makes  it  the  recipient 
of  every  breeze,  and  an  excellent  post  of  observation.  The 
lower  portion  of  this  building  has  a  small  solid  door,  and  a  few 
narrow  windows  at  a  considerable  height  from  the  ground.  It 
contains,  among  other  things,  a  sta- 
ble and  a  wine-press.  These  build- 
ings are  old,  and  their  style  quite 
out  of  date.*  They  are  called  by 
the  Greeks  lyyrgos,  the  very  word 
used  by  our  Saviour  in  Matt,  xxi., 
33 ;  Mark  xii.,  1.  The  Septuagint 
uses  the  same  term  in  Isa.  v.,  2. 

The  Turks  denominate  them  koo- 

lah,  which  means  a  country  house,  -~^  -,  _^ 

but  is  derived  from  haleh,  a  tower        Pyrghoi?,  koolah,  or  Tower  in  the 

Vineyard.    (Isa.  v.,  2.) 

or  castle.    They  have  another  word 

for  country  or  pleasure  houses,  when  these  are  not  in  an  isolated 
position,  i.  e.,  yali.  The  word  irvfjyoc,  ioiver^  is  also  used  in 
Luke  xiv.,  28,  in  such  a  connection  as  to  indicate  an  expensive 
building  like  the  koolah,  rather  than  a  slight  structure. 

Some  of  the  passages  above  mentioned  speak  also  of  a  wine- 
press dugf  out  of  the  rock,  probably  outside  of  the  town.  We 
are  not  aware  that  such  wine-presses  are  made  at  the  present 
day,  though  they  are  often  constructed  of  masonry ;  but  many 
ancient  ones  are  still  in  use.  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  the 
ancients  hewed  buildings,  temples,  and  sepulchres  out  of  the 
solid  rock,  as  abundant  remains  fully  testify.  In  the  construc- 
tion of  their  wine-presses,  advantage  was  taken  of  a  favorable 
form  of  the  rock,  usually  limestone,  in  order  to  hew  an  oblong 
or  square  excavation  in  the  form  of  a  shallow  tank,  with  a  hole 
in  one  side  near  the  bottom,  through  which  the  grape -juice 
ran  into  a  smaller  basin.  It  was  in  such  a  press,  doubtless,  that 
Gideon  threshed  his  wheat  in  order  to  conceal  it  from  the  ma- 
rauding Midianites.:}: 

The  wine-press  now  used  in  Western  Asia,  however,  is  either 
built  of  masonry  or  of  wood.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  a  box  six 
feet  by  ten,  and  four  feet  in  depth,  and  set  up  several  feet  above 
the  ground.     It  has  a  hole  in  the  centre  of  one  side,  where  a 

*  Thevenot,  Part  I.,  99.  t  Or  hewn,  Hebrew.  t  Jiidg.  vi.,  11. 


118 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Modern  Wiue-pres8.    (Hos.  ix.,  2,) 


large  vessel  or  trough  is  placed  to  receive  the  grape-juice.  This 
box  is  set  in  the  corner  of  the  basement,  and  from  the  ceiling 
above  hang  cords  for  the  support  of  the  men,  while  a  ladder 
resting  against  the  side  of  the  press  enables  them  to  climb  into 
it.     The  ancient  Egyptians  used  the  same  kind  of  wine-press.''^ 


ypliaii  Wiuc-prcss. 


The  only  difference  appears  to  consist  in  this,  that  the  Egyp- 
tians set  up  theirs  out-of-doors,  building  a  slight  roof  over  it  to 
protect  the  grapes  from  the  influence  of  the  sun.     Every  thing 


Wilkinson,  i.,  4G. 


VINEYARDS. — THE   GRAPE   AND   THE   OLIVE.  119 

in  this  picture  reminds  one  of  the  modern  press,  excepting  the 
capitals  of  the  pillars ;  for  through  all  Asia  Minor  the  principal 
timbers  of  wooden  houses  are  laid  upon  large  pebbles,  as  in 
this  sculpture.  The  skull-cap  now  worn  by  the  poor  in  Egypt 
is  also,  as  here,  often  represented  in  the  ancient  monuments. 

Instead  of  a  "cottage"  or  "tower"  in  a  vineyard,  there  is 
.sometimes  a  high  booth  or  rude  structure,  such  as  we  have  de- 
scribed in  speaking  of  the  melon-fields,  page  109.*  From  this, 
as  from  the  top  of  the  tower,  or  from  the  flat  roof  of  the  cottage, 
the  proprietor  is  obliged  to  watch  over  his  fruit  as  soon  as  it 
begins  to  ripen,  in  order  to  preserve  it  from  the  inroads  of  the 
four-footed  beasts,  which  have  a  relish  for  it.  These,  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  sea-shore,  are  chiefly  jackals,  an  animal  more 
homely,  but  no  less  keen -scented  or  cunning  than  the  fox, 
which  replaces  it  in  the  interior.f  These  creatures  are  very 
sly,  and  come  only  in  the  night.  What  Europeans  have  some- 
times taken  to  be  "scare-crows,"  consisting  of  the  skeleton  of 
a  horse's  head  stuck  upon  the  end  of  a  pole,  are  not  intended 
as  such,  but  are  merely  used  to  keep  off  the  "evil  eye;"  the 
"scare-fox"  consists  of  a  string  tied  between  two  poles,  with 
bits  of  tin  hung  upon  it  which  jingle  in  the  wind.  A  more 
effectual  scare,  however,  is  a  common  iron  trap  laid  before  the 
hole  in  the  hedge  or  wall  through  which  they  are  wont  to  pass. 

As  the  grapes  are  ripening,  a  double  watch  has  to  be  kept. 
Men  go  about  through  the  night  striking  upon  vessels  of  tin 
or  brass,  or  firing  guns  in  the  air.  Boars  and  bears  are  more 
disagreeable  customers,  and  are  generally  avoided  :  they  are 
confined,  however,  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  mountains.:}; 

The  vintage  is  always  a  season  both  of  activity  and  rejoi- 
cing.§  When  the  grapes  are  fully  ripe,  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren being  hired  for  the  purpose  by  the  wealthy — while  the 
poor  help  one  another — turn  into  the  vineyards  and  gather 
them  in  baskets,  which  the  men  carry  to  the  wine-press,  if  near 
by,  but  if  at  some  distance,  put  them  in  deep  and  narrow  wick- 
er-baskets and  load  them  on  mules  and  asses.  From  this  cir- 
cumstance arose  the  expression  so  often  used  by  Moses  in  ad- 
dressing the  children  of  Israel,  "thy  basket  and  thy  store;"  for 


♦  Job  xxvii.,  18.  t  Cant,  ii.,  15. 

X  Psa.  Ixxx.,  13.  §  Isa.  xvi.,  10. 


120  BIBLE   LANDS. 

not  only  are  grapes  gathered  in  baskets,  both  for  the  vintage 
and  for  the  use  of  the  family,  but  olives  and  all  manner  of 
fruit  and  garden  vegetables  are  collected  in  the  same  way.* 

The   grapes   are  poured  into 
the  press,  and  as  soon  as  it  is 
suflSciently    filled    the    treading 
begins.     The  men  who  engage 
in  this  work  wash  their  limbs  in 
.   water  kept  at  hand  for  the  pur- 
pose;   they  run  up  the  ladder, 
spring  upon  the  fruit,  and,  seiz- 
ing the  suspended  ropes,  begin 
o.ientaiBa«kct«    (1  oln  xi  ,iG.  2  Deut.  vigorously  the  task  of  trampling. 
xxMii.,  5.  IT;  3.  JC1.M..9.  XM\.,2;  4.  There  is  always  great  shouting 

Acts  ix.  25.)  .       . 

and  singing,  probably  produced 
by  the  fumes  of  the  new  wine  and  the  free  libations  in  which, 
on  these  occasions,  they  are  apt  to  indulge.f  The  expressed 
juice  flows  into  the  trough,  whence  it  is  transferred  to  other 
vessels  with  a  dipper.:]:  The  words  of  Rev.  xiv.,  20,  are  eluci- 
dated by  the  expression,  "the  blood  of  grapes,"  in  Gen.  xlix.,  11, 
The  first  juice  which  is  drawn  off  from  the  grapes  by  their 
own  weight  as  they  lie  in  the  press  is  considered  the  best,  and 
is  usually  mixed  with  fine  flour,  boiled  down  to  a  thick  paste, 
then  cut  into  cakes,  and  dried  in  the  sun.  It  is  sometimes 
flavored  with  rose-water  or  cinnamon.  Almonds  or  walnuts 
are  also  strung  and  dipped  in  the  hot,  soft  paste,  exactly  as 
candles  are  made,  and  when  sufficiently  coated  over  they  are 
hung  in  the  sun  to  dry.  But  the  grape-juice  is  almost  exclu- 
sively employed,  especially  by  the  Muslims,  who  are  forbidden 
the  use  of  wine  by  the  Koran,  in  making  dibs,  as  the  Arabs  call 
it,  which  is  a  very  palatable  sirup  obtained  by  boiling  down 
the  grape-juice.  This  is  not  only  eaten  with  bread,§  but  en- 
ters into  the  confection  of  a  great  variety  of  dishes,  and  takes 
the  place  of  sugar,  an  article  almost  unknown  except  on  the 
sea-board.  This  sirup  was  much  used  by  the  ancients.||  It  was 
mixed  by  them,  as  now,  with  milk  and  other  articles  of  food. 
h\  Gen.  xliii.,  11;  Psa.  Ixxxi.,  16;  Ezek.  xxvii.,  17,  the  word 


*  Deut.  xxviii.,  .'">,  17.  t  Jer-  xxv.,  30;  xlviii.,  33. 

t  Nfb.  xiii.,  1.5;  Job  xxiv.,  11  ;   Isn.  xvi.,  10;   Rev.  xiv.,  20;  xix.,  It 

§  I'ocotke,  i.,  58.  ||  Plinv,  xiv.,  11. 


VINEYARDS. — THE   GRAPE   AND   THE    OLIVE.  121 

dehesh  does  not  indicate  the  ordinary  bee  honey,  but  grape 
sirup,  and  is  the  modern  dihs.  It  is  probable  that  the  proper 
rendering  of  the  expression,  "A  land  flowing  with  milk  and 
honey,"*  would  be,  a  land  flowing  with  lehen\  and  dihz.X  The 
words  are  equivalent  to  "a  land  abounding  in  flocks,  and  thick- 
ly planted  with  fruitful  vineyards." 

Wine  is  not  so  extensively  manufactured  now  in  Western 
Asia  as  it  was  in  ancient  times,  since  the  Christians  who  make 
and  use  it  constitute  but  a  small  part  of  the  population.  It  is 
probably  for  this  reason  that  the  quality  is  generally  inferior. 
The  success,  however,  which  individuals  have  met  with  in 
manufacturing  wine  of  superior  quality,  proves  that  the  grapes 
have  not  deteriorated  in  this  respect ;  and  the  wines  of  particu- 
lar districts,  such  as  Lebanon,  Cyprus,  Samos,  Tenedos,  and  the 
Muscatel  of  Smyrna,  are  as  celebrated  as  in  ancient  times.§ 

In  making  wine  the  grape-juice  is  poured  into  large  ves- 
sels, or  into  jars  half  buried  in  the  earth  in  a  cool  part  of  the 
premises.  A  little  lime  is  thrown  in,  which  is  supposed  to 
control  the  process  of  fermentation,  and  to  prevent  its  turning 
to  vinegar.  This  seems  particularly  necessary  with  the  lighter 
wines.  Wine  is  not  generally  used  until  after  its  fermentation 
is  completed ;  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  however,  it  is  put 
up  in  the  skins  of  animals,  chiefly  goats,  which  are  translated 
"bottles"  in  our  version.  The  manner  in  which  these  bottles 
are  prepared  is  as  follows:  As  soon  as  the  animal  is  killed  an 
opening  is  made  in  the  skin  large  enough  to  introduce  the  lips, 
and  a  man  begins  to  blow  between  the  skin  and  the  flesh,  until 
the  two  are  completely  separated  from  each  other  throughout. 
The  head  and  feet  are  then  cut  off,  and  the  entire  body  of 
the  animal  is  drawn  out  of  its  skin  through  the  opening  at  the 
neck.  The  hair  is  sometimes  partially  removed,  and  the  skin 
tanned.  In  Persia  the  skins  are  saturated  with  pitch.  The 
opening  at  the  neck  is  used  for  filling  and  emptying  the  ves- 
sel, while  the  four  feet  are  tied  or  sewed  up.  The  grape-juice 
which  is  to  undergo  the  process  of  fermentation  is  put  into 
skins,  which  are  either  entirely  new  or  which  have  been  care- 
fully examined  and  found  able  to  withstand  the  pressure.l 

*  Exod.  iii.,  8,  etc.  f  Sour  milk,  the  only  form  in  which  milk  is  drunk. 

+  Grape  sirup.  §  Ezek.  xxvii.,  18  ;  Hos.  xiv.,  7. 

II  Job  xxxii.,  19  ;  Matt,  ix.,  17;  Mark  ii.,  22;  Luke  v.,  37,  38. 


122  BIBLE    LANDS, 

These  skin  bottles  have  been  used  in  the  East  from  time  im- 
memorial, and  are  still  employed  throughout  the  country  as  far 
as  Persia,  also  in  Northern  Africa,  and  even  in  Spain — a  relic, 
doubtless,  of  the  Moors. 

Instead  of  making  wine  of  the  grape-juice  as  formerly,  great 
quantities  of  grapes  are  yearly  consumed  in  the  distillation  of 
arrach,  or  rak-ee^  a  strong  spirit,  frequently'  flavored  with  gum 
mastic,  and  extensively  used  by  Mohammedans,  whose  Koran 
does  not  forbid  this  liquor,  which  was  unknown  in  the  days 
of  their  Prophet 

The  ancients  sought  to  increase  the  strength  of  their  pota- 
tions by  a  mixture  of  spices  with  their  wine;  and  so  likewise 
do  modern  Orientals.*  But  to  our  country  seems  unfortu- 
nately to  belong  the  unenviable  notoriety  of  making  and  using 
drugged  wines,  if  that  may  be  called  wine  which  often  possesses 
not  a  particle  of  the  juice  of  the  grape  1 

Most  of  the  drunkenness  of  the  East  is  produced  by  the  use 
of  arrac/c,  wine  being  generally  taken  in  connection  with  mealsf 
and  often  mixed  with  water.:}:  Arrack  has  been  substituted 
for  wine  in  some  parts  at  marriage  feasts,  and  all  the  guests 
are  expected  to  drink  at  least  to  the  health  of  the  bride  and 
the  bridegroom.  § 

It  would  seem  by  the  foregoing  statements  relating  to  the 
various  uses  of  the  grape,  that  the  vine  is  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able productions  of  Western  Asia.  Many  a  family  possesses 
nothing  in  the  world  besides  a  vineyard  and  a  small  dwelling 
in  the  adjacent  village  or  town,  and  this  is  their  means  of  sub- 
sistence. All,  even  the  poorest  inhabitants  of  districts  where 
the  vine  abounds,  have  a  vineyard  of  greater  or  less  extent, 
which  supplies  both  the  necessities  and  what  they  deem  the 
luxuries  of  life,  and  enables  them  to  withdraw  for  a  time  from 
the  less  healthful  atmosphere  of  the  village  or  town.  The 
vineyards  in  many  localities,  moreover,  contain  a  large  number 
of  fruit-bearing  trees,  such  as  the  climate  favors — the  cherry, 
apple,  pear,  apricot,  fig,  and  various  nut-trees,  from  the  tall 
shady  walnut  to  the  diminutive  filbert.  These  fruits  all  add 
to  the  store  of  the  household,  being  suspended  in  bunches  from 

*  Psa.  Ixxv.,  8 ;  Prov.  xxiii.,  30 ;  Cant,  viii.,  2.  t  Matt,  xxvi.,  2C,  27. 

X  Prov.  ix.,  2,  ."j.     "Mingled  "  here  has  the  force  of  diluted. 
§  John  ii.,  2,  3,  10. 


VINEYARDS. — THE   GRAPE   AND   THE   OLIVE.  123 

the  ceilings,  or  ranged  upon  shelves  running  around  their 
rooms,  for  winter  provision,  while  the  nuts  are  put  up  in  bags 
till  quite  dry,  then  packed  in  jars.  We  have  been  informed  by 
the  proprietors  of  vineyards  of  about  eight  acres  in  extent,  pro- 
ducing the  finest  quality  of  raisins,  that  they  netted  one  thou- 
sand dollars  a  year,  although  the  expenses  were  extremely  high. 

Vineyards  are,  however,  often  let  out  to  husbandmen  either 
for  one  or  several  years.*  The  price  or  hire  is  always  paid  in 
kind,  and  amounts  to  one-half  the  produce  of  the  vineyard.f 
This  is  the  universal  system  of  farming  out  vineyards,  gardens, 
and  fields  throughout  Western  Asia,  and  Churchill  describes 
it  as  particularly  prevalent  on  Mount  Lebanon.;}:  We  have, 
however,  personally  known  many  cases  in  which  the  hire  was 
paid  in  money.§ 

We  should  not  omit  to  mention  that  the  same  custom  pre- 
vails in  Turkey  at  the  present  time  as  existed  anciently  among 
the  Hebrews,  namely,  that  a  stranger  may  "eat  his  fill"  of  the 
fruit  of  a  vineyard  or  orchard,  but  may  not  carry  any  away.|| 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  from  the  foregoing  account  of  the 
labor  required  by  a  vineyard,  that  the  process  resembles  that 
of  sowing  seed  and  reaping  the  harvest;  on  the  contrary,  there 
is  no  occupation  that  makes  more  unceasing  demands  upon  the 
time  and  attention  of  the  husbandman.  Remarking  one  day 
to  the  wife  of  one  of  this  industrious  and  laborious  class  that 
her  husband  was  scarcely  ever  at  home,  but  always  reported 
to  be  "at  the  vineyard,"  she  replied:  "The  vineyard  is  like 
a  baby;  it  needs  constant  tending,  if  one  would  reap  any 
benefit."! 

After  the  crop  has  all  been  removed,  the  cattle  and  beasts 
of  burden,  and  oftentimes  whole  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  are 
let  into  the  vineyard  to  browse  upon  the  leaves  and  the  weeds 
which  spring  up  with  the  early  rains  of  autumn.-*  Should 
these  animals  come  in  at  any  other  time  than  this  or  the  winter 
season,  they  would  do  as  much  harm  as  though  let  into  a  field 
of  grain. ff 

We  now  turn  to  the  preparation  and  uses  of  the  oil.     The 


*  Matt,  xxi.,  33.  t  Matt,  xxi.,  34,  41. 

t  Churchill's  "  Mt.  Lebanon,"  vol.  i.,  p.  36.  §  Cant,  viii.,  12. 

II  Dent,  xxiii.,  24.  f  Prov.  xxiv.,  30,  31. 

**  Wilkinson,  i.,  45.  tt  Jer.  xii.,  10. 


124  BIBLE   LANDS. 

people  occupying  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean  de- 
pend in  a  great  measure  for  their  comfort  and  livelihood  upon 
the  produce  of  the  olive-tree,  whose  utilit}^  is  quite  as  great  as 
that  of  the  vine.  This  tree  has  been  from  time  immemorial  so 
abundantly  cultivated  in  those  lands  that,  for  aught  we  know, 
it  is  indigenous  to  them  all.  At  any  rate,  their  soil  and  climate 
must  be  highly  favorable  to  its  cultivation.  In  Western  Asia 
it  is  never  found  at  a  great  distance  from  the  sea,  nor  at  a 
higher  elevation  than  two  thousand  feet ;  for  it  exists  nowhere 
on  the  plateau  of  Asia  Minor,  which  is  two  thousand  feet  high 
in  its  lowest  part,  but  abounds  on  the  lower  ground  which  lies 
between  the  plateau  and  the  sea.  On  Mount  Herraon,  how- 
ever, the  olive-tree  is  found  at  an  elevation  of  three  thousand 
feet,  and  it  flourishes  in  Mesopotamia  and  some  of  the  valleys 
of  Koordistan.* 

This  tree  is  not  sowed:  it  grows  spontaneously  among  the 
bushes  which  cover  extensive  portions  of  the  country,  having 
doubtless  sprung  up  from  seeds  dropped  by  the  birds;  and 
when  a  clearing  is  made  by  cutting  down  and  uprooting  the 
bushes  for  the  purpose  of  cultivation,  the  wild  olive-trees  are 
left  standing  where  found,  and  are  grafted  by  the  husbandman. 
They,  however,  are  sometimes  removed  thence  to  olive-yards 
or  orchards,  where  they  are  planted  in  rows.  These  planta- 
tions are  often  very  extensive.  The  trees  that  give  its  name 
to  the  Mount  of  Olives  are  scattered  sparsely  over  a  great  part 
of  that  memorable  height,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  lowlands 
near  the  shores  of  Palestine,  from  Beirut  to  Sidon  and  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Jaffa,  is  covered  with  olive-groves ;  indeed 
Palestine,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  has  not  only  been 
able  to  supply  its  own  wants,  but  has  also  exported  its  olive- 
oil  to  neighboring  countries.f  Moses  truly  described  it  to  the 
Israelites  as  "  a  land  of  oil  olive.":}: 

Where  the  trees  are  planted,  as  they  usually  are  in  these 
groves,  so  close  as  just  not  to  interfere  with  one  another's 
growth,  the  ground  on  which  they  stand  is  simply  plowed  once 
a  year;  but  it  is  frequently  sowed  with  wheat  or  barley  when 
the  trees  are  farther  apart. 

The  olive-tree  is  of  so  enduring  a  character,  and  its  produce 

•  Fletcher,  103.  +  Ezek.  xxvii.  17:  IIus.  xii.,  1.  t  Deut.  viii.,  8. 


VINEYARDS. — THE   GRAPE   AND   THE   OLIVE.  125 

is  so  valuable,  that  it  is  held  as  property  separately  from  the 
field  in  which  it  grows,  so  much  alone  of  the  ground  belong- 
ing to  the  owner  of  the  tree  as  is  needed  for  digging;  for  it  is 
essential  to  the  abundance  of  the  crop  that  the  soil  be  annual- 
ly dug  around  the  roots  in  order  to  admit  the  moisture  of  the 
winter  rains.  Such  digging  may,  however,  be  neglected  for 
many  years  without  essentially  injuring  the  tree,  the  only  effect 
being  a  diminution  of  the  crop  for  the  time  being.  w"e  have 
repeatedly  seen  title-deeds  expressed  in  a  form  somewhat  like 
the  following:  "Mohammed  declares  that  he  has  sold  to  Ali 
his  thirty-two  olive-trees  which  stand  in  the  field  of  Osman," 
etc.  A  field  not  unfrequently  contains  olive-trees  which  be- 
long to  several  different  persons. 

This  appears  to  be  a  very  old  custom,  for  we  meet  with 
it  in  the  narrative  of  the  purchase  by  Abraham  of  the  field 
of  Machpelah,  with  its  cave,  from  Ephron  the  Hittite;  we 
find  therein  the  notable  specification  that  every  tree  in  that 
field,  even  to  the  very  edge  of  it,  became  Abraham's  proper- 
ty.* These  trees  were  perhaps  chiefly  olive  or  other  fruit  trees, 
about  whose  distinct  ownership  Orientals  are  very  particular. 
But  it  also  shows  that,  as  now,  the  principle  of  distinct  owner- 
ship was  admitted. 

The  "wild  olive-tree"  has  a  small  dry  berry,  and  must  be 
grafted  before  it  is  useful  to  man.  Among  the  grafted  olives, 
however,  there  are  differences,  marked  by  the  name  of  the  dis- 
trict in  which  each  variety  is  produced  in  the  highest  perfec- 
tion. The  process  of  grafting  is  referred  to  in  one  of  the  most 
interesting  passages  in  the  writings  of  St.  Paul.f  Some  com- 
mentators, ignorant  of  the  cultivation  of  the  olive,  have  sup- 
posed that  the  process  of  grafting  was  inverted  in  the  case  of 
this  tree,  so  that,  instead  of  grafting  a  branch  of  the  good  upon 
the  wild  stock,  a  branch  of  the  latter  was  grafted  upon  the 
good  stock.  St.  Paul  distinctly  disavows  such  a  supposition, 
for  he  declares  that  the  grafting  of  the  Gentiles  upon  the 
Church  of  God  was  "against  nature."  Indeed  the  olive-tree 
grows  to  so  great  an  age,  that  the  old  wild  root  sometimes  con- 
quers the  better  graft,  so  that  the  fruit  deteriorates  and  the  tree 
must  needs  be  grafted  anew. 


'  Gen.  xxiii.,  17,  18.  f  Rom.  xi.,  17-24. 


126  BIBLE   LANDS. 

In  appearance  this  tree  is  unlike  any  other.  Its  trunk  is 
gnarled  and  uneven,  and  grows  more  knotty  and  stout  with 
age.  It  is  not  deciduous ;  its  leaf  is  small,  elliptical,  and  of  a 
dark  dull  green  on  the  upper  side,  while  underneath  it  is  of  a 
pale  gray,  almost  white. 

When  the  tree  has  attained  its  perfect  growth,  it  equals  in 
height  a  common  apple-tree;  but  its  form  is  so  regular,  and 
its  lower  branches  spread  out  in  so  complete  and  graceful  a 
circle,  that  it  possesses  a  beauty  all  its  own,  unchanged  by  the 
seasons  of  the  year,  and  enhanced  by  the  knowledge  of  its  un- 
surpassed utility  to  man.*  The  psalmist  compares  children  to 
olive-plants  round  about  the  table,  because  there  they  are  seen 
collectively,  and  their  merry  fiices  correspond  to  the  beauty  and 
the  promised  fruitfulness  of  young  olive-trees.f  The  psalmist 
could  not  have  had  in  view  the  hi-anches^  for  they  never  grow  into 
independent  trees;  nor  the  shoots^  or  suckers,  which  spring  from 
the  roots,  for  these  are  always  cut  away  as  injurious  to  the  tree. 

Time,  however,  brings  about  great  changes  even  upon  the 
long-lived  olive-tree.  The  trunk  becomes  more  knotty  and 
massive,  but  its  core  dies  away  and  leaves  an  empty  opening 
within;  the  branches  decay  and  fall  to  the  ground;  the  outer 
portions  of  the  trunk  gradually  fall  away,  until  you  often  see 
but  a  strip  of  the  old  stock  clinging  tenaciously  to  life,  and  still 
nourishing  a  little  branch  or  two,  which  to  the  last  bears  its 
contribution  to  the  necessities  of  man.  We  do  not  suppose, 
however,  that  there  are  sufficient  data  to  fix  the  age  of  the 
olive:  all  the  old  trees  being  decayed  in  the  centre,  it  would 
be  impossible  to  count  the  rings  which  indicate  the  annual  in- 
crease of  the  tree,  and  by  which  alone  its  age  could  be  known 
with  any  degree  of  certainty.  AVe  do  not  believe  in  the  myth 
which  identifies  certain  olive-trees  now  growing  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Olivet  as  having  stood  there  in  the  time  of  our  Lord's 
passion,  for  Josephus  distinctly  states  that  at  the  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem by  Titus  the  soldiers  cut  down  every  tree  around  the 
city,  "  for  a  distance  of  ninety  furlongs,:}:  in  order  to  raise  banks 
against  its  walls;  and  of  all  the  pilgrims  who  have  described 
their  visits  to  Jerusalem  during  the  last  one  thousand  two  hun- 


*  ,Ter.  xi.,  16;  Hos  xiv.,  0.  t  Tsn.  cxxviii..  ;?. 

X  "Jewish  War,"bk.  vi.,  di.  i.,  §  1. 


VINEYARDS. — THE   GRAPE   AND   THE   OLIVE. 


127 


dred  years,  the  first  to  refer  to  olive-trees  as  marking  the  site 
of  Gethsemane  are  Maundrell  and  Quaresmius,  not  more  than 
three  centuries  ago,  one  of  whom  upholds  while  the  other  op- 
poses the  opinion  of  their  great  antiquity.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed by  some  that  the  name  of  Gethsemane  indicated  that  it 
consisted  of  an  olive -grove.  This,  however,  we  can  not  ad- 
mit, for  it  is  distinctly  declared  to  have  been  a  "garden,"*  and 


Aged  Olive-trees. 

though  an  olive-tree  or  two  sometimes  grow  in  such  places, 
yet  gardens  are  planted  either  with  vegetables  or  fruit-trees, 
and  always  imply  irrigation.  The  narrative  implies  that 
there  was  a  small  house  or  cottage  on  the  premises,  doubtless 
occupied  by  the  gardener  and  his  family. f  This  is  always  the 
case  with  a  garden,  but  never  with  an  olive-yard.  The  name 
Gethsemane,  which  signifies  "an  olive-press,"  does  not  necessa- 
rily indicate  that  there  was  such  a  press  within — indeed,  being 


*  John  xviii.,  1. 


t  Mark  xiv.,  51,  52. 


128  BIBLE   LANDS. 

a  garden,  this  was  not  likely  to  be  the  case.  It  simply  points 
to  the  fact  than  an  olive-press  stood  near  this  house  by  the 
road-side,  which  gave  the  place  its  name. 

The  wood  of  the  olive-tree  is  of  a  light  reddish  or  yellowish 
hue.  It  is  irregularly  grained,  and  not  heavy,  though  firm.  It 
was  used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews,  as  now,  for  ornamental  carved 
work.  The  two  cherubims  within  the  oracle  of  Solomon's 
Temple  that  stood  "each  ten  cubits  high,"  were  made  of  olive- 
wood,  so  also  were  the  doors  and  the  posts.  "  The  carved  fig- 
ures "  of  cherubim  and  palm-trees,  and  open  flowers  "  upon  all 
the  walls  of  the  house  round  about,  within  and  without,"  were 
probably  of  the  same  material,  and  this  entire  wood- work  was 
overlaid  with  gold.*  Various  articles  are  now  made  of  olive- 
wood  at  Jerusalem,  and  sold  to  travelers  as  curiosities. 

The  blossoms  of  this  tree  are  small,  white,  and  very  numer- 
ous. They  are  easily  shed,  and  a  strong  wind  often  strews  the 
ground  with  them,  presenting  the  appearance  of  frost.  The 
crop  of  olives  is  frequently  thus  greatly  diminished,  or  well- 
nigh  destroyed.f 

The  fruit  of  the  olive  consists  of  an  oval  berry  about  an  inch 
long,  containing  a  seed  or  stone  of  considerable  size.  It  is 
black  when  ripe,  but  is  often  picked  green,  and  after  soaking 
in  brine  is  eaten  thus  or  cooked  with  meat.  The  largest  and 
first  ripe  olives  fall  of  their  own  accord  to  the  ground,  and  are 
preserved  in  brine  or  oil  for  eating. 

Where  there  are  extensive  plantations  of  this  tree,  belonging, 
as  is  generally  the  case,  to  a  number  of  proprietors,  no  picking 
is  allowed,  nor  shaking  of  the  trees,  until  the  time  appointed 
by  the  authorities,  which  occurs  in  November  or  December. 
The  public  crier  goes  forth  and  announces  the  day  on  which 
the  gathering  in  is  to  commence.  Men,  women,  and  children 
then  enter  the  olive -yards.  Some  climb  into  the  .trees  and 
shake  the  boughs,  while  others  stand  below  and  beat  ofl'  the 
fruit  with  long,  slender  poles.:}:  The  poor  are  often  seen,  after 
the  gathering  in  of  the  crop,  going  from  tree  to  tree  and  col- 
lecting the  few  olives  that  may  have  been  left.§  A  full  crop 
is  obtained  only  every  other  year,  which  some  attribute  to  the 


*  1  Kings  vi.,  23,  31-33.  t  Job  xv.,  X\. 

\  Isa.  xxiv.,  13.  §  Dent,  xxiv.,  L'O;  Isa.  xvii.,  G. 


VINEYARDS. — THE   GRAPE   AND   THE   OLIVE. 


129 


injury  the  trees  receive  by  beating  and  shaking.  The  produce 
is  quite  remunerative,  for  a  large  tree  in  a  good  season  yields 
ten  to  fifteen  gallons  of  oil,  and  an  acre  planted  with  olive-trees 
in  good  condition  bears  a  crop  worth,  in  Palestine,  £20  ster- 
ling, or  $100.  All  the  fruit,  however,  is  not  converted  into 
oil.  The  finest  berries  are  usually  put  up  for  family  use  or 
sent  to  market,  and  many  a  laborer  goes  to  his  work  in  the 
morning  carrying  for  his  noon  meal  a  few  olives  rolled  between 
thin  sheets  of  bread. 

The  olive-press  is  to  be  seen  in  all  the  villages  and  towns  in 
whose  vicinity  this  tree  is  cultivated.  It  stands  in  the  square 
of  the  village,  or  by  the  roadside,  or  where  several  ways  meet. 


Ancient  Olive-press.    (Deut.  xxxii.,  13.) 

This  machine  was  formerly,  like  the  wine-press,  hewn  out  of 
the  solid  rock.  Several  are  yet  to  be  seen  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation  at  a  ruin  above  Tyre,  near  Kanah,  where  the  olive 
must  have  been  successfully  cultivated  more  than  twenty  cen- 
turies ago,  but  has  now  disappeared  from  the  surrounding  re- 
gion.* The  modern  olive-presses  are  made  partly  of  masonry, 
and  are  essentially  of  the  same  form  as  the  ancient.  A  circu- 
lar stone,  some  six  feet  in  diameter,  and  one  foot  in  thickness, 
is  dug  out,  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  a  pan,  A  hole  is  made 
at  one  side  for  the  escape  of  the  oil  into  vessels  placed  to  re- 
ceive it.  This  large  stone  is  set  upon  a  foundation  of  masonry 
so  that  its  rim  stands  three  or  three  and  a  half  feet  from  the 
ground.     A  stone  roller,  often  a  fragment  of  an  ancient  pillar. 


Thomson,  "The  Land  and  the  Book,"  vol.  i.,  p.  71. 


130 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Womeu  workiug  at  the  Olive-press. 


about  three  feet  in  length,  and  eighteen  inches  to  three  feet 
thick,  is  laid  in  this  flat-bottomed  basin,  so  that  one  end  of  it 
nearly  touches  the  side.     Tlie  roller  is  perforated  from  end  to 

_  end,  and  through 

the  hole  a  stout 
stick  is  passed, 
which  terminates 
at  either  extrem- 
ity with  a  handle. 
■  The  olives  being 
collected  in  bas- 
kets are  first  salt- 
ed, then  brought 
GO  the  press,  and  poured  into  the  stone  basin.  Two  men  or 
women  now  grasp  the  handles  of  the  axis  of  the  roller,  and  as 
they  walk  around  the  press  the  olives  are  crushed  by  the  ever- 
revolving  stone,  until  they  are  reduced  to  a  pulp  mingled  with 
oil  and  olive  seeds.  This  pours  through  the  side  opening,  and 
is  received  in  vessels,  or  is  taken  up  from  the  basin  itself  with 
dippers  and  spoons.  The  pulp  is  then  poured  into  a  bag  of 
coarse  canvas  or  hair-cloth,  hot  water  is  added,  the  mouth  is 
carefully  sewed  up,  and  the  bag  thus  filled  with  crushed  olives 
and  water  is  laid  in  a  trough  or  basin  of  smaller  dimensions, 
where  it  is  trodden  with  the  bare  feet  of  women  and  girls  until 
the  oil  has  entirely  oozed  or  strained  through  and  flowed  into 
vessels  waiting  to  receive  it,  leaving  in  the  bags  only  the  pulp, 
skins,  and  stones  of  the  olives.  In  some  places  the  crushed 
olives  are  put  into  small  baskets,  and  these  under  a  weighted 
beam,  which  crushes  out  the  oil  into  a  stone  trough ;  and  this 
process  appears  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancients.* 

The  form  of  the  ancient  oil-presses  already  mentioned  is  the 
same  as  just  described,  and  indicates  that  the  process  of  ex- 
tracting the  oil  was  identical  with  the  modern.  This  process 
is  alluded  to  in  numerous  passages  in  the  Scriptures.  It  was 
prophesied  of  Asher,  on  the  skirts  of  Mount  Lebanon,  where 
the  olive-tree  abounds  to  this  day,  that  he  should  "dip  his  foot 
in  oil,"f  i.  e.,  that  his  land  would  abound  in  the  olive,  whose  oil 


*  Thomson,  "The  Laiul  niul  tlic  Book,"  vol.  i.,  p.  523. 
t  Dent,  xxxiii.,  24. 


VINEYARDS. — THE   GRAPE   AND   THE   OLIVE.  131 

he  should  obtain  by  treading  with  his  feet.*  The  Hebrew 
word  translated  "honey"  in  the  latter  passage  is  debesh,  which, 
as  we  have  shown,  corresponds  to  the  Arabic  dihs^  meaning 
grape-juice  sirup;  so  that  the  parallelism  in  this  verse  is  com- 
plete. In  stone  presses  are  trodden  the  grapes  and  the  olives, 
and  the  rock  thus  yields  in  the  one  case  "  oil,"  and  in  the  other 
grape-juice,  or  "dibs." 

The  oil  having  been  obtained  in  the  manner  above  described, 
is  put  up  in  skin  bottles,  or  stored  in  large,  glazed  earthen  jars 
buried  in  the  ground.  Rows  of  such  jars  may  be  seen  in  sev- 
eral shops  of  the  city  of  Pompeii  impregnated  with  the  oil  they 
once  contained.  The  visitor  is  forcibly  reminded  of  the  jars, 
identical  in  form,  which  stand  precisely  in  the  same  manner  in 
the  shops  of  Eastern  oil  merchants. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  olive  as  an  article  of  food. 
The  oil  derived  from  it  is  still  more  useful  to  large  portions  of 
the  population  of  Western  Asia,  and  may  indeed  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  indispensable  necessaries  of  life.  In  the  higher 
regions  of  Asia  Minor,  where  the  olive-tree  does  not  grow,  the 
people  make  butter  and  use  sheep's-tail  fat  for  cooking  pur- 
poses, and  they  burn  pine-knots  or  tallow-candles;  but  even 
there  substitutes  for  olive-oil  are  extensively  used.  In  the  re- 
gion of  Afion  Kara  Hissar  an  oil  is  extracted  from  the  seed  of 
the  poppy,  which  the  inhabitants  have  learned  not  to  disHke 
as  an  article  of  food.  The  oil  obtained  from  the  little  sesame- 
seed  is  often  used  in  cooking  in  every  part  of  Western  Asia, 
but  in  Mesopotamia  it  is  also  burned  instead  of  olive -oil, 
and  was  employed  for  anointing  in  the  days  of  Strabo.f 
But  olive-oil  is  imported  even  there,  and  is  considered  an  ar- 
ticle of  luxury  for  which  the  rich  willingly  pay  a  high  price, 
while  in  olive-growing  regions  it  is  considered  so  necessary 
a  comfort  as  to  be  found  in  the  poorest  dwelling.  As  an  ar- 
ticle of  food  this  oil  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  a  great  va- 
riety of  dishes  and  cakes,  and  is  a  general  substitute  for  butter,, 
which  the  heat  of  the  climate  renders  difficult  to  keep.  It  wa*s 
evidently  so  in  Bible  times.  The  widow  of  Sarepta,  who  re- 
ceived the  prophet  Elijah  during  a  great  famine,  had  nothing 


*  Deut.  xxxii.,  13 ;  Job  xxix.,  6  ;  Ezek.  xxxii. 
t  "Geography,"  bk.  xvi.,  ch.  xxi.,  §  20. 


132 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


left  in  her  house  but  "a  handful  of  meal,  and  a  little  oil  in  a 
cruse."*  The  enumeration  of  the  articles  of  food  which  Solo- 
mon was  to  furnish  for  the  servants  of  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre, 
while  engaged  in  hewing  and  transporting  cedar-trees  and  fir- 
trees  for  the  building  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  is  an  evi- 
dence that  the  chief  food  of  the  common  workmen  of  those  days, 
as  now  in  similar  localities,  consisted  of  wheat  flour  and  oil.f 

But  oil  is  also  burned  to  give  light,  and  is  indeed  the  only 
article  that  is  thus  employed  wherever  it  can  easily  be  pro- 
cured. Tin  has  now  become  so  cheap  that  it  is  in  very  gen- 
eral use,  being  manufactured  into  lamps  of  various  shapes,  as 
well  as  lanterns  with  glass.  The  paper  lanterns  are  lighted 
by  a  bit  of  candle  inside.  In  ancient  times  lamps  were  made 
of  earthenware,  and  the  wealthy  had  them 
of  brass,  silver,  and  even  of  gold ;  of  this 
last  precious  metal  were  made  the  candle- 
sticks of  the  Temple,  which  were  lighted 
with  oil.:}:  The  poor  alone  still  use  lamps 
of  earthenware.  They  are  in  the  shape  of  a 
small  plate  or  saucer,  with  the  edge  turned 
up  at  one  side  to  hold  the  wick,  and  con- 
tain a  spoonful  of  oil.  Some  are  of  tin,  and 
have  a  cover.  Similar  ancient  lamps  are 
often  found  among  ruins.  One  of  the  an- 
nexed bears  a  Christian  cross.  They  are  often  elegant  in  form 
and    elaborate    in 


Modurn  Clay  and  Tin 
Lamps. 


They  are  covered  at  the 
top,  where  there  is  a  hole 
for  pouring  in  the  oil,  while 
another  at  the  side  receives 
the  wick;  there  is  often  a 
handle  large  enough  to  pass 
one  finger  through,  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  it.  These 
lamps  are  often  adorned 
with  graceful  designs  of  heathen  deities  or  mythological  sub- 
jects, of  animals,  and  birds,  and  comic  scenes.     These  were  ev- 

*  1  Kings  xvii.,  12 ;  2  Kings  iv.,  2. 

+  1  Kings  v.,  11 ;  Ezra,  iii.,  7. 

J  Exod.  x.w.,  31  ;  xxvii.,  20;   2  Ciiron.  iv.,  20. 


Aucieut  Terra-cotta  Lamps.     (Matt,  xxv.,  1.) 


■  VINEYARDS. — THE    GRAPE   AND   THE    OLIVE.  133 

idently  band-lamps,  intended  to  be  carried  about  the  house;  but 
when  they  were  required  to  burn  for  a  considerable  time,  they 
needed  to  be  replenished,  and  a  small  earthen  jar  filled  with 
oil  was  set  near  the  lamp,  as  it  now  is,  from  which  a  new  supply 
was  added  whenever  the  light  grew  dim.  It  was  thus  that  in 
the  admirable  parable  of  the  Ten  Virgins,  when  the  lamps  had 
burned  down  with  the  long  delay  of  the  bridegroom,  "the 
wise "  virgins  were  able  to  replenish  theirs,  which  "  the  fool- 
ish" could  not  do.* 

This,  however,  was  not  the  only  kind  of  lamp  used  by  the 
ancients.  The  forms  still  extant  are  extremely  varied,  both  in 
model  and  in  size,  many  of  them  being  made  to  be  permanent- 
ly suspended  from  the  wall  or  ceiling,  and  others  to  be  set  on 
tables,  shelves,  brackets,  or  even  upon  the  floor.  The  finest 
collection  of  these  vessels  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Museum  of  Na- 
ples. They  were  taken  from  the  buried  cities  of  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum.  Brass  candlesticks,  and  even  such  as  are  made 
of  more  costly  materials,  are  now  in  use  in  Western  Asia,  and 
are  set  on  brackets  or  upon  the  floor.  The  latter  are  often 
three  or  four  feet  high.f 

The  language  of  Job,:}:  though  metaphorical,  expresses  pri- 
marily the  extreme  poverty  and  distress  to  which  such  are  re- 
duced as  are  deprived  of  these  comforts  and  necessaries. 

The  use  of  oil  in  anointing  the  body  appears  to  have  been 
general  in  ancient  times  among  all  the  nations  dwelling  around 
the  Mediterranean.  Allusions  to  this  use  abound  in  all  ancient 
authors.  The  heroes  of  Homer  are  described  by  him  as  restor- 
ing their  weary  limbs  after  a  battle  by  frictions  of  oil.§  This 
was  Alexander's  practice.||  It  M'as  Pompey's  daily  habit  also, 
as  well  as  that  of  all  the  wealthy  Romans.^  We  find  this  cus- 
tom alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments. It  is  mentioned  as  forming  a  habitual  part  of  the 
toilet  on  special  occasions** — not  to  be  indulged  in  in  case  of 
mourning. ft  The  head  was  anointed  in  connection  with  the 
daily  recurring  ablution,  as  mentioned  in  Matt,  vi.,  17. 

*  Matt.  XXV.,  3,  4,  8,  9.  t  Rev.  ii.,  1.  t  Job  xxi.,  17 ;  Prov.  xx.,  20. 

§  "  Iliad"x.,  577.  ||  See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Alexander,"  §  30. 

t  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Pompey,"§  78. 

**  Ruth  iii.,  3;  2  Sam.  xii.,  20;  Micah  vi.,  15. 

tt2Sam.  xiv.,  2;  Dan.  x.,  2,  3. 


134  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Eg3'ptian  monuments  represent  servants  anointing  guests 
on  their  arrival  at  their  entertainer's  house,  and  alabaster 
vases  still  exist  which  retain  traces  of  the  ointment  they  once 
contained.*  This  was  adopted  from  the  Egyptians  by  the 
Jews,  and  the  settlement  of  many  of  these  people  at  Alexan- 
dria served  to  maintain  Egyptian  customs  among  them.f  This 
practice  has  disappeared  in  modern  times,  on  account  of  the 
conquest  of  these  lands  by  foreign  nations.  The  hair  is  now 
anointed,  but  mostly  by  the  women,  since  the  men  have  the 
head  shaved.  The  wrestlers,  called  by  the  Turks  PekhUivans, 
anoint  themselves  with  oil  before  wrestling,  as  did  the  ancients 
preparatory  to  similar  athletic  exercises,  in  order  to  render 
their  bodies  more  slippery  under  the  grasp  of  their  antagonists.:}: 
The  custom  of  anointing  the  body  is  still  prevalent  among  some 
nations  of  Africa.  The  Abyssinian  gentleman  places  a  lump 
of  butter  every  morning  on  the  top  of  his  head,  and  covers  it 
with  his  bushy  locks ;  as  it  melts  it  flows  over  his  body ;  and 
the  Hottentots  so  besmear  their  bodies  with  grease  as  to  leave 
traces  of  it  wherever  they  sit. 

Anointing  with  oil  was  a  part  of  the  ceremonial  of  the 
Jewish  law,  which  has  been  introduced  into  the  Roman  as 
well  as  the  Oriental  churches.  It  is  prepared  by  these  accord- 
ing to  the  rule  prescribed  by  Moses, §  and  is  with  them  no  in- 
considerable source  of  revenue.  The  "extreme  unction"  prac- 
ticed by  the  Romish  Church  is  defended  by  a  misinterpreta- 
tion of  Jas.  v.,  14,  for  extreme  unction  is  never  applied  until  it  is 
considered  certain  that  the  patient  is  about  to  die,  whereas  the 
words  in  James,  as  well  as  in  Mark  vi.,  13,  connect  anointing 
the  sick  with  recovery.  We  do  not  consider  that  in  these  cases 
oil  was  used  either  as  a  means  or  a  symbol ;  the  anointing  was 
simply  an  exercise  of  faith  similar  to  Peter  and  John's  saying 
to  the  lame  man  at  the  gate  of  the  Temple  called  Beautiful, 
"Rise  up,  and  walk."  The  elders  of  the  church,  after  praying 
for  the  sick  man,  were  to  treat  him  as  though  he  were  recover- 
ed. They  were  to  help  him  rise  from  his  bed,  wash,  anoint  his 
head  and  dress,  and  rejoice  with  him  in  view  of  the  healing 
mercies  of  God. 

*  See  Wilkinson,  "Ancient  Egypt,"  i.,  78,  pi.  81). 

t  Psn.  xxiii.,  5;  Amos  vi.,  6  ;  Luke  vii.,  4G. 

X  Josephus,  "Antiquities,"  xv.,  8,  §  1;  xii.,  5,  §  1.         §  Exod.  xxx.,  23,  24,  2."). 


VINEYARDS.— THE    GRAPE   AND   THE   OLIVE.  135 

With  the  Jews  likewise,  priests,  kings,  and  prophets  were 
anointed  with  sacred  oil.*  This  custom  is  also  practiced  in 
modern  times  in  the  coronation  of  Christian  sovereigns. 

The  first  mention  made  of  the  olive-tree  in  the  Scriptures 
represents  the  dove  which  Noah  let  out  of  the  ark,  returning 
to  him  in  the  evening,  bringing  an  olive-leaf  in  its  mouth.f  The 
dove  and  the  olive  have  ever  since  been  bj  many  nations  con- 
sidered emblems  of  peace.  It  is  difficult  to  say  how  far  this  may 
have  been  produced  by  the  traditional  remembrance  of  the  del- 
uge, which  has  always  been  preserved  among  the  tribes  of  West- 
ern Asia  and  South-eastern  Europe ;  certainly  the  dove  is  the 
most  harmless  of  birds,  and  the  valuable  fruits  of  the  olive-tree 
greatly  suffer  from  the  prevalence  of  war,  which  always  seeks 
to  destroy  this  source  of  wealth.  In  the  late  insurrection  in 
the  island  of  Crete,  the  Turks  are  said  to  have  cut  down  and 
destroyed  no  less  than  three  hundred  thousand  olive-trees. 

The  incident  to  which  we  have  alluded  in  the  narrative  of 
the  deluge,  i.e.,  that  "the  dove  plucked  an  olive -leaf,"  indi- 
cates an  important  circumstance  with  regard  to  that  event.  It 
shows  that  the  deluge  was  not  a  fearful  cataclysm,  as  some 
would  have  us  believe,  produced  perhaps  by  a  change  of  the 
poles  of  the  earth,  melting  the  glaciers  of  the  northern  regions. 
Such  an  event  would  have  destroyed  all  vegetation.  Noah's 
ship  would  have  been  wrecked  by  it  and  shattered  in  pieces, 
mountains  would  have  been  torn  from  their  foundations,  and 
the  traces  of  the  catastrophe  would  have  been  visible  to  the 
end  of  time.  Not  so,  however,  with  the  Mosaic  narration. 
The  waters  gradually  rose,  and  still  more  gradually  diminished 
and  receded  until  they  were  "dried  up."  The  great  floating 
house,  with  its  living  freight,  was  slowly  lifted  up  and  gently 
let  down  again,  on  one  of  the  slopes  of  Ararat.  The  olive-trees 
and  all  the  trees  of  the  field  emerged  from  the  flood  untorn  by 
any  rapid  devastating  current.  A  wicked  race  alone  had  per- 
ished by  drowning,  and  mankind  were  to  begin  life  over  again. 
The  olive  is  still  found  in  the  deep  valleys  among  the  mount- 
ains of  Koordistan  and  Armenia,  the  probable  cradle  of  the 
human  race.:|: 


♦Lev.  viii.,  12;  1  Sam.  xvi.,  13;  1  Kings  xix.,  16.  t  Gen.  viii.,  11. 

X  Layard,  "  Nineveh,"  i.,  138, 198  ;  Tavernier,  2G  ;  Ussher,  408  ;  Fletcher,  103. 


136  J31BLE   LANDS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

FRUIT  AND  FOREST  TREES,  WITH  TEE  FLOWERS  OF  BIBLE  LAXDS. 

In  describing  the  chief  fruit -bearing  trees  of  Bible  lands, 
and  particularly  those  which  are  spoken  of  in  the  Scriptures, 
we  shall  begin  with  such  as  grow  nearest  to  the  habitations 
of  men,  in  the  gardens  and  cultivated  fields,  whether  thej  need 
artificial  watering  and  special  care,  or  require  no  particular  at- 
tention. 

The  fig-tree  is  one  of  the  most  important  fruit-trees  of  West- 
ern Asia.  It  grows  spontaneously  from  the  ground  wherever 
its  seed  happens  to  fall,  but  its  fruit  is  worthless  until  grafted. 
The  young  tree  is  set  in  some  favorite  spot  of  the  garden,  and 
often  indeed  planted  in  a  cluster,  or  circle,  making,  with  its 
wide-spread  branches,  a  most  agreeable  shady  arbor.  The  tree 
being  very  long-lived,  and  the  main  branches  generally  divid- 
ing close  to  the  ground,  they  are  often  borne  down  by  age,  and 
with  the  shoots  growing  up  from  the  roots  form  a  natural  bow- 
er. They  are  also  planted  in  vineyards,"^  or  orchards,  in  reg- 
ular rows.  In  such  a  case  the  ground  is  dug  around  every 
tree  in  the  early  spring,  in  order  to  increase  its  fruitfulness, 
and  sometimes  the  entire  surface  of  the  orchard  is  dug  or  plow- 
ed. This  is  not  usually  done  to  the  fig-trees  of  a  garden  or 
vineyard,  unless  their  fruitfulness  seems  impaired,  when  they 
are  "  dug  about,"  and  the  soil  is  enriched,  to  restore  their  use- 
fulness; for,  as  has  already  been  stated.  Orientals,  as  a  general 
rule,  preserve  and  care  for  fruit-bearing  trees  alone,  every  other 
being  cut  down  for  fuel.f 

The  leaves  of  the  fig-tree  surpass  in  size  those  of  every  other 
tree  in  Western  Asia,:}:  and  are  often  made  into  frail  baskets 
by  sewing  or  pinning  them  together  with  slender  twigs  or 
thorns,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  light  fruit,  such  as  the  mul- 
berry.    The  tree  affords  a  thick  shade,  and  is,  on  this  account, 

♦  Luke  xiii.,  6.  t  Luke  xiii.,  7-9.  t  Gen.  iii.,  7. 


FRUIT   AND   FOREST   TREES. — FLOWERS.  137 

a  favorite  resort  of  the  family,  where  they  may  often  be  seen 
seated  on  mats,  partaking  of  a  meal  or  entertaining  friends. 
Underneath  its  grateful  shade  many  a  refreshing  nap  is  taken 
in  the  heat  of  the  day,  for  it  is  supposed  to  exert  a  healthy  in- 
fluence upon  the  sleeper,  while  that  of  the  walnut  is  consid- 
ered deleterious.  The  expression  "  to  sit  under  one's  own 
vine  and  fig-tree"  denotes  at  once  security,  domestic  enjoy- 
ment, and  competence.*  The  blossom  of  the  fig-tree  is  precise- 
ly similar  in  appearance  to  a  small  fig,  and  drops  off,  leaving  a 
seed-vessel,  which  develops  into  the  fruit.  These  blossoms  ap- 
pear in  the  month  of  March,  while  the  leaves  are  yet  grow- 
ing; but  the  earliest  fruit  does  not  ripen  till  July,  and  some 
even  later. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  figs.  Some  are  eaten  fresh, 
which  have  a  green  color  outside  and  are  red  within.  Others 
are  mostly  used  in  a  dried  state.  These  are  of  a  larger  size, 
of  a  green  or  purple  color  without,  and  paler  within,  as  well  as 
sweeter  to  the  taste.  They  are  left  to  dry  upon  the  tree,  and 
when  gathered  and  washed  in  sea -water,  or  brine,  are  laid  up 
in  bags  and  pressed  into  cakes  as  provisions  for  the  house. 
Although  figs  are  produced  and  dried  for  home  consumption 
in  all  the  countries  bordering  upon  the  Mediterranean,  yet  the 
dry  figs  of  commerce  are  produced  exclusively  in  a  single  dis- 
trict of  Western  Asia  Minor.  It  is  the  valley  of  the  Meander, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Ai'din-Guzel-Hissar,  the  ancient  Tralles. 
This  beautiful  and  fertile  plain  abounds  in  extensive  plantations 
of  fig-trees,  the  delicac}''  and  lusciousness  of  whose  fruit  is  un- 
surpassed. The  figs  are  left  to  dry  upon  the  tree,  and  are  gath- 
ered as  fast  as  they  fall  or  are  shaken  off  by  the  wind.  They 
are  collected  in  bags,  which  are  sent  off  to  the  port  of  Smyr- 
na, a  distance  of  eighty  miles,  on  camels,  and  there  the  price 
of  every  bag  is  set. 

The  process  of  curing  consists  in  washing  the  fruit  in  sea- 
water,  after  which  it  is  sorted  and  packed  in  boxes,  or  "  drums." 
While  the  fig  is  on  the  tree,  it  is,  like  the  fruit  of  the  sycamore, 
punctured  near  its  base  by  an  insect  which  deposits  an  egg, 
whence  issues  a  grub,  or  worm,  which  usually  makes  its  ap- 
pearance after  the  fruit  has  been  shipped  for  exportation,  to 

*  1  Kings  iv.,  25 ;  Mic.  iv.,  4. 


138  BIBLE    LANDS. 

the  great  discomfort  of  all  on  board.  It  is  believed  that  the 
dried  fig  is  not  fit  to  eat  until  it  has  thus  been  first  tasted  by 
this  "  ugly  customer."  The  curing  of  the  fruit  with  salt-water 
generally  causes  some  of  the  saccharine  matter  it  contains  to 
come  out  upon  the  surface  in  the  form  of  finely -powdered 
sugar:  this  has  led  the  consignees  in  foreign  ports  to  suppose 
that  the  fruit  was  packed  with  a  sprinkling  of  sugar,  and  they 
have  been  known  repeatedly  to  write  to  the  Smyrna  merchants 
to  "  use  less  sugar  in  packing  the  figs." 

The  season  for  preparing  this  fruit  for  the  market  is  eagerly 
anticipated  by  the  poor  as  the  most  hopeful  period  for  obtain- 
ing the  means  of  subsistence,  great  numbers  of  women  and 
even  children  being  then  able  to  find  employment  in  the  ex- 
tensive mercantile  warehouses.  The  throngs  which  thus  an- 
nually gather  to  Smyrna  in  "  the  fig  season"  from  all  the  neigh- 
boring villages  and  islands  have  bestowed  upon  the  capital  of 
Ionia  the  title  of  "  Mother  of  the  Poor." 

Dried  figs  are  often  carried  on  journeys,  for  they  keep  well, 
are  wholesome,  and  slightly  medicinal.*  A  dried  fig  is  used 
as  a  very  effectual  poultice  upon  boils.f  The  boil  of  Hezekiah 
was  doubtless  of  a  malignant  character,  being  either  a  carbun- 
cle or  a  boil  in  the  armpit,  which  constitutes  the  well-known 
"plague  of  Egypt,"  which  was  for  so  many  centuries  and  until 
lately  the  scourge  of  the  Levant.  Hezekiah's  cure  was  not  ef- 
fected by  the  "lump  of  figs,"  a  remedy  doubtless  well  known 
to  the  king's  physicians;  but  the  prophet  ordered  it  to  be 
treated  as  a  common  boil,  with  the  assurance  that  it  would 
prove  as  harmless. 

There  is  a  passage  in  the  New  Testament  which  has  ever 
been  a  still  greater  stumbling-block  to  interpreters,  one  which 
has  given  birth  to  hypotheses  almost  innumerable.  We  refer 
to  the  account  of  the  cursing  of  the  fig-tree  by  our  Lord,  and 
to  its  withering  soon  after.:};  Most  interpretations  do  injustice 
to  the  character  of  our  Lord,  or  misrepresent  the  nature  of  the 
tree.  Among  the  latter,  the  most  extraordinary  statement  is 
that  of  a  very  respectable  authority,  who  affirms  that  it  was 
customary  to  plant  fig-trees  by  the  roadside  because  it  was 

*  1  Sam.  XXV.,  18;  xxxi.,  12;  1  Chioti.  xi.,  40. 

t  2  Kings  XX.,  7;   Isn.  xxxviii.,  21. 

t  Matt,  xxi.,  18-22  ;  Mark  xi.,  12-14,  20-23. 


FRUIT    AND    FOREST   TREES. — FLOWERS.  139 

thought  that  the  dust,  by  absorbing  the  excessive  sap,  increased 
the  productiveness  of  the  tree !  Others  have  asserted  that,  as 
this  particular  tree  grew  by  the  roadside,  it  could  not  have 
any  particular  owner,  so  that  the  withering  of  it  could  injure 
no  one.  Such  are  not  aware  that  in  Western  Asia  every  fruit- 
bearing  tree,  wherever  it  stands,  has  an  owner,  who  is  often 
not  the  proprietor  of  the  soil  whereon  it  grows,  no  more  than 
the  owner  of  a  house -lot  is  necessarily  the  proprietor  of  the 
house  built  upon  it.  Other  commentators  maintain  that  this 
tree  was  wild,  not  knowing  probably  that  the  fruit  of  such  can 
not  be  eaten.  Others,  again,  state  that  there  was  an  early  crop, 
imagining  that  the  tree  yields  two  crops  annually,  and  proba- 
bly mistaking  the  fig-like  blossoms  of  March*  for  the  ripe  fruit 
of  a  much  later  period,  and  overlooking  the  fact  that  the 
evangelist  distinctly  states  that  "  the  time  of  figs  was  not  yet." 
Some  of  these  views  can  not  escape  the  imputation  of  repre- 
senting our  Lord  as  ignorant  of  som.e  natural  facts  which  were 
familiarly  known  to  his  disciples  and  the  people  among  whom 
he  lived.  They  even  give  us  a  picture  of  this  incident  which 
implies  a  movement  of  passion  or  disappointment,  which  led 
our  Saviour  to  the  performance  of  a  miracle  for  the  punishment 
of  a  senseless  tree,  totally  at  variance  with  the  beneficent  char- 
acter of  his  other  "  wonderful  works." 

In  presenting  an  interpretation  of  this  difficult  passage  which 
may  not  lie  open  to  the  foregoing  objections,  by  harmonizing 
at  once  with  the  character  of  our  Lord  and  with  all  the  fsicts 
in  the  case,  we  would  suggest  that  it  is  but  a  fragmentary  ac- 
count, which  can  not  be  fully  understood  without  allowing  the 
imagination  to  fill  up  the  existing  chasms  with  the  probable 
circumstances  which  have  been  omitted  in  the  narrative.  These 
might  be  supplied  somewhat  as  follows:  On  the  path  which 
leads  from  Bethany,  over  the  top  of  Olivet  to  Jerusalem,  stood 
a  fig-tree  by  the  way-side.  It  was  of  the  kind  which  is  eaten 
green  or  fresh.  Now  it  often  happens  that  some  of  the  fruit, 
being  hidden  by  the  leaves,  is  not  picked,  and  it  comes  in 
sight  when  the  leaves  drop  at  the  coming  of  winter.  These 
figs  become  dry  and  dark,  and  when  the  fresh  leaves  come  out 
in  March  they  can  easily  be  distinguished  by  their  color.     Al- 

*  Cant,  ii.,  13. 


140  BIBLE   LANDS. 

most  every  fig-tree  has  thus  some  fruit  left  upon  its  topmost 
branches  until  the  ensuing  season.  They  are  indeed  poor  fare, 
even  for  the  poorest ;  but  our  Lord  belonged  to  the  latter  class. 
He  had  passed  that  way  not  long  before,  and  had  either  seen 
them,  or  had  plucked  and  eaten  some  of  them.  The  owner  of 
the  tree  may  have  been  an  enemy,  or  he  may  simply  have  been 
vexed  by  the  sight  of  strangers  who  went  "  across  lots  "  along 
the  shorter  path,  instead  of  taking  the  high-road  to  Jericho, 
climbing  on  his  trees  and  picking  the  old  figs  of  last  year,  to 
the  danger  of  injuring  the  young  shoots  and  blossoms  of  the 
present  crop.  He  cared  not  that  Moses  allowed  them.*  So 
he  shook  off  and  threw  away  the  remaining  13gs.  Our  Lord's 
conduct  on  the  occasion  presents  us  an  example  of  the  mys- 
terious union  of  the  human  and  divine  nature  in  one  being. 
He  looked  into  the  tree  for  fruit  as  a  man,  and  he  understood 
all  the  circumstances  of  the  case  as  God  alone  can.  He  pun- 
ished the  churlish  owner  in  faithfulness  to  his  soul,  just  as  he 
had  punished  the  Gadarenes  for  keeping  unclean  animals  by 
letting  the  "legion  of  devils"  go  into  the  swine. f  But  the 
matter  concerned  not  the  apostles,  and  he  told  them  nothing  of 
it.  For  them  there  was  only  a  lesson  of  faith.  The  knowledge 
of  the  punishment  inflicted  would  have  destroj'ed  the  effect  of 
the  warning  they  had  already  received  upon  that  subject.;}: 

There  is  no  evidence  to  prove  that  our  Saviour  intended 
to  impress  upon  his  hearers  through  this  incident,  as  some  have 
supposed,  the  dealings  of  God  toward  the  Jews  for  bearing 
leaves  alone  without  the  fruits  of  righteousness. 

No  fruit-tree  is  more  highly  esteemed  throughout  the  Levant 
than  the  pomegranate,  whether  for  its  beauty  or  its  fruit.  It 
is  a  shrub  rather  than  a  tree;  and  has  a  bright  green  and  lus- 
trous leaf  Its  wood  is  fragile,  and  of  a  yellow  tint.  The  trees 
are  of  two  kinds;  some  producing  blossoms  alone,  while  others 
yield  the  delicious  fruit.  The  flowers  have  beautiful  petals 
of  a  bright  scarlet  color,  encased  in  a  bell -shaped  calyx  of  a 
paler  tint,  stiff  as  leather,  and  with  a  regularly  serrated  border. 
The  fruit  is  round  like  an  orange,  and  terminated  by  the  scal- 
loped calyx.     It  is  of  a  flesh  color,  with  tints  of  deeper  rose.§ 


*  Dent,  xxiv.,  19-21.  t  Matt,  viii.,  32. 

t  Luke  ix.,  54-56.  §  Cant,  iv.,  3. 


FRUIT   AND   FOREST   TREES. — FLOWERS.  141 

The  rind  is  thick,  and  of  a  bright  yellow  hue  on  the  inside. 
The  pomegranate  is  filled  with  a  large  number  of  closely -packed 
kernels,  mostly  consisting  of  a  delicate  juice,  inclosing  a  small 
seed.  These  constitute  its  edible  part,  and  are  arranged  in  ir- 
regular groups  attached  to  portions  of  the  rind  which  project 
inwardly;  they  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  delicate 
membrane.  The  juice  of  this  fruit  is  often  manufactured  into 
wine.*  Gath-rimmonf  signifies  the  "  wine-press  of  the  pome- 
granate," and  implies  that  the  wine-presses  of  that  town  were 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  pomegranate  wine.  One  species 
of  pomegranate  has  kernels  of  a  deep  crimson  color,  preferred 
by  some  on  account  of  their  strong  acidity,  their  juice  being 
sometimes  used  instead  of  vinegar.  The  other  variety  is  near- 
ly white,  of  a  pleasant  sweet  flavor,  very  refreshing,  and  a  great 
favorite  with  all  classes.  The  pomegranate  keeps  for  a  long 
time,  and  is  transported  over  considerable  distances,  chiefly  for 
the  use  of  the  sick.  The  rind  is  employed  for  tanning  pur- 
poses, and  being  a  powerful  astringent,  is  administered  in  cases 
of  dysentery.  These  trees  are  often  seen  in  gardens;}:  by  run- 
ning water,  but  they  are  also  grown  in  extensive  orchards, 
where  they  can  be  irrigated,  as  at  Narlikeuy,  near  Smyrna.§ 
They  are  widely  cultivated  not  only  in  Palestine  but  through- 
out Syria,  and  the  sea-board  of  Southern  and  Western  Asia 
Minor.  They  are  also  found  in  Persia,  on  the  mountains  of 
Northern  India,  and  on  all  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 
This  fruit  was  not  unknown  to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  for  it  is 
carved  on  some  of  their  monuments,  and  the  Israelites  were 
familiar  with  it.|  It  was  extensively  cultivated  in  Palestine 
during  the  entire  Jewish  history.^  The  "  pomegranate-tree  " 
under  which  Saul  "  tarried  in  Migron,  near  Gibeah,"  was  proba- 
bly a  cluster  or  grove  of  these  trees  on  the  top  of  the  high  and 
steep  hill  mentioned  by  Josephus,**  where  Israel's  king  had 
gathered  the  remnant  of  his  army.f f  The  villages  or  towns 
of  Eimmon,:}::]:  Gath-rimmon,  and  Enrimmon§§  doubtless  de- 
rived their  names  from  neighboring  groves  of  pomegranate-trees. 


*  Cant,  viii.,  2.  t  Josh,  xxi.,  25.  J  Cant,  vl,  11. 

§  Cant,  iv.,  13.  ||  Exod.  xxviii.,  33 ;  Numb,  xx.,  5. 

t  Numb,  xiii.,  23 ;  Deut.  viii.,  8.  **  "Anriquities,"  vi.,  6,  §  2. 

tt  1  Sam.  xiv.,  2.  ||  Hebr.  pomegranate,  Josh,  xv.,  32. 

§§  Neh.  xi.,  29. 


142  BIBLE   LANDS. 

The  Hebrews  adopted  the  pomegranate  as  a  sacred  emblem. 
It  was  carved  on  the  capitals  of  the  pillars  in  Solomon's  Tem- 
ple, and  embroidered  upon  the  priestly  garments  alternately 
with  bells  (its  bell -shaped  blossoms?)*  It  was  doubtless  a 
type  not  only  of  beauty,  but  of  refreshing  and  of  healing.  The 
ancient  heathen  nations  by  whom  the  Israelites  were  surround- 
ed made  use  of  similar  emblems.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Eo- 
mans  the  laurel,  or  oleander,  was  the  favorite,  a  shrub  which 
adorns  the  banks  of  the  streams  of  Western  Asia,  and  whose 
evergreen  leaf  and  bright  crimson  blossom  were  easily  woven 
into  wreaths  and  crowns,  the  fit  type  of  victory ;  it  is  now 
found  carved  upon  the  remains  of  their  temples  and  monu- 
ments. Among  the  Egyptians  the  lotus  flower,  which  grows 
amidst  tranquil  waters,  celebrated  for  its  delicious  perfume,  was 
the  emblem  of  happiness  and  repose,  and  formed  the  capitals 
of  the  pillars  which  supported  and  adorned  the  buildings  con- 
secrated to  religious  purposes.  It  was  in  this  way  that  the 
honeysuckle  was  very  generally  adopted  as  an  architectural 
ornament  among  the  Greeks:  this  may  be  simply  owing  to  the 
gracefulness  and  fragrance  of  the  flower;  but  it  is  singular  to 
find  it  upon  the  most  ancient  sculptures  of  Kineveh,  so  repre- 
sented as  to  indicate  that  it  was  one  of  the  most  sacred  mystic 
emblems  of  that  people. 

The  almond-tree  is  light  and  graceful,  with  a  small  and  deli- 
cate leaf,  and  is  very  extensively  grown,  being  planted  in  gar- 
dens and  along  the  hedges  of  vineyards.  It  is  the  earliest  tree 
to  blossom,  and  was  for  that  reason  called  by  the  Romans  the 
"vigilant"  or  "watchful"  tree,  indicating  its  readiness  to  take 
advantage  of  the  first  mellowing  of  the  season.  Its  numerous 
white  blossoms  burst  forth  in  the  month  of  January,  before  the 
leaf-buds  appear ;  and  being  set  oflf  by  the  fresh  grass  of  that 
season  of  the  year,  the  almond -trees  then  present  a  snowy 
appearance,  not  unlike  so  many  hoary  heads  scattered  over 
the  fertile  valleys.  Hence  the  simile  of  "  the  Preacher."f  Al- 
monds are  of  two  kinds,  the  soft  and  the  hard-shelled,  a  varie- 
ty of  the  latter  being  bitter.  The  soft-shelled  almond  is  pro- 
duced only  on  some  of  the  islands.  This  nut  is  highly  esteem- 
ed, and  forms  a  part  of  the  provision  of  the  household.     The 

*  Exod.  xxviii.,  33,  34  ;  1  Kings  vii.,  18,  20.  t  Eccles.  xii.,  7. 


FRUIT  AND   FOREST  TREES. — FLOWERS.  143 

nuts  mentioned  in  Cant,  vi.,  11,  were  probably  the  almond,  wal- 
nut, filbert,  and  pistachio.*  The  latter  is  a  grafted  terebinth, 
and  not  very  extensively  cultivated,  though  highly  esteemed ; 
while  the  walnut  is  common  and  of  great  size ;  its  fruit  like- 
wise is  large  and  highly  esteemed.  A  delicate  oil  is  extracted 
from  the  almond,  and  this  circumstance,  together  with  its  grace- 
ful form,  doubtless  led  to  its  adoption  as  the  model  for  the 
sacred  golden  candlestickf  A  representation  of  this  candle- 
stick may  be  seen  in  very  good  preservation,  together  with 
other  spoils  taken  from  the  Jews,  upon  the  Arch  of  Titus  in 
Rome. 

The  camphire-tree,  now  called  the  henna,  is  a  shrub  highly 
esteemed  throughout  the  East,  and  cultivated  either  singly  or 
in  rows.  It  is  referred  to  only  in  Cant,  iv.,  13.  Yet  it  is 
a  plant  of  not  a  little  importance,  as  illustrating  some  of  the 
habits  of  Oriental  society,  A  dye  is  made  of  its  dried  leaves, 
with  which  the  women  stain  their  hair,  their  finger-nails,  and 
the  palms  of  their  hands  ;  sometimes  even  the  feet  are  dyed  in 
the  same  manner,  and  indeed  it  constitutes  an  indispensable 
adornment  of  a  bride.  It  is  also  used  by  the  men,  being  ap- 
plied to  the  hair  and  the  beard,  particularly  of  the  aged.  It  is 
deemed  highly  ornamental  when  used  to  color  the  mane  and 
tail  of  a  white  horse.  This  custom,  so  universal,  is  referred  to 
by  several  authors  of  antiquity  ;  and  the  fact  that  the  nails  of 
some  of  the  Egyptian  mummies  (particularly  those  of  females), 
still  show  traces  of  the  dye  upon  them,  is  a  sufficient  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  that  practice  in  the  earliest  times,  and  proves 
the  durability  of  the  dye.  The  blossoms  of  the  henna  are 
white,  and  grow  in  clusters.  Their  sweet  perfume  makes  them 
special  favorites  with  the  women,  who  are  fond  of  placing 
bunches  of  them  in  their  bosoms.:}: 

We  shall  not  describe  the  plantations  of  mulberries,  nor  the 
production  of  silk,  now  one  of  the  principal  resources  of  many 
districts  of  Western  Asia,  for  this  article  was  unknown  to  the 
ancients,  except  as  imported  from  China,  and  its  production 
in  the  Western  world  dates  only  from  the  twelfth  century  of 
our  era.§    Silk  is  undoubtedly  referred  to  only  in  Rev,  xviii.,  12, 


*  See  also  Gen.  xliii.,  11.  t  Exod.  xxv.,  33,  34  ;  xxxvii.,  19,  20. 

t  Cant,  i.,  18,  14,  §  Michaud,  "Histoire  des  Croisades,"  iv.,  299. 

10 


144  BIBLE    LANDS. 

The  only  passage  in  the  Old  Testament  where  the  word 
mulberry  occurs  in  our  version  is  considered  by  commentators 
as  of  doubtful  correctness;*  yet  there  is  nothing  in  the  nar- 
rative to  exclude  such  a  translation.  Mulberries  are  of  two 
kinds.  That  which  yields  the  black  berry  is  cultivated  for  its 
fruit  alone,  which  is  highly  esteemed  on  account  of  its  pleasant 
acidity ;  for  its  leaves  are  not  given  to  the  silk- worm.  Its  juice 
is  blood-red,  and  it  is  mentioned  in  1  Mace,  vi.,  34,  that  it  was 
placed  before  the  elephants  of  Antiochus,  in  order  that  the 
sight  of  what  they  would  suppose  to  be  blood  might  enrage 
and  excite  them  to  fight  against  the  army  of  the  Jews.  It  is 
this  variety  of  mulberry  which  is  referred  to  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament under  the  name  of  "sycamine,"f  a  purely  Greek  word 
still  in  common  use.  Though  the  white  mulberry  is  some- 
times eaten,  it  is  deemed  insipid.  It  is  probable  that  the  an- 
cients, who  were  unacquainted  with  the  manner  of  obtaining 
silk,  planted  the  black  mulberry  almost  exclusively  for  the 
sake  of  its  fruit.  The  tree,  moreover,  grows  to  a  larger  size, 
and  affords  a  thicker  shade.  It  often  occupies  a  favorite  spot 
in  a  garden,  or  takes  the  place  of  a  cluster  of  fig-trees  in  a  vine- 
yard, and  is  often  chosen  as  a  place  of  resort.  The  language 
of  our  Lord  in  the  last-mentioned  text  would  lead  us  to  sup- 
pose that  he  had  retired  with  his  disciples  to  such  a  spot,  when 
he  told  them  that  "  had  they  faith  as  a  grain  of  mustard-seed," 
^.  e.,  the  smallest  possible  amount  of  it,  they  could  command 
the  mighty  tree  under  which  they  were  sitting,  and  it  would 
rise  from  its  place,  in  spite  of  its  weight  and  roots,  and  would 
travel  to  and  throw  itself  into  the  sea. 

The  tree  which  produces  the  white  mulberry  grows  to  a 
great  size  when  not  kept  down  by  pruning  for  the  purpose  of 
feeding  the  silk-worms.  It  affords  a  dense  and  grateful  shade 
in  hot  countries,  but,  as  already  mentioned,  the  fruit  is  insipid, 
though  very  sweet. 

We  shall  also  refrain  from  noticing  the  cultivation  of  cotton, 
one  of  the  chief  products  of  modern  Egypt.  The  ancients 
were  mostly  clothed  in  woolen  stuffs,  as  are,  to  a  great  extent, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  interior  portions  of  the  country  at  the 
present  day ;  but  the  garments  of  the  rich  were  made  of  fine 

*  2  Sam.  v.,  23,  24 ;  see  also  1  Cliron.  xiv.,  14,  \r,.  t  Luke  xvii.,  6. 


FRUIT    AND'   FOREST   TREES. — FLOWERS.  145 

linen,  often  beautifully  embroidered  and  dyed.*  Flax  is  still 
produced  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  though  to  a  limited 
extent,  for  the  cheap  cotton  fabrics  of  Europe  have  completely 
supplanted  the  manufacture  of  linen.  Silk  also  is  extensively 
worn  by  the  rich  of  both  sexes. 

The  sycamore  is  a  tree  which  flourishes  best  in  the  dry  and 
equable  climate  of  Upper  Egypt,  where  it  attains  its  greatest 
size.  The  trunk,  which  not  unfrequently  measures  fifty  feet  in 
circumference,  is  quite  short,  and  the  principal  branches  are 
broad,  and  extend  horizontally  to  a  great  distance,  covering  an 
extensive  area  with  their  delightful  shade.  The  leaves  are 
heart-shaped,  downy  on  the  under  side,  and  somewhat  fragrant: 
a  supposed  resemblance  to  the  mulberry -leaf  has  given  it  its 
name,  which,  in  the  Greek  language,  signifies  the  "  fig-bearing 
mulberry." 

The  sycamore  is  deciduous ;  the  fresh  leaves  come  out  in  the 
month  of  March,  but  the  old  do  not  drop  until  replaced  by  the 
new.  The  fruit  is  of  the  shape  and  internal  structure  of  a 
small  fig,  of  a  yellowish  green  or  purple  hue  when  ripe.  It 
has  a  sweetish  and  slightly  aromatic  taste,  is  watery,  and  infe- 
rior in  flavor  to  the  common  fig.  Several  crops  are  produced 
yearly,  and  the  fruit  grows,  not  on  the  smaller  branches,  as  is 
the  case  with  most  other  trees,  but  upon  short  leafless  stems 
directly  from  the  trunk  and  principal  branches. 

In  the  hot  climate  of  Egypt,  the  shade  of  this  tree  is  extreme- 
ly grateful  to  the  traveler,  while  the  fruit,  though  somewhat 
insipid,  is  refreshing  to  his  parched  lips,  and  is  for  this  reason 
often  planted  by  the  road-side. f  The  wood  of  the  sycamore  is 
light  and  porous,  but  in  Egypt  it  is  long-enduring.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  of  this  wood  were  made  the  coffins  of  the  mummies 
which  have  lasted  for  thousands  of  years;  "though  others  think 
that  the  wood  employed  was  the  Cordya  myxa^  also  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  most  of  their  furniture. 

This  tree  flourishes  throughout  Palestine,  but  is  not  found  in 
the  extreme  north  of  Syria,  where  the  occasional  frosts  would 
surely  destroy  it.;];  But  its  fruit  has  never  been  so  highly  es- 
teemed as  in  Egypt;   see  Amos  vii.,  14,  where  the  prophet 


*  Gen.  xli.,  42;   Ezek.  xxvii.,  16;    Uev.  xviii.,  16. 

t  Lnke  xix.,  4,  .'>.  %  Psiv.  Ixxviii.,  47. 


146  BIBLE    LANDS. 

calls  himself  "an  herdman  and  a  gatherer  of  sycamore  fruit," 
indicating  that  he  belonged  to  the  lowest  class  of  the  people, 
who  turned  their  hands  to  one  and  another  of  the  most  unde- 
sirable and  unremunerative  occupations,  according  to  the  sea- 
son of  the  year  and  the  opportunity  offered.  The  sycamore 
is  mostly  planted  in  low,  sandy,  and  sheltered  situations,  like 
the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  and  these  trees  were  so  numerous  in 
the  days  of  King  David  that  he  appointed  a  special  overseer 
for  them  and  the  olive-trees,*  They  are  easily  planted,  for  a 
branch  stuck  into  the  ground  and  watered  is  sure  to  take  root 
and  grow  into  a  fine  tree.  Thus  they  are  planted  by  the  road- 
side near  a  well  or  a  spring,  or  where  several  ways  meet. 

When  Zaccheus  climbed  into  a  sycamore-tree,  he  doubtless 
stood  upon  one  of  the  lower  horizontal  branches  extended 
over  the  road,  and  could  see  the  whole  multitude  who  accom- 
panied our  Saviour  pass  beneath  him ;  a  position  which  chil- 
dren, and  even  men  and  women,  now  take  to  get  the  best  view 
of  a  similar  crowd  or  procession. f 

The  language  used  in  1  Kings  x.,  27,  indicates  not  only  the 
abundance  of  the  sycamore-trees,  but  also  that  there  could  be 
no  comparison  in  the  mind  of  the  Israelite  between  the  value 
of  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  and  the  sycamore,  for  the  cedar  was 
the  image  of  grandeur  and  glory,  and  its  wood  was  not  only 
enduring,  but  fragrant.:}:  In  the  enumeration  of  the  trees  and 
plants  described  by  Solomon,  the  cedar  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom, §  and  its  wood  was  to  be  obtained 
only  at  great  cost. 

The  date-palm  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  trees  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures,  It  is  indigenous,  and  succeeds  best  in  the 
hot  and  dry  climate  of  Upper  Egypt,  and  in  the  peninsula  of 
Arabia,  but  is  also  found  in  Palestine,  around  the  shores  of 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  and  in  the  southern  islands  of  the  IMed- 
iterranean,  particularly  Cyprus,  Rhodes,  and  Crete.||  The  Phe- 
nice  here  mentioned  appears  to  have  derived  its  name,  signify- 
ing a  date-palm,  from  the  trees  which  grew  about  it;  at  this 
high  latitude,  however,  the  tree  bears  no  fruit,  or  it  does  not 
come  to  full  maturity.     The  dates  even  of  Palestine  are  not 


*  1  Chron.  xxvii.,  28.  t  Luke  xix.,  4.  t  Isa.  ix.,  10. 

§  1  Kings  iv.,  33.  ||  Acts  xxvii.,  12. 


FRUIT   AND    FOREST   TREES, — FLOWERS.  147 

SO  highly  esteemed  as  those  of  Upper  Egypt  But  when  the 
Greeks  and  Eomans  had  as  yet  little  or  no  intercourse  with 
the  interior  of  Africa  and  Arabia,  they  saw  this  graceful, tree 
growing  upon  the  coast  from  Beirut  to  Jaffa,  as  it  does  to  this 
day,  and  named  the  country  Phoenicia — the  Land  of  the  Palm; 
so,  when  Vespasian  conquered  Jerusalem,  he  struck  a  coin  rep- 
resenting a  woman  weeping,  sitting  under  a  palm-tree,  with  the 
inscription  "  Judea  capta.'' 

The  palm  grows  in  its  highest  perfection  amidst  the  very 
sands  of  the  desert,  where,  however,  it  depends  upon  fresh 
spring  water,  which  is  indispensable  to  its  existence.  It  is 
thus  a  fit  emblem  of  the  righteous  living  and  prospering  in  a 
wicked  world,  sustained  by  enduring  influences  derived  orig- 
inally from  the  skies.*  It  is  found  in  Upper  and  Central 
Egypt  in  extensive  plantations,  and  is  the  principal  tree  of 
that  region,  the  inhabitants  greatly  depending  upon  it  for  their 
subsistence. 

This  remarkable  tree  consists  of  a  single  stem  or  trunk,  at- 
taining the  height  of  sixty  or  eighty  feet  without  a  branch, 
and  crowned  at  the  summit  by  a  cluster  or  tuft  of  leaves,  or 
"palms"  that  droop  and  shape  themselves  somewhat  in  the 
form  of  an  umbrella.  Each  of  these  palms  spreads  out  like 
a  fan  from  a  stem  which  is  attached  to  the  trunk ;  and  these 
stems  form  a  circle  which  marks  the  annual  growth  of  the  tree. 
In  a  wild  state,  the  successive  rows  of  palms  wither  and  con- 
tract, but  remain  upon  the  trunk,  producing  with  every  breath 
of  wind  a  strange  creaking  sound  in  the  silence  of  the  desert; 
in  such  a  case  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  fruit  are  inferior. 
The  natives,  therefore,  cut  off  these  stems  as  fast  as  they  dry, 
leaving  but  five  or  six  circles  of  palms  upon  the  top  of  the 
tree,  which  constitute  its  foliage.  The  trunk  thus  presents  the 
appearance  of  scales,  which  enable  a  man  to  climb  with  ease  to 
the  top  of  the  tree  and  gather  the  fruitf 

The  dried  palms,  when  cut  off,  are  manufactured  into  bas- 
kets and  mats,  while  the  fibres  of  their  stems  are  made  into 
brooms.  The  date-palm  is  divided  into  staminate  and  pistil- 
late;:}: and  there  is,  again,  another  distinction  made,  according 
as  the  fruit,  when  ripe,  is  dark  red,  yellow,  or  white.     It  grows 

*  Psa.  xcii.,  12.  f  Cant,  vii.,  8.  %  Herodotus,  bk.  i.,  ch.  193, 


148  BIBLE   LANDS. 

in  large  clusters,  or  bunches,  which  hang  from  the  trunk,  near 
the  root  of  the  lowest  green  stems,  presenting  the  appearance, 
with  the  fresh  foliage  above,  of  a  graceful  basket,  through 
whose  irregular  openings  the  fruit  hangs  down,  its  amber  tint 
in  beautiful  contrast  with  the  dark,  shining  leaves  above.  The 
pistils  of  the  date-blossom  contain  a  fine  and  curly  fibre,  which 
is  beaten  out  and  used  in  all  the  Eastern  baths  for  soaping  the 
body.  At  the  extremit}'-  of  the  trunk,  and  above  the  upper- 
most circle  of  palms,  is  a  terminal  bud,  containing  a  whitish 
substance,  resembling  a  fresh  almond  both  in  consistency  and 
in  taste,  which  the  Arabs  eat  with  the  greatest  relish  when- 
ever a  date-tree  is  cut  down,  calling  it  "  the  heart  of  the  tree."* 

The  wood  of  the  palm,  though  light  and  porous,  is  much 
used  in  architecture.  As  the  tree  puts  forth  a  new  set,  or  cir- 
clet, of  palms  every  year,  it  affords  a  reliable  source  of  informa- 
tion as  to  its  own  age;  thus  trees  have  repeatedly  been  ascer- 
tained to  be  of  several  centuries'  growth.  The  date,  whose 
name  is  derived  from  the  Grreek  word  SoktuXoc.  signifying  a 
finger-,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  finger-end,  is  about  an  inch 
in  length,  and  contains  a  hard  elongated  seed  or  kernel.  It  is 
both  sweet  and  nourishing,  and  a  fine  fruit  when  eaten  fresh. 
In  Upper  Egypt  it  ripens  in  June,  but  later  in  cooler  climates. 
Its  juice  is  frequently  made  into  a  kind  of  sirup,  and  some- 
times into  vinegar.  Spirits  are  also  distilled  from  it.  But  the 
fruit  is  mostly  used  in  a  dried  state.  The  dates  exported  to 
foreign  countries  are  of  an  inferior  quality,  being  often  gather- 
ed before  they  are  ripe.  The  best  are  put  up  in  the  following 
manner:  a  light  palm-leaf  basket  is  packed  full  of  the  perfect- 
ly ripe  fruit,  detached  from  the  stems,  some  juice  or  sirup  be- 
ing poured  in  to  fill  up  the  interstices.  The  edges  of  the  bas- 
ket  are  then  sewed  together,  and  it  is  stowed  away.  The  very 
kernels  of  this  fruit  are  useful  to  man,  for  they  are  ground  up 
and  given  as  food  to  the  camels. 

Frequent  mention  is  made  of  the  palm-tree  in  the  Scriptures. 
We  have  already  stated  that  Phoenicia  and  Phoenice,  in  Crete, 
derived  their  names  from  this  tree.  Otlier  places  also  owe 
their  appellation  to  the  same  source;  an  evidence  that  though 

*  Strabo  mentions  an  Oriental  poem  which  celebrates  three  hundred  and  sixty 
uses  of  the  palm  ("Geography,"  bk.  xv.,  p.  742).  The  nuinber  three  hundred 
and  sixty  is  also  Oriental. 


FRUIT   AND   FOREST   TREES. — FLOWERS.  149 

palm-trees  were  more  abundant  in  Palestine  in  ancient  times 
than  at  the  present  day,  yet  they  were  not  so  common  as  some 
have  inferred.  Elim,  one  of  the  resting-places  of  the  Israelites 
on  their  way  from  Egypt  to  Sinai,  derived  its  name  from  the 
three-score  and  ten  palm-trees  which  grew  there  amidst  twelve 
fountains  of  spring  water.*  The  place  is  now  called  Wady 
Gurundel,  and  is  still  marked  by  palm-trees  and  fountains.f 
Elath,  probably  now  Akaba,  in  Edom,  seems  also  to  have  de- 
rived its  name  from  palm-trees  growing  there  in  ancient  times. 
They  do  not  now  appear  to  exist;  we  only  know  that  palm- 
trees  were  common  in  Idumea.:}:  Tadmor  in  the  Wilderness, 
still  called  by  the  same  name  in  Arabic,  signifies  the  City  of 
Palms^  a  word  which  was  literally  translated  by  the  Komans, 
who  called  it  Palmyra.  It  was  built  by  King  Solomon, §  and 
at  an  hour's  ride  to  the  south  lies  the  plain,  or  "valley  of  salt," 
in  which  David  smote  the  Syrians,  or  Edomites,||  though  some 
suppose  the  site  of  this  battle  is  in  a  similar  valley  which  lies 
to  the  south-east  of  Aleppo.  Mr.  Halifax,  when  he  visited 
Tadmor,  in  1691,  found  a  few  palm-trees  still  remaining  in  the 
gardens,  and  in  a  few  spots  around  the  city.^ 

Jericho  is  repeatedly  called  "  the  city  of  palms  "  in  the  Bi- 
ble. There  were  groves  of  them  seven  miles  long  at  one  time, 
and  the  tree  was  abundant  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  by  Josh- 
ua.** And  Josephus,  who  was  a  contemporary  of  our  Saviour 
and  the  apostles,  repeatedly  refers  to  this  tree  as  abounding 
around  Jericho  and  along  the  banks  of  the  Jordan. ff  We, 
moreover,  find  it  alluded  to  as  existing  there  from  that  time 
till  a  very  recent  period ;  but  a  few  years  ago  a  solitary  palm 
was  left,  which  has  since  disappeared.  Old  trunks  are  occa- 
sionally washed  up  on  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Engedi, 
identified  with  Hazezon-tamar,  signifying  the  "felling  of  the 
palm-tree,"  is  mentioned  under  the  latter  name  in  Gen.  xiv.,  7 ; 
and  2  Chron.  xx.,  2.  It  stood  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  was  once  a  city  second  in  importance  only  to  Jerusa- 
lem, and  celebrated  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil  and  for  its  palm- 

*  Numb,  xxxiii..  9.  t  Robinson,  "Biblical  Researches,"  i.,  69. 

X  Virgil,  "  Georgics,"  iii.,  12  ;   Martial,  x.,  50.  §  2  Chron.  viii.,  4. 

II  2  Sam.  viii.,  13;   1  Chron.  xviii.,  12.  ^  Van  Bruyn,  chap.  Ixviii.,  p.  343. 

**  Deut.  xxxiv.,  3 ;  Judg.  i.,  16  ;  iii.,  13 ;  2  Chron.  xxviii.,  15. 
tt  "Jewish  War,"  iv.,  8,  §  2,  3 ;  "Antiquities,"  xv.,  4,  §  2. 


150  BIBLE   LANDS. 

trees.*  Baal-tamar,  mentioned  in  Judges  xx.,  83,  also  derived 
its  name  from  the  palm-tree.  It  is  called  by  Eusebius  Beit- 
tamar — "the  house  of  the  palm-tree" — and  is  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  the  spot  "  between  Kamah  and  Bethel,  in  Mount 
Ephraim,"  where  Deborah  the  prophetess  "dwelt  under  the 
palm-tree,  and  the  children  of  Israel  came  up  to  her  for  judg- 
ment."f  Bethany — "  the  house  of  dates  " — indicates  that  the 
palm-tree  grew  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
which  is  further  confirmed  by  the  fact  that,  just  before  his 
crucifixion,  our  Lord  went  over  that  mountain  riding  upon  an 
ass,  while  the  people  met  him  with  "branches  of  palm-trees " 
which  they  strewed  in  his  path,:};  The  tree  doubtless  abounded 
in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  as  did  the  olive,  for  it  is  mentioned 
that,  when  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  was  first  kept  by  the  Jews 
after  the  captivity,  the  proclamation  was  given  out  that  the  peo- 
ple "go  forth  unto  the  mount  and  fetch  olive-branches,  and  pine- 
branches,  and  myrtle-branches,  and  palm-branches,  and  branches 
of  thick  trees  to  make  booths.g  This  graceful  tree  is,  however, 
no  longer  to  be  seen  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusalem. 

The  palm-tree  was  anciently  used  as  a  model  in  architect- 
ural art.  The  earliest  example  of  it  may  be  seen  among  the 
temples  of  Egypt.  Solomon  adorned  "  the  walls  of  the  Tem- 
ple round  about  with  carved  figures  of  cherubims  and  palm- 
trees,  and  open  flowers  within  and  without.'']]  The  principal 
central  building,  "the  greater  house,"  was  adorned  with  gold- 
en bass-reliefs  representing  "  palm-trees  and  chains."^  In  Eze- 
kiel's  vision  of  the  Temple,  also,  the  pillars  which  supported 
the  porch  were  carved  in  the  form  of  palm-trees;  the  walls  and 
the  doors  were  alike  adorned  with  carvings  of  this  tree.**  But 
it  is  not  in  Palestine  alone  that  the  palm-tree  seems  to  have 
been  a  favorite  model  for  architectural  decoration ;  Herodotus 
speaks  of  the  hall  of  the  Temple  of  Sais,  in  Egypt,  which  was 
adorned  in  a  similar  manncr.ff  This  tree  also  frequently  oc- 
curs upon  the  carved  walls  of  the  ancient  palaces  of  Nineveh.:}::}: 

In  the  East,  at  the  present  day,  the  same  decoration  is  fre- 

*  Pliny,  " Natural  History,"  v.,  17.  t  Jndg.  iv.,  4,  5. 

:  John  xii.,  13.  §  Neh.  viii.,  1',. 

II  1  Kings  vi.,  20;  vii.,  3f>.  f  2  Clnon.  iii.,  5. 

**  Ezek.  xl.,  W ;  xli.,  18-20.  +t  Herodotus,  bk.  ii.,  cli.  1G9. 

tt  Layavd,  "  Nineveh,"  ii.,  110,  301,  304. 


FRUIT   AND   FOREST   TREES. — FLOWERS.  151 

quently  met  with.  The  Muslims  avoid,  even  more  thart  the 
Hebrews,  the  representations  of  living  creatures ;  but  the  walls 
of  their  houses  are  often  painted  within  with  elaborate  images 
of  trees,  flowers,  fruit,  and  landscapes,  among  which  the  palm 
is  conspicuous.  At  the  Dolma-Bakcheh  palace  of  the  Sultan, 
on  the  Bosphorus,  every  window  of  the  building  containing 
the  women's  apartments  has  a  picture  of  a  palm-tree  painted 
externally  upon  the  lattice  which  covers  its  entire  surface. 

So  likewise  the  beauty  and  gracefulness  of  the  palm  led 
the  ancients  to  use  it  as  an  appropriate  comparison  for  a  fair 
woman.  Homer  thus  describes  Naasicaa,  the  daughter  of  Alci- 
nous.*  So  Solomon,  in  Cant,  vii.,  7 :  "  Thy  stature  is  like  to 
a  palm-tree."  Hence  the  name  Tamar,  "  date-palm,"  was  given 
to  women.  In  the  Old  Testament  we  have  three  instances  of 
this,  viz.,  the  daughter-in-law  of  Judah,f  the  sister  of  Absalom, ;}; 
and  Absalom's  daughter.  §  The  beauty  of  the  last  two  is  par- 
ticularly mentioned.  In  modern  times,  for  ten  centuries  past, 
the  cypress  has  been  cultivated  with  so  much  success,  and  has 
become  such  a  favorite  in  Turkey,  especially  to  adorn  the 
graves  of  the  dead,  that  it  vies  with  the  palm  in  Oriental  po- 
etry, as  an  emblem  of  womanly  grace  and  beauty.  The  tombs 
of  women  are  ornamented  with  cai'ved  representations,  often 
highly  colored  and  gilded,  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  trees ; 
and  now,  as  in  ancient  times,  a  daughter  is  not  unfrequently 
named  Tamra  among  the  Arabs,  and  Armaveni  among  the  Ar- 
menians, two  words  bearing  the  same  signification. 

The  fruit  of  the  carob-tree,|  called  husks  in  the  English  ver- 
sion of  the  New  Testament,  is  spoken  of  but  once  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. It  occurs  in  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  where  he 
is  described  as  having  reached  such  a  depth  of  degradation  as 
not  only  to  associate  daily  with  "  unclean  "  swine,  but  to  be 
ready  to  share  gladly  with  them  their  meagre  food.^ 

This  tree  is  of  the  size  of  a  large  apple-tree,  with  a  denser 
foliage  and  a  longer  leaf  of  dark,  glossy  green.  It  is  an  ever- 
green, and  grows  both  wild  and  cultivated,  affording  refresh- 
ing shade.  The  carob  is  common  in  Palestine,  especially  in 
those  uncultivated  tracts  which  are  in  Scripture  denominated 


*  "Odyssey,"  vi.,  163.  t  Gen.  xxxviii.,  0.  J  2  Sam.  xiii.,  1. 

§  2  Sam.  xiv.,  27.  ||  Arabic,  kharoob.  t  Luke  xv.,  IG. 


152  BIBLE   LANDS. 

"desert,"  or  "the  wilderness."  It  is  also  found  in  Egypt,  in 
Syria,  in  the  southernmost  isles  of  the  Archipelago,  and  par- 
ticularly in  Cyprus.  Its  fruit  consists  of  a  pod  from  six  to  ten 
inches  long  by  one  in  breadth,  which  contains,  besides  several 
hard  seeds,  a  sweet,  thick  pulp,  not  unpleasant  to  the  taste 
when  fully  ripe.  These  pods,  when  ground  up,  yield  a  kind 
of  sirup  much  used  in  the  preparation  of  certain  sweetmeats. 
They  are,  when  dry,  of  a  shining  dark  brown,  and  b}'  contract- 
ing assume  the  shape  of  a  horn,  which  led  the  Greeks  to  call 
them  Kiparia,  derived  from  Kioag,  a  horn,  the  word  used  in 
Luke  XV.,  16  ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  Turks  and  Ar- 
menians also  call  them  by  a  name  which  in  their  languages 
respectively  has  the  same  signification.  The  fruit  closely  re- 
sembles the  pods  of  the  honey-locust-tree,  a  species  of  acacia ; 
and  it  is  probably  to  this  circumstance,  and  the  fact  that  this 
tree  grows  in  the  wilderness,  that  we  are  to  attribute  the  mis- 
take of  some  commentators  who  believe  it  constituted  the  "  lo- 
custs" which  John  the  Baptist  "did  eat."*  The  monks  of  Pal- 
estine call  the  carob  "St.  John's  bread."  'AicpiS^c,  however, 
the  word  used  in  the  original,  belongs  not  to  the  vegetable  but 
to  the  animal  kingdom. 

In  spite  of  the  Mosaic  prohibition,  the  Hebrews  occasionally 
violated  the  law  which  forbade  the  use  of  swine's  flesh. f  Un- 
der Mohammedan  rule,  this  animal  is  never  kept  by  Muslims, 
nor  do  Christians  dare  to  do  it.  In  Cyprus,  however,  where 
the  Muslim  population  is  small,  the  swine  may  be  seen  feeding 
in  the  orchards  of  carob-trees  upon  the  pods  which  lie  on  the 
ground,  for  they  fall  as  soon  as  dry ;  and  in  regions  where  the 
dwarf-oak  does  not  offer  them  its  acorns,  the  wild  boars  mostly 
feed  upon  the  fruit  of  the  carob.  The  dry  pods,  however,  are 
not  despised  by  men  as  an  article  of  food.  There  is  scarcely 
a  large  town  in  the  whole  extent  of  Turkey  where  they  may 
not  be  seen  in  the  market,  sold  with  walnuts,  raisins,  and  other 
dried  fruits,  and  though  not  favorites,  they  are  often  purchased 
by  the  poor,  chiefly  for  their  cheapness,  which  is  proverbial. 

The  prickly  pear,  or  cactus,  is  not  particularly  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  yet  its  large  leaves,  thickening  into  branches  below, 
form  so  peculiar  a  feature  in  the  landscape  that  all  notice  of  it 

*  Mark  i.,  6.  t  Mark  v.,  13,  14. 


FRUIT   AND    FOREST   TREES. — FLOWERS.  153 

can  not  be  omitted.  Its  thorny  fruit  grows  around  the  rim  of 
the  outer  leaves,  and  is  rather  insipid.  This  plant  is  found 
only  upon  the  alluvium  near  the  sea.  The  banana-tree,  with 
its  large  peculiar  leaves,  is  mostly  confined  to  Egypt. 

We  need  not  speak  of  the  groves  of  orange,  lemon,  and  cit- 
ron trees,  for  which  the  coast  and  many  of  the  islands  are  just- 
ly celebrated.  The  Jaffa  oranges  vie  with  the  large  seedless 
fruit  of  Crete,  and  the  more  juicy  produce  of  Rhodes  and  Scio. 
Damask  prunes  derive  their  name  from  Damascus,  and  apricots 
are  eaten  fresh  and  preserved  in  various  forms  in  many  parts 
of  the  East.  Quinces  do  best  in  Asia  Minor,  but  the  fruits 
obtained  from  the  Persian  grafts  exceed  every  other  variety 
in  size,  and  are  so  sweet  as  to  be  eaten  raw.  Cherries  are  at 
home  in  all  the  Anatolian  peninsula;  they  derive  their  name 
from  Kerason,  a  town  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea. 
Strawberries  grow  wild  on  the  slopes  of  Taurus  and  Anti-tau- 
rus,  and  are  cultivated,  as  well  as  currants,  at  Constantinople. 
The  finest  pears  come  from  Angora,  though  the  fruit  is  indige- 
nous in  all  parts  of  the  country ;  and  no  apple  in  the  world 
can  surpass,  hardly  indeed  equal,  the  muscatel  apple  of  Ama- 
sia,  in  Pontus. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  fact  that  the  Hebrews  con- 
sidered the  cedar-tree  as  occupying  the  first  place  in  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  This  was  not  owing  to  its  superior  usefulness 
to  man,  but  to  certain  circumstances  which  caused  it  to  be  ven- 
erated by  the  nation.*  It  was  from  this  tree  that  the  timber 
was  obtained  which  formed  the  chief  material  of  the  Temple 
built  by  Solomon  to  the  living  God  ;f  and  it  was  used  in  the 
erection  of  the  palaces  of  their  kings,:};  as  well  as  the  dwellings 
of  the  most  wealthy  and  powerful  of  the  Jews.§  At  the  resto- 
ration, likewise,  after  the  captivity  of  Babylon,  the  second  tem- 
ple was  built  by  Zerubbabel  of  cedar  from  Lebanon,!  and  the 
same  material  was  employed  in  the  repairs  made  at  a  later 
period.  For  this  purpose  there  was  no  tree  so  well  fitted,  on 
account  of  the  straightness  and  extreme  length  of  its  trunk  or 
central  stem  (which  sometimes  attained  the  height  of  a  hundred 
and  twenty  feet),  its  durability,  and  the  fragrance  of  its  wood. 


*  2  Sam.  vii.,  2.  t  2  Cliron.  ii.,  3,  4.  t  1  Cliron.  xvii.,  1. 

§  Jer.  xxii.,  14,  15.  ||  Ezra  iii.,  7. 


154  BIBLE   LANDS. 

The  cedar  of  Lebanon  was  peculiar  to  that  "goodly  mount- 
ain." It  probably  once  covered  all  the  higher  portions  of  the 
western  slope  of  Lebanon,  for  the  Phoenicians  alone  possessed 
it.*  It  formed  a  belt  which  reached  to  the  snow-capped  rocks 
that  constitute  its  crest,  mingled  here  and  there  with  the  fir, 
and  giving  place  farther  down  to  the  massive  pitch-pine,  whose 
peculiar  form  has  led  to  its  being  called  the  "parasol-pine." 


Cedars  of  Lebanon. 


Both  the  fir  and  the  pine  are  found  all  over  Western  Asia; 
but  the  place  of  the  cedar  is  usually  occupied  by  the  wild  cy- 
press. This  is  not  the  tall  steeple-like  tree,  the  sharp  outline 
of  whose  dark  foliage  now  characterizes  so  much  of  Oriental 
scenery,  owing  to  the  custom  introduced  by  the  Muslims  of 
planting  it  in  thick  groves  among  the  tombs  of  their  dead.  It 
existed  anciently,  though  not  in  equal  abundance.f  The  wild 
cypress  grows  on  the  tops  of  the  highest  mountains.  It  needs 
but  little  soil  whence  to  derive  moisture,  and  often  is  seen 
standing  on  the  brow  of  a  barren  rock,  firmly  held  in  this 
strange  position  by  the  long  roots  it  sends  into  the  fissures  and 
crevices  near  its  base.  It  thus  bears  the  brunt  of  the  storm, 
and  stretches  out  its  half-denuded  arms  in  the  face  of  the  teni- 

*  1  Kings  v.,  6..  +  Strabo,  "Geography,"  bk.  xiv.,  chap,  i.,  §  21. 


FRUIT   AND    FOREST   TREES. — FLOWERS.  155 

pest.  This  tree  yielded  gopher-wood,  of  which  the  ark  was 
built.*  It  is  the  most  enduring  of  all  wood,  and  was  the  best 
material  for  a  structure  which  was  one  hundred  and  twenty 
years  in  process  of  erection. f 

The  Phoenicians  employed  gopher-wood  in  the  construction 
of  their  shipping,  on  account  of  its  lightness  and  durability. 
It  is  now  cut  and  its  timber  made  into  chests,  in  which  valua- 
ble furs  and  woolen  garments  are  kept  for  its  fragrance,  which 
is  still  greater  than  that  of  the  cedar,  and  effectually  preserves 
them  from  moths. 


Oriental  Woodman's  Axe.    (2  Kiugs  vi.,  5-7.) 

It  has  been  thought  by  some  that  the  "  algum  -  trees '' 
brought  by  the  ships  of  Solomon  and  Hiram,  "  with  gold  and 
precious  stones  from  Ophir,"  of  which  were  made  "  harps  and 
psalteries  for  singers, ":{:  were  cj^press.  This  hypothesis  is  based 
upon  the  fact  that  "  in  Italy,  violins,  harpischords,  and  other 
stringed  instruments  are  made  of  cypress- wood."  This  is  evi- 
dently an  error,  for  the  cypress  grows  wild  to  this  day  on  the 
heights  of  Lebanon ;  and  it  was  used  by  the  Tyrians,  as  we 
have  already  stated,  in  the  construction  of  their  ships.  If 
Ophir  was  in  India,  the  algum  might  be  cinnamon-wood. 

There  appears  to  be  little  doubt  that  the  name  "cedar"  was 
applied  by  the  ancients,  not  to  one  particular  species  of  conif- 
era  alone,  but  to  a  variety  of  forest-trees  which  presented  the 
same  general  appearance.  Some  of  the  timber  found  in  the 
ancient  palaces  of  Nineveh  has  been  proved,  by  microscopic 
examination,  to  be  yew;  yet  the  inscriptions  describe  it  as 
cedar,  which  the  Assyrian  kings  imported  from  Lebanon. § 

The  specimens,  however,  which  still  remain  of  this  remark- 
able tree  fully  justify  the  admiration  of  the  Hebrews;  nor 
were  they  the  only  people  who  held  it  in  high  esteem.  The 
cedar,  but  slightly  different  from  that  of  Lebanon,  is  found  on 


*  Gen.  vi.,  14.  t  Gen.  vi.,  3.  t  -'  Chron.  ix.,  10,  11. 

§  Layard,  "Nineveh  and  Babylon,"  pp.  35G,  '57. 


156  BIBLE    LANDS. 

Mount  Taurus,  and  extends  eastward  to  the  Himalayas.  It 
also  grows  upon  the  mountains  of  Numidia,  as  well  as  on  tlie 
islands  of  Cyprus  and  Crete.  The  testimony  of  the  ancients 
is  unequivocal  respecting  the  durability  of  its  wood.  The 
cedar  timbers  of  the  Temple  of  Diana  had  lasted  four  hundred 
years  when  it  was  burned  by  the  hand  of  an  incendiary ;  and 
the  beams  of  Numidian  cedar  in  the  Temple  of  Apollo,  at  Uti- 
ca,  had  lasted  one  thousand  one  hundred  and  seventy -eight 
years  ;*  while  Solomon's  Temple,  when  burned  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, had  been  standing  above  four  hundred  years.f 

Most  of  the  cedars  which  once  adorned  Mount  Lebanon  have 
disappeared.  The  tree  is  now  confined  to  two  or  three  lo- 
calities lying  above  Tripoli,  on  the  Sj'rian  coast,  and  near  the 
Maronite  convent  of  Canobin,  in  a  semicircular  hollow  or  val- 
ley open  only  toward  the  west.  This  spot  is  about  six  thou- 
sand four  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  and  three  hundred  feet 
below  the  highest  peak  of  Lebanon,  The  cedars  here  stand  in 
a  cluster  or  grove  which  occupies  the  hollow,  and  are  about 
four  hundred  in  number:  a  dozen  of  these  trees  are  very  large 
and  old,  generally  consisting  of  several  trunks  starting  from 
the  same  root,  with  the  branches  spreading  out  to  a  considera- 
ble distance,  and  the  entire  stem  nearly  straight  to  the  summit 
of  the  tree.  Three  hundred  of  the  trees  in  this  interesting 
grove  are  young  and  small,  and  the  remainder  are  of  interme- 
diate sizes.  The  beautiful  smooth  cones,  about  three  inches  in 
length,  usually  growing  in  pairs  as  they  ripen,  drop  their  seeds 
upon  the  ground,  which  sprout  up  in  every  direction  from  the 
bed  of  dried  leaves  that  enriches  the  soil  underneath.  It  would 
be  easy  to  multiply  these  trees  by  transplanting  them  beyond 
their  present  limit,  but  improvement  and  thrift  are  not  the 
order  of  the  day  in  Turkey.  This  grove  is  preserved  from 
destruction  by  the  superstitious  veneration  of  the  neighboring 
inhabitants,  a  sentiment  not  unfrequently  entertained  toward 
natural  objects  of  a  similar  character  in  many  parts  of  the 
country. 

Most  of  the  population  of  this  region  are  Maronites,  who 
have  a  small  chapel  attached  to  this  grove;  and  the  mountain- 
eers of  the  adjacent  villages  gather  here  once  a  year,  on  the 

*  Pliny,  "  Natural  History,"  xii.,  40  ;  xiii.,  5.  t  2  King3  xxv.,  9. 


FRUIT   AND   FOREST  TREES. — FLOWERS.  157 

Feast  of  the  Transfiguration,  to  witness  the  celebration  of  mass 
and  engage  in  festivities. 

This  grove  of  cedars  on  the  heights  of  Lebanon  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  link  between  the  days  of  Solomon,  when  the  He- 
brew commonwealth  reached  its  highest  prosperit}-,  and  our 
modern  times. 

The  oak  and  the  terebinth  seem  often  to  have  been  con- 
founded together  by  the  translators  of  the  Bible.  Both  trees, 
doubtless,  abounded  in  ancient  Palestine.  They  still  flourish 
there,  as  well  as  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  They  resemble  each 
other  much  in  their  general  appearance,  are  alike  long-lived; 
and  being  well  adapted  to  afford  a  refreshing  shade,  single  trees 
are  often  planted  on  the  outskirts,  and  sometimes  in  the  centre 
of  a  village,  and  are  favorite  places  of  resort  for  both  sexes  and 
all  ages.  It  does  not,  however,  require  much  attention  to  dis- 
cover the  difference  between  these  two  trees.  The  general 
form  of  the  trunk  of  the  terebinth  is  more  regular  than  that 
of  the  oak,  although  of  the  two  the  bark  of  the  former  is  more 
rough.  The  outspreading  branches  of  the  terebinth  begin 
higher  up  than  those  of  the  oak,  and  its  leaves  are  a  regu- 
lar oval,  of  a  somewhat  deeper  green,  but  not  so  glossy.  The 
greatest  difference,  however,  consists  in  the  fruit  of  the  two 
trees;  for,  in  place  of  the  acorn  produced  by  the  oak,  the  tere- 
binth bears  a  fruit  of  the  size  of  a  small  pea,  and,  in  the  case  of 
one  variety,  four  times  as  large.  It  consists  of  a  white  shell, 
holding  an  oily  pulp,  and  contained  in  a  bluish-green  pellicle. 
The  fruit  grows  in  clusters  from  short  stems,  and  in  some 
places,  where  the  tree  is  abundant,  oil  is  extracted  from  the 
berries  by  crushing  them  like  olives.*  The  terebinths  we 
have  described  are  wild  or  ungrafted.  There  is  a  smaller  spe- 
cies of  this  tree  called  the  pistachio,  varying  from  fifteen  to 
thirty  feet  in  height,  which  produces  a  nut  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  in  length,  and  very  delicate  and  agreeable  to  the  taste. 
The  term  "  terebinth"  is  the  generic  name  both  of  the  pistachio- 
tree  and  of  the  common  terebinth,  and  the  latter  is  often  graft- 
ed with  the  former.  The  pistachio -tree  is  now  rarely  found, 
except  near  Beirut  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Aleppo.  It  is, 
indeed,  mostly  confined  to  the  latter  locality,  where  it  is  pro- 

*  Thomson,  "The  Land  and  the  Book,"  vol.  i.,  p.  413. 


158  BIBLE    LANDS. 

duced  iu  abundance.  In  accordance  with  a  very  ancient  Ori- 
ental custom,  the  Aleppines  are  in  the  habit  of  sending  this 
delicious  fruit  to  friends  in  neighboring  countries  whose  favor 
they  desire  to  secure.  Among  the  "best  fruits"  of  the  land 
sent  by  Jacob  to  the  ruler  of  Egypt  were  enumerated  "  nuts."''^ 
The  word  hotnin\  translated  "nuts"  in  our  Bible,  is  rendered 
"terebinth"  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  versions,  and  can  only  in- 
dicate the  nuts  obtained  from  the  pistachio-tree,  which  the  Per- 
sian version  calls  j^usteh,  a  word  corresponding  to  the  modern 
Arabic  fustuk — pistachio. 

Betonim,  a  town  of  the  tribe  of  Gad,  whose  name  signifies 
"  terebinth-trees,"  seems  to  have  derived  its  appellation  from  its 
pistachio  -  trees,  whose  nuts  it  probably  exported.  This  mode 
of  naming  towns  is  still  in  practice  at  the  present  day.f  Narli 
Keuy,  the  "  village  of  pomegranates,"  near  Smyrna,  derives  its 
name  from  the  extensive  groves  of  that  tree  flourishing  in  its 
vicinity ;  and  so  Elmalu — the  "  village  of  apples,"  etc.  Dios- 
corides  and  Pliny,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  speak 
of  pistachio-nuts  as  one  of  the  peculiar  products  of  Syria  and 
Palestine,  which  had  been  introduced  thence  into  Italy  and 
Spain.:}: 

The  oak  is  one  of  the  most  common  trees  of  Western  Asia : 
it  forms  such  an  important  feature  in  some  of  its  landscapes, 
and  is  referred  to  so  frequently  in  the  Bible,  that  we  can  not 
pass  it  wholly  unnoticed.  There  are  several  species  of  oak. 
The  stunted  or  dwarf  oak  covers  many  a  tract  of  hilly  country. 
It  grows  to  the  height  of  some  eight  to  twenty  feet,  never  at- 
taining any  degree  of  thickness.  These  dwarf  oaks  produce 
the  gall-nut,  which  assumes  great  varieties  of  size,  color,  and 
form.  Among  these  is  the  article  exported  as  a  drug.  The 
only  use  made  of  the  tree  is  to  cut  it  down  for  fire-wood  and 
the  manufacture  of  charcoal;  cattle,  and  especially  camels,  feed 
upon  its  leaves.  When  dry  in  ^e  autumn,  they  are  often  set 
on  fire  by  the  nomadic  tribes,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a 
better  crop  of  grass  for  their  flocks. 

Besides  the  gall-nut,  however,  which  is  a  product  of  the  Ori- 
ental dwarf  oak,  there  are  brownish -red  (sometimes  yellow) 


*  Gen.  xliii.,  11.  t  Josh,  xiii.,  26. 

X  Dioscorides,  i.,  1771 ;  riiny,  xiii.,  5  ;  xv.,  22. 


FRUIT   AND   FOREST   TREES. — FLOWERS. 


159 


tubercles  or  balls,  of  the  size  of  apples,  which  grow  upon  the 
branches.  Thej  are  covered  with  a  glue,  which  gives  them,  in 
the  autumn,  the  appearance  of  an  attractive  fruit;  but  they  are 
spongy  within,  and  full  of  brown  dust.  Ignorant  travelers  have 
called  them  "apples  of  Sodom,"  not  being  aware,  apparently, 
that  they  are  not  confined  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  but  are  found  equally  in  all  the  hilly  districts  of  Western 
Asia.*  The  accompanying  illustration  is  half  the  natural  size 
in  diameter. 


The  Apple  of  Sodom. 


Valonea  Acorn. 


Another  species  of  oak  is  called  Vahriea,  a  word  doubtless 
derived  from  the  Hebrew  AUon.  It  produces  a  small  acorn, 
whose  "cup  "  is  of  very  great  size,  and  is  extensively  exported 
as  an  article  of  commerce,  being  used  throughout  Europe  for 
tanning  purposes.  No  less  than  150,000  hundred -weight  is 
imported  annually  into  Great  Britain  alone  from  Western  Asia 
and  South-eastern  Europe. 


*  Strabo,  bk.  xvi.,  chap,  ii.,  §  45;  Curzon,  181. 
11 


160  BIBLE    LANDS. 

This  species  of  oak  is  highly  graceful,  and  of  beautiful  pro- 
portions. Its  leaf  is  regular,  and  of  a  light  green.  It  covers 
extensive  tracts  in  Asia  Minor,  where  it  grows  chiefly  on  the 
red  sandstone  formation.  It  is  also  found  in  dense  forests  in 
Gilead  and  Bashan,  in  Palestine. 

The  more  common  oak,  however,  of  the  land  of  Israel  is 
the  same  which  is  found  all  over  Europe.  Its  leaf  is  small, 
dark,  and  shining,  and  it  attains  a  great  size.  We  have  seen 
oaks  that  measured  more  than  twenty  feet  in  circumference, 
and  whose  shadow  covered  an  area  of  at  least  one  hundred 
feet  in  diameter.  These  fine  old  trees  are  generally  found 
planted  on  a  smooth  terrace,  in  the  square  of  a  village,  or  in 
some  spot  of  easy  access.*  Such  a  tree,  or  several  of  them  to- 
gether (for  the  word  is  variously  rendered),  were  planted  by 
Abraham  at  the  well  of  Beersheba — an  event  deemed  of  suf- 
ficient importance  to  be  mentioned  in  the  sacred  text.f  But 
in  many  cases  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  instead  of  the  tree 
(or  "grove")  being  planted  for  the  accommodation  of  the  vil- 
lage, the  village  itself  was  built  around  the  tree  in  order  to  se- 
cure its  shade.  "We  have  ourselves  seen  such  a  process  taking 
place. 

An  Oriental  rarely  plants  any  but  fruit-bearing  trees,  and 
the  scarcity  of  fuel  offers  a  strong  temptation  to  cut  down  sim- 
ple shade-trees  wherever  they  grow.  But  when  he  finds  an 
aged  denizen  of  the  fields  whose  extending  branches  spare  him 
the  trouble  of  spreading  his  tent,  no  one  is  quicker  than  he  to 
avail  himself  of  this  advantage.  He  smooths  the  ground  under 
it,  builds  up  a  platform,  and  sometimes  surrounds  the  area  with 
a  wall.  There  is  often  a  younger  tree  near  by,  carefully  pre- 
served from  injury,  which  is  intended  to  take  the  place  of  the 
aged  veteran  whenever  inexorable  time  shall  prostrate  him. 
There  are  many  such  trees  in  Palestine,  and  especially  oaks. 
The  fine  old  oak  of  Brummana,  which  crowns  the  crest  of  one 
of  the  lower  heights  of  Lebanon,  is  easily  distinguished  from  the 
harbor  of  Beirut  below.  The  large  cavity  in  its  hollow  trunk 
would  shelter  several  persons  at  once.  Eobinson,  in  his  "  Ee- 
searches,":}:  gives  the  measurements  of  the  splendid  oak  near 
Hebron,  which  popular  tradition  has  connected  with  the  name 

*  Judg.  vi.,  11,  19.  +  Gen.  xxi.,  33.  t  Vol.  ij.,  p.  81. 


FRUIT   AND    FOREST  TREES, — FLOWERS.  161 

of  Abraham.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to  reconcile  this  with 
other  traditions  equally  authentic  respecting  a  neighboring 
spot.*  At  any  rate,  there  is  not  the  remotest  probability  that 
an  oak  can  live  thirty-five  centuries;  so  that  the  only  possible 
connection  between  Abraham's  ^'- oaks  of  Mamre"f  and  the 
modern  tree  at  Hebron  is  that  of  descent.  The  dimensions  of 
this  tree  are  certainly  remarkable.  This  venerable  oak,  which 
grows  by  the  side  of  a  well,  and  is  a  place  of  resort  for  the  peo- 
ple, measures  as  follows:  twenty  and  a  half  feet  around  the 
thickest  part  of  the  trunk,  and  eighty-nine  feet  as  the  diameter 
of  the  shadow  of  its  foliage  under  a  vertical  sun. 

The  oak  is  also  planted  by  the  graves  of  the  dead,  unless  the 
oak  groves  which  are  used  as  burial-grounds  may  have  existed 
already,  and  were  appropriated  for  this  purpose.  Such  trees 
are  always  respected,  and  are  never  touched  by  the  woodman's 
axe.  It  must  not  be  understood,  however,  that  any  sacred 
character  attaches  to  the  oak,  or  any  other  tree  planted  by  the 
graves  of  the  dead.  We,  moreover,  find  different  trees,  such  as 
terebinths  and  pines,  besides  the  cypress  and  the  oak,  planted 
in  groves  to  adorn  the  cemeteries  of  towns  and  villages,  and 
the  more  isolated  burying-grounds  of  the  wandering  tribes.;]: 

The  oak  still  exists  as  a  forest-tree  in  Palestine.  This  tree 
flourishes  luxuriantly  not  only  upon  Lebanon,  but  also  in  Gil- 
ead,  and  particularly  on  the  hills  of  Bashan :  it  is,  however, 
being  destroyed  by  the  wandering  Bedawin  for  the  purpose  of 
making  charcoal.  They  light  a  fire  by  the  side  of  a  trunk;  a 
portion  of  which  being  thus  consumed,  the  tree  is  prostrated 
by  the  winter  blasts.  The  Arabs  then  cut  away  and  use  only 
the  smaller  branches,  leaving  the  principal  part  of  the  tree  to 
decay  and  perish  as  it  lies.§  From  this  and  similar  causes 
many  of  the  noble  forests  spoken  of  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
have  long  ago  disappeared  from  the  land,|| 

There  is  another  tree  which,  like  the  oak  and  the  terebinth, 
attracts  the  attention  of  the  traveler  in  Western  Asia  by  its 
size,  its  grateful  shadow,  and  its  being  a  place  of  resort  for  the 
people;  it  is  the  platanus,  or  plane-tree  (also  called  button- 

*  Stanley,  "Sinai  and  Palestine,"  142.  t  Gen.  xviii.,  1,  4. 

X  Gen.  XXXV.,  8;  1  Sam.  xxxi.,  13. 

§  Porter,  "Giant  Cities  of  Bashan,"  p.  53. 

II  1  Sam.  xiv.,  25 ;  2  Kings  ii.,  24. 


162  BIBLE   LANDS. 

wood),  whicb,  though  not  often  mentioned  in  Scripture,  should 
not  be  omitted  in  this  sketch.  This  tree*  is  never  found  except 
in  the  vicinity  of  water.  It  often  shades  a  well,  a  spring,  or  a 
fountain,  and  prospers  even  beside  a  torrent,  whose  stony  bed 
lies  dry  during  the  summer.  The  platanus  often  attains  a 
great  size,  and  specimens  of  great  age  are  not  unfrequently  met 
with.  In  such  cases  the  interior  portions  of  the  trunk  are  apt 
to  decay  and  leave  a  cavity,  which  forms  a  chamber  of  consid- 
erable size.  We  have  known  one  which  measured  nearly  ten 
feet  in  diameter.f 

Several  species  of  pine  are  indigenous  in  Western  Asia,  and 
are  used  both  as  fuel  and  for  building  purposes.  The  most 
useful  of  all  is  the  stone  or  pitch  pine,  the  first  name  indicating 
the  stony  soil  (sometimes  sandy)  on  which  it  grows,  and  the 
second  the  resinous  matter  it  contains,  and  which  constitutes 
its  chief  value.  Even  as  fuel  it  is  so  highly  prized  that  it  is 
sowed  and  raised  sometimes  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  city, 
which  offers  a  good  market  for  the  fuel  thus  obtained,  chiefly 
for  the  supply  of  the  public  baths.  It  is,  moreover,  from  this 
species  alone  that  are  obtained  the  nuts  contained  in  its  cone, 
which  are  so  highly  esteemed  in  the  East,  and  enter  into  the 
preparation  of  so  many  dishes.  The  tree  is  long-lived;  its 
trunk  is  straight  and  bare  of  branches  up  to  a  considerable 
height,  where  they  run  out  horizontally,  giving  the  tree  the 
name  of  "parasol  pine,"  by  which  it  is  called  in  Southern  Eu- 
rope. The  resin,  for  which  it  is  chiefly  valued  by  the  country 
people,  is  obtained  in  the  following  manner:  a  piece  of  the 
trunk  is  cut  out  near  the  root,  sufficiently  large  for  the  resin  to 
exude,  and  after  a  twelvemonth  chips  saturated  with  pitch  are 
obtained  from  the  spot.  These  chips  are  cut  into  small  sticks 
about  six  inches  long,  tied  in  bundles,  and  sent  to  market. 
The  trees  will  stand  this  treatment  for  a  number  of  years;  they 
finally  become  top-heavy,  and  are  thrown  down  by  the  wind. 
The  branches  are  then  cut  away  and  burned  as  fuel,  and  the 
trunks  are  shaped  into  beams  and  rafters  for  the  houses.     The 

*  In  Hosea  iv.,  13,  the  Hebrew  word  ehih,  rendered  in  our  English  vei-sion  ehns, 
is  translated  platanus  by  the  Septuagint,  wiiich  is  doubtless  a  more  correct  render- 
ing, elms  being  unknown  in  Palestine ;  but  the  true  meaning  of  elah  is  oak  and 
terebinth  ;  and  it  is  so  rendered  in  many  places  in  our  version. 

+  Ainsworth,  i.,  49. 


FRUIT  AND   FOREST  TREES. — FLOWERS. 


163 


pitch  with  which  they  are  saturated  prevents  decay ;  and  we 
have  ourselves  struck  with  an  axe  a  beam  of  this  wood  which 
had  been  cut  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  before,  without  be- 
ing able  to  make  an  impression  upon  it,  so  compact  had  be- 
come its  pitchy  texture.  In  passing  through  a  forest  of  stone- 
pines  not  far  from  a  village,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  all  the 
largest  and  finest  trees  treated  in  this  manner.  There  is  abun- 
dant evidence  that  the  ancients  practiced  this  process  for  the 
identical  purpose ;  and  it  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  Greeks 
now  call  the  chips  of  pitch-pine  we  have  described,  ^aSt,  which 
is  the  same  as  the  Sa'/c  of  the  ancients.* 


Stone-piue  Cone  and  Nuts. 


It  is  not  Strange  that  few  allusions  should  be  made  in  the 
Scriptures  to  the  flowers  and  ornamental  shrubs  of  Palestine. 
They  treat  of  historical  and  ethical  subjects,  and  allusions  of 
this  nature  must  necessarily  be  casual.  This  topic,  however, 
illustrates  too  well  some  traits  in  the  character  of  Oriental  peo- 
ple to  be  passed  by  without  notice. 

*  See  Theophrastus,  "Hist.  Plant.," lib.  i.,  cap.  vi.,  §  1 ;  lib.  iii.,  cap.  ix.,  §  3: 
lib.  X.,  cap.  ii..  §§  2,  3,  etc. 


164  BIBLE   LANDS, 

We  may  begin  with  the  general  remark  that  we  have  never 
met  with  any  desire  or  taste  for  the  study  of  botany  as  a  sci- 
ence, or  any  thing  like  an  attempt  to  cultivate  a  large  variety 
of  garden  plants  and  flowers.  When  they  are  not  produced 
for  the  market,  even  the  wealthiest  classes  are  satisfied  with  a 
few  favorite  species,  preferring  the  brightest  colors  and  those 
which  exhale  the  most  agreeable  perfumes,  and  endeavoring  not 
to  be  left  without  some  kind  of  flower  or  fragrant  plant  during 
any  portion  of  the  year.  The  rose  and  the  carnation  are  decid- 
edly the  favorites  of  all  classes,  and  are  worn  on  the  head,  fas- 
tened under  the  edge  of  the  turban  over  the  forehead,  not  by 
the  children  and  youths  alone,  but  equally  by  the  aged.  Many 
other  fragrant  flowers  are  in  great  favor,  such  as  the  narcissus, 
the  jasmine,  the  tuberose,  the  hyacinth,  the  lilac,  and  the  violet; 
they  are  carried  in  the  hand  or  worn  in  the  bosom.  There  is 
also  a  large  class  of  fragrant  aromatic  plants,  sprigs  of  which 
are  carried  in  the  same  way.  The  cassi,  in  Arabic  misJc,^  is  a 
small  species  of  acacia,  bearing  a  little  golden  blossom  resem- 
bling a  downy  ball,  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  of  a  deli- 
cious perfume.  It  is  carried  about  the  person,  and  scattered 
among  linen  or  other  clothing  kept  in  chests. 

There  is  no  such  thing,  however,  as  a  regularly  laid -out 
flower-garden.  The  vegetable  patches  are  marked  out  with  a 
line,  but  the  flowers  must  take  care  of  themselves.  The  rose- 
bushes grow  along  the  garden  -  walls,  and  other  flowers  and 
shrubs  are  at  liberty  to  come  up  wherever  they  do  not  inter- 
fere with  the  production  of  useful  plants.  They  have  a  do- 
main of  their  own,  however,  the  flower-pot,  whether  of  burned 
clay,  or  of  plain  boards  roughly  nailed  together,  or  even  a  frag- 
ment of  a  water-jar,  filled  with  earth  for  the  purpose.  These 
are  arranged  along  the  walls  of  the  court,  upon  the  balconies, 
under  the  trellis,  upon  the  edge  of  the  terraced  roof,  or  even 
firmly  set  in  mortar  along  the  edge  of  a  parapet.  There  flour- 
ish in  the  greatest  luxuriance  every  variety  of  the  carnation; 
there  flaunts  the  double  marigold,  pride  of  the  Turkish  inhab- 
itants everywhere;  and  there  is  the  lovely  green  of  the  fragrant 
never-failing  "sweet  basil,"  the  hahisk  of  the  Arabs,  called  by  the 
Greeks  vasilico,  which  gives  its  name  to  many  a  blushing  maiden. 

♦  Is  it  the  shittah  of  the  Hebrews?     Isa.  xli.,  19. 


FRUIT   AND    FOREST  TREES. — FLOWERS.  165 

The  wild  rose  grows  in  abundance  all  over  Western  Asia; 
its  bright  petals  glow  in  every  hedge  and  adorn  every  thicket. 
The  cultivated  species  are  abundant,  and  extremely  varied.  It 
is  the  land  of  roses,  and  the  first  of  May  is  observed  by  the 
Christian  population  of  Western  Asia  (a  relic  of  heathenism) 
with  feasting  and  rejoicing  in  the  gardens  and  the  groves,  and 
collecting  flowers,  mostly  roses,  which  are  wreathed  in  garlands 
and  hung  over  the  doors  of  their  dwellings.  These  they  super- 
stitiously  avoid  disturbing  until  renewed  the  following  year. 

The  rose,  however,  does  not  commend  itself  by  its  fragrance 
and  brightness  alone  to  the  utilitarian  Oriental.  Eose-water  is 
distilled  all  over  the  country,  and  is  largely  employed  to  flavor 
various  articles  of  food,  chiefly  pastry  and  sweetmeats,  also  as 
a  remedy  for  diseases  of  the  eye,  and  otherwise  on  various  oc- 
casions described  elsewhere.  The  light  pink  and  the  white 
are  used  for  these  purposes ;  other  varieties  are  less  cultivated. 
The  ottar,  or  otto — the  oil  of  roses — is  obtained  from  a  peculiar 
variety  of  this  flower,  which  is  exclusively  produced  in  the 
northern  part  of  Eoumelia,  between  Adrianople  and  the  Balkan 
mountains. 

It  appears  to  have  been  decided  by  commentators  that  the 
rose  of  Sharon  mentioned  in  Cant,  ii.,  1,  and  Isa.  xxxv.,  1,  of 
our  version,  is  no  rose  at  all,  but  the  flower  of  a  bulbous  root. 
The  varieties  of  these  plants  are  not  numerous,  and  if  we  ex 
cept  the  tulips  and  their  cognates,  of  which  we  shall  speak  by 
and-by,  they  all  offer  but  little  attraction  to  an  Eastern  mind, 
on  account  of  the  paleness  of  their  tints.  The  only  exceptions, 
perhaps,  are  the  hyacinth  and  the  narcissus,  both  of  which  are 
favorites,  combining  as  they  do  beauty  and  perfume.  Some 
versions  have  employed  the  word  "narcissus"  for  "rose"  in 
Canticles,  and  we  believe  this  to  be  a  correct  translation. 

There  has  been  much  difference  of  opinion  respecting  the 
flower  designated  by  our  Saviour,  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
under  the  name  of  "lilies  of  the  field:"  it  appears  to  be  the 
same  as  referred  to  in  Cant,  ii.,  1,  being  there  called  "  the  lily 
of  the  valley."  We  shall  not  stop  to  discuss  the  numerous 
candidates  for  the  honor  whose  claims  have  already  been  ad- 
vanced, but  shall  content  ourselves  with  presenting  those  of 
the  one  we  now  suggest. 

The   red  tulip   is   called  by  the  Persians  and   Armenians 


166  BIBLE    LANDS. 

shushcm,  by  the  Turks  lakh  (as  Lately  Djami,  the  Mosk  of  Tu- 
lips, at  Constantinople,)  and  by  the  Greeks  Kptvov.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  the  lily  spoken  of  in  Canticles  and  Matthew  is  a 
wild  flower,  extremely  common.  Now  there  is  a  wild  flower 
extremely  common  in  all  Western  Asia,  which  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  small  tulip,  while  it  is  superior  to  it  in  beauty, 
and  easily  mistaken  for  it.  In  French  it  is  appropriately  des- 
ignated Anemone  des  pres,  or  Meadow  Anemone,  and  might  de- 
servedly be  termed  "the  queen  of  the 
meadows."  This  delicate  and  graceful 
flower  is  remarkable  for  the  great  vari- 
ety of  colors  it  assumes :  it  is  often  seen 
of  a  bright  scarlet,  and  of  every  shade  of 
purple  and  pink,  as  well  as  straw-color 
and  white.  With  these  we  include,  un- 
der the  denomination  of  "  the  lilies  of 
the  field,"  both  the  wild  tulip  and  the 
wild  poppy,  for  an  unscientific  eye  can 
not  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other.* 
The  Arab,  when  asked  the  name  of  these 
"  lilies "  and  the  other  wild  flowers 
blooming  in  the  vale,  makes  no  answer 
The  Lily  of  the  Field-Meadow  but  haskish — they  are  "grass,"  vividly 
Anemone.  (Matt.  vi..  28.)  illustrating  Matt,  vi.,  30.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  our  Saviour  drew  his  similitudes  from 
objects  near  by,  or  in  sight  of  his  hearers.  The  Sermon 
on  the  Mount,  in  which  this  passage  occurs,  was  delivered 
near  the  foot  of  the  mount — just  such  a  spot  as  these  flow- 
ers are  wont  to  adorn.  As  he  looked  upon  the  plain  below, 
the  wild  flowers  to  which  he  could  draw  a  comparison  were 
the  buttercups,  dandelions,  daisies,  and  these  anemones,  tulips, 
and  poppies;  and  he  naturally  selected  the  latter  class,  which 
is  distinguished  from  all  the  rest  by  the  brightness  of  their 
hues;  and  some  of  which,  we  may  easily  imagine,  as  is  often 
done  at  this  very  day,  had  been  gathered  and  arranged  by 
some  of  the  children  and  presented  to  the  rabbi.  We  have 
already  mentioned  that  these  flowers  grow  upon  the  lower 


*  See  Lynch,  p.  225;  Thevenot,  181 ;  Stanley,  "Sinai  and  Palestine,"  p.  100, 
137;  Van'dc  Velde,  i.,  205. 


FRUIT  AND   FOREST  TREES.— FLOWERS.  167 

slopes  of  the  hills ;  thej  often  peer  from  under  the  edges  of  the 
thorny  bushes  ;*  and  such  are  the  places  which  are  frequented 
at  night  until  the  early  morning  by  the  fearless  roe  or  the  fool- 
ish young  hartf 

We  have  spoken  of  the  wild  poppy  as  one  of  the  flowers 
which  our  Saviour  may  have  included  under  the  generic  name 
of  "lilies  of  the  field."  The 
poppy  is,  however,  extensively 
cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the 
opium  which  is  obtained  from  it, 
and  was  doubtless  known  to  the 
ancients,  though  no  allusion  to 
it  is  met  with  in  the  Scriptures. 
It  is  a  taller  and  much  stronger 
plant  than  the  wild  variety,  gen- 
erally attaining  the  height  of 
three  and  a  half  or  four  feet. 
The  flower  is  white,  and  the  seed 
is  thrown  broadcast  in  the  field,  \^ 
which  is  carefully  inclosed  with 
a  hedge.  The  drug  is  obtained 
in  the  following  manner:  when 
the  plant  has  attained  a  certain  The  opmm  Poppy, 

size,  each  stem  is  tied  sufficiently  tight  to  prevent  the  sap  from 
rising  higher,  and  an  incision  is  made  for  it  to  ooze  out:  this 
sap,  hardened  by  evaporation  and  the  heat  of  the  sun,  constitutes 
what  is  called  opium,  of  which  laudanum  is  a  decoction.  Af- 
ter the  juice  has  been  obtained  in  the  manner  we  have  described, 
the  tie  is  unfastened,  that  the  seed  may  be  brought  to  maturity. 
From  this  seed  an  oil  is  extracted,  which,  though  not  wholly 
free  from  the  noxious  qualities  of  the  drug,  is  used  both  as 
food  and  to  burn.  The  poppy  is  cultivated  in  Turkey,  in  the 
central  part  of  the  plateau  of  Asia  Minor,  about  the  region  of 
Afion  Karahissar,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  drug  afion, 
meaning  opium.  It  is  not  much  used  in  the  country  now,  the 
shops  in  which  it  was  smoked  at  the  capital  being  shut  up,  we 
believe.  The  Turkish  opium  is  said  to  bring  a  higher  price  in 
China  than  that  which  is  raised  in  India. 

*  Cant,  ii.,  2.  t  Cant,  viii.,  14. 


168  BIBLE   LANDS. 

A  treatise  on  botany,  however,  would  alone  do  justice  to  the 
immense  variety  and  great  beauty  of  the  wild  flowers  of  Bi 
ble  lands.  We  have  only  sought  to  represent  the  general  im 
pression  produced  upon  the  Oriental  mind.  The  same  migh 
be  said  of  flowering  shrubs  and  trees,  whether  wild  or  culti 
vated  in  gardens,  such  as  the  lilac  and  several  varieties  of  aca- 
cia, the  peacock  and  the  silk-tree,  and  the  "  pride  of  India  "  or 
"  Solomon's  tree."  Among  the  wild  shrubs,  however,  there  are 
two — one  the  denizen  of  the  plain,  the  other  of  the  mountain 
— which  affect  the  landscape  too  strongly  by  their  general  dif- 
fusion to  be  passed  over  in  silence.  The  oleander  grows  to  the 
height  of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet,  and  is  confined  to  the  banks  of 
the  rivers — the  Jordan,  the  Kishon,  the  Orontes,  and  most  of 
the  streams  of  Western  Asia — often  forming  a  thick  border  of 
deep  green,  varied  in  the  spring  by  bright  red  flowers.  The 
leaves  are  narrow,  and  six  inches  long.  The  plant  often  grows 
on  the  banks  of  a  torrent,  which  contains  water  only  during 
the  rainy  season.  It  is  a  marked  and  peculiar  feature  of  the 
East.  So  is  the  "  tree-strawberry  :"  its  fruit  is  fair  but  insipid, 
round,  rather  orange  than  red,  and  of  the  size  of  a  strawberry. 
Its  little  bell -shaped  flowers  are  white  and  in  clusters;  but 
its  more  marked  peculiarity  lies  in  the  redness  of  its  bark  and 
the  glossy  green  of  its  foliage,  which  give  the  landscape  a  tint 
unlike  that  of  any  other  shrub  or  bush.  All  the  peculiarities 
of  natural  scenery  have  their  share  in  forming  the  minds  of 
those  who  come  in  daily  contact  with  them. 

We  should  not  forget  that  the  fruit-trees,  and  even  the  flow- 
ers and  shrubs  we  have  described,  have  a  native  origin,  and 
existed,  therefore,  in  ancient  times.  They  may  have  been  im- 
proved by  the  lapse  of  ages,  but  rice,  coffee,  and  tobacco  alone 
have  been  imported.  Many  of  the  productions  of  Western 
Asia,  however,  have  been  transported  to  Europe,  conferring 
untold  benefits  upon  its  population. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  169 


CHAPTER  VII. 

DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.— CATTLE,  SHEEP,  AND   GOATS. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  ox  as  being  the  animal  to 
which  the  people  of  Western  Asia  are  exclusively  indebted 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  although  the  ass  is  sometimes 
made  to  bear  the  yoke  by  his  side.  The  horse  is  deemed  too 
noble,  and  perhaps  too  spirited  a  creature,  to  be  employed  in 
labor  of  this  nature.  Mules  were  rare  in  very  ancient  times, 
possessed  by  the  rich  alone,  and  used  not  in  carrying  burdens, 
as  at  present,  but  exclusively  for  riding. 

There  must  doubtless  have  been  a  time  when  the  ox  was 
wild,  and  man  was  compelled  to  till  the  ground  with  his  own 
unaided  hand  ;  but  that  time  lies  beyond  the  memory  of  man. 
The  oldest  historical  records,  next  to  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
which  we  possess,  are  engraved  upon  the  granite  monuments 
of  Egypt,  in  the  language  of  signs,  commonly  called  hiero- 
glyphics (sacred  carvings),  having  been  thus  designated  by  the 
Greeks  on  account  of  their  knowledge  being  confined  to  the 
priesthood.  It  appears  from  these  monuments  that  the  ancient 
Egyptians  depended  for  the  cultivation  of  their  fields  upon  the 
labors  of  the  ox,  and  that  their  estimation  of  the  value  of  this 
animal  was  such  as  to  lead  them  to  offer  him  divine  honors. 
Their  principal  object  of  worship  consisted  of  a  bull,  whose 
breed  was  preserved  with  the  greatest  care,  and  whose  body 
was  embalmed  after  death,  and  buried  amidst  the  lamentations 
of  the  whole  nation.  The  Hebrews  had  become  conversant 
with  this  idolatrous  worship  during  their  two  hundred  years' 
residence  in  Egypt.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
many  of  them  participated  in  the  idolatrous  practices  of  their 
Egyptian  masters;  and  their  attachment  to  these  rites  was  so 
strong  that,  though  they  had  every  reason  to  hate  their  cruel 
oppressors,  yet  they  were  scarcely  withdrawn  from  their  tyran- 
ny when  they  constrained  Aaron  to  make  them  a  golden  calf, 


170  BIBLE   LANDS. 

that  they  might  worship  it  after  the  Egyptian  mode  *  Indeed 
that  whole  generation  of  Israelites  had  to  be  destroyed,  during 
forty  years'  wanderings  in  the  wilderness,  to  eradicate  from  the 
people's  hearts  their  attachment  to  that  temporary  home  for 
which  they  yearned,  and  whose  slavery  and  idolatry  they  pre- 
ferred to  the  land  of  freedom.  Yet  not  even  thus  could  this 
form  of  idolatry  be  obliterated  from  the  mind  of  the  Israelite ; 
as  he  guided  the  plow,  following  his  patient  ox,  which  also 
threshed  his  wheat  upon  the  threshing-floor,  he  was  constantly 
reminded  of  the  great  value  of  this  animal,  which  has  ever  been 
in  the  East,  more  than  in  any  other  land,  the  dependence  and 
help  of  the  agriculturist.  And  so  Jeroboam,  when  he  had 
successfully  led  the  rebellion  of  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel  against 
the  son  of  Solomon,  anxious  to  prevent  the  people  from  going 
up  to  Jerusalem  yearly,  and  from  being  tempted  to  return  to 
their  old  allegiance,  set  up  two  golden  calves — one  at  Dan,  at 
the  foot  of  Hermon,  the  northern  extremity  of  his  dominions; 
the  other  at  Bethel,  near  his  southern  border,  a  spot  peculiarly 
sacred  to  the  mind  of  the  Hebrew.f  These  idols  continued  to 
be  the  object  of  Israel's  worship  until  the  destruction  of  their 
kingdom,  and  their  forcible  removal  from  the  land. 

But  the  Egyptians  and  the  Israelites  were  not  the  only  an- 
cient nations  that  understood  the  value  of  the  ox.  It  was 
probably  the  first  animal  tamed  by  man  for  the  sake  of  the 
service  he  could  render.  It  even  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
commercial  medium,  before  the  precious  metals  came  into  use, 
as  was  the  case  until  lately  in  South  Africa ;  hence  the  first 
coins  made  were  stamped  with  the  effigy  of  an  ox.  The  earliest 
sculptures  bear  images  of  this  animal  as  used  by  man,  and  the 
earliest  histories  represent  him  in  a  state  of  domesticity.  Cat- 
tle were  owned  by  Abraham:}:  and  by  the  Canaanites.§  Job 
possessed  a  thousand  yoke  of  oxen  ;||  and  the  Hebrews  owned 
many  in  Egypt,!"  which  they  took  away  with  them.**  So  com- 
mon had  the  animal  become  in  the  neighboring  nations,  that 
when  the  Israelites  destroyed  the  Midianites  they  captured  no 
less  than  seventy-two  thousand  head  of  cattle.ff 

The  cattle  of  Palestine  are  generally  small,  and  decidedly  in- 

*  Exod.  xxxii.,  4-0.  +  1  Kings  xii.,  28,  29 ;  Gen.  xxxv.,  14,  15. 

t  Gen.  xii.,  IG  ;  xiii.,  7.  §  Gen.  xx.,  14.  ||  Job  xlii.,  12. 

^  Exod.  ix.,  4.  **  Exod.  xii.,  38.  tt  Numb.  xxxi..  3:i. 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.  171 

ferior  to  those  of  more  northern  climes.  The  cause  is  doubt- 
less to  be  found  in  the  scanty  pastures  of  a  land  laid  waste  for 
many  centuries  by  ever -returning  foes,  and  many  of  whose 
springs  of  water  have  been  drying  up  ;  but  there  are  districts 
in  which  the  cattle  are  finer,  and  in  a  far  better  condition. 
There  are  probably  as  fine  "  bulls  of  Bashan  "  now  grazing  on 
the  plains  of  the  Hauran  as  there  were  in  King  David's  time.* 
The  table -lands  of  Asia  Minor  produce,  in  many  parts,  still 
finer  cattle,  not  inferior  probably  to  those  of  ancient  times. 

The  ox  which  Solon  of  Crotona  is  said  first  to  have  carried 
on  his  back,  then  to  have  killed  with  a  single  blow  of  his  fist 
on  the  forehead,  and  finally  to  have  devoured  entire,  can  not 
have  been  of  a  very  great  size.  On  the  other  hand,  however, 
the  mummies  of  the  Egyptian  bull,  deified  under  the  name  of 
Apis^  prove  that  those  animals  fully  attained  the  size  of  our 
cattle  of  colder  climates,  a  result  owing,  doubtless,  to  a  choice 
and  abundant  diet,  as  was  the  case  with  the  heroes  of  Homeric 
times. 

When  oxen  are  not  actually  at  work,  they  are  sent  to  the 
pasture  with  the  rest  of  the  herd.  The  latter  is  made  up  of 
all  the  cattle  belonging  to  the  village  or  town.  Large  proprie- 
tors, however,  have  their  own  herds,  which  graze  in  different 
parts  of  their  farms  or  upon  the  public  lands.  In  all  cases 
the  cattle  are  accustomed  to  collect  just  outside  of  the  village, 
town,  or  farm  premises,  at  an  early  hour  in  the  morning,  when 
the  herdsman  appears,  generally  accompanied  by  his  dog,  and 
usually  carrying  a  loaded  pistol  in  his  belt,  and  a  stick  in  his 
hand,  at  one  end  of  which  is  a  large  knob  or  ball.  When  the 
herd  is  large,  several  herdsmen  are  employed,  aided  by  lads, 
who  are  training  for  the  business.  These  people  are  rough, 
both  in  appearance  and  in  character,  a  natural  consequence  of 
the  life  they  lead.  Following  the  cattle  from  morning  until 
night  over  the  uncultivated  portions  of  the  land,  they  must 
often  defend  their  charge  against  robbers,  and  are  not  unfre- 
quently  compelled  to  fight  the  wolves,  and  the  more  rare  pan- 
ther, which  seek  to  prey  upon  the  herd.f  It  is  an  arduous  life, 
and  those  alone  among  the  people  pursue  it  who  can  find  no 


*  Psa.  xxii.,  12  ;  Ezek.  xxxix.,  18 ;  see  also  Porter,  "Giant  Cities  of 
V-  15.  t  1  Sam.  xxi.,  7}  xxii.,  17-19. 


172  BIBLE   LANDS. 

easier  mode  of  support.*  The  herdsman's  wages  consist  of  a 
small  sum  paid  him  for  each  head  of  cattle  committed  to  his 
charge. 

The  village  herd  contains  not  only  such  cattle  as  are  not 
needed  in  the  field  for  the  ensuing  day,  but  all  the  domestic 
animals  owned  by  the  villagers  which  can  be  spared  and  sent 
to  feed  in  the  fields.  There  are  the  oxen,  the  bulls,  the  cows, 
and  the  calves  of  various  ages;  the  she -asses  and  their  colts, 
with  perhaps  some  superannuated  paterfamilias  of  a  jackass, 
no  longer  able  to  work,  and  favored  with  his  board ;  there  is 
the  huge  and  ponderous  buffalo,  accompanied  by  its  calf,  whose 
clumsy  gambols  excite  the  admiration  of  the  whole  drove; 
and  if  the  village  possess  no  flock  of  sheep  or  goats,  a  few  of 
these  animals  are  interspersed  with  the  motley  crew.  As  they 
proceed  on  the  highway  toward  the  fields,  and  especially  when 
they  return,  with  brisker  step,  toward  home  by  the  same  road, 
a  cloud  of  dust  marks  their  progress  in  the  dry  summer  season. 
We  have  often  stood,  or  sat,  about  sunset,  at  the  entrance  of  a 
village,  to  see  the  herd  come  in.  It  is  the  merriest  hour  of  the 
day,  for  all  the  little  children  then  rush  out  to  meet  the  drove 
and  have  a  gambol  and  a  chase  home,  each  after  his  own  pet 
lamb,  calf,  or  colt.  Horses  and  camels  are  never  herded  pro- 
miscuously with  other  animals,  but  feed  by  themselves. 

We  have  had  occasion  to  notice  some  of  the  habits  of  cattle 
in  the  East,  when  spending  a  few  days  at  a  time  at  the  farms 
of  friends.  The  cattle  of  different  localities  differ  both  as  to 
form  and  color.  Those  of  Balu-kesar,  in  Asia  Minor,  are  the 
finest  in  the  country,  and  resemble  the  cattle  of  Southern  Eus- 
sia.  They  are  comparatively  large,  well  formed,  and  gray, 
with  black  extremities.  At  Aleppo  we  have  seen  cattle  which 
resemble  those  of  Germany  in  miniature,  gracefully  proportion- 
ed and  of  a  fine  uniform  red. 

The  herd  is  always  ruled  by  the  most  powerful  bull,  usually 
a  strong,  wiry  3'oung  animal,  which  brooks  no  competitor.  It 
often  happens  that,  after  many  a  fight,  the  conqueror  drives 
his  rival  away  from  the  herd  ;  the  latter  wanders  about  the 
fields,  bellowing  with  impotent  rage,  and  trampling  or  devour- 
ing the  standing  grain. f     It  is  these  bulls  especially  that  are 

*  Amos  vii.,  14.  +  Virgil,  "Georgics,"  bk.  iii. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  173 

dangerous,  for  they  attack  any  one  that  happens  to  come  in 
their  neighborhood.*  Eeconciliation  of  the  foes  in  such  a 
case  is  impossible,  and  all  that  is  left  the  herdsman  to  do  is  to 
catch  the  infuriated  beast  and  appropriate  his  strength  to  the 
service  of  the  plow.  We  had  once  the  good  fortune  to  witness 
the  capturing  of  such  an  animal.  He  had  been  roaming  about 
and  doing  much  mischief  for  several  days,  when  two  horse- 
men were  sent  out  to  bring  him  in.  Each  of  them  was  pro- 
vided with  a  long  rope,  one  end  of  which  was  firmly  fastened 
to  his  saddle-bow,  while  the  other  was  tied  into  a  noose  or 
"  lasso,"  held  open  by  the  rider  at  the  end  of  a  forked  pole. 
When  they  approached  the  bull,  he  started  to  run,  and  they 
gave  chase,  riding  on  each  side  of  him,  and  thus  succeeded  in 
flinging  the  two  lassos  around  his  horns.  At  the  same  instant 
one  of  the  horsemen  spurred  his  animal  so  as  to  take  the  lead 
of  the  bull,  while  the  other  held  somewhat  back,  in  order  to 
prevent  his  running  at  his  companion's  horse.  The  bull,  how- 
ever, was  not  inclined  to  submit:  making  a  violent  efibrt,  he 
broke  one  of  the  ropes,  and  rushing  at  the  nearest  rider,  dash- 
ed both  him  and  his  horse  to  the  ground,  and  was  off  again 
through  the  plain.  It  took  the  prostrate  man  a  few  moments 
to  recover  from  the  shock.  We  could  distinctly  hear  the  two 
men  scolding  each  other  for  their  mishap ;  but  no  great  harm 
having  been  done,  and  knowing  that  the  eyes  of  all  the  people 
of  the  farm  and  its  hamlet  were  upon  them,  they  were  soon 
riding  after  their  escaped  victim,  and  this  time  with  better  suc- 
cess. We  now  saw  them  coming  up  at  full  speed,  the  bull 
running  between  the  two  horsemen,  the  leader  appearing  to 
drag  him  with  the  rope  fastened  to  his  horns,  while  the  other 
held  him  back.  But  the  hardest  feat  was  yet  to  come.  The 
party  came  rushing  toward  the  house,  and  grazed  the  trunk  of 
a  fine  terebinth  in  the  foreground  of  the  building.  The  leader 
instantly  making  a  circuit  of  the  tree,  leaped  out  of  his  saddle 
and  began  to  twist  the  rope  around  its  trunk.  But  the  bull 
was  not  yet  ready  to  give  in.  He  ran  so  fast  around  the  tree 
to  disengage  himself  that  it  seemed  doubtful  for  a  few  minutes 
whether  he  would  not  succeed  in  thwarting  his  pursuers  and 
effecting  his  escape.     In  the  mean  time,  however,  the  other  rider 

*  Exod.  xxi.,  28,  29. 


I 


174  BIBLE    LANDS. 

had  dismounted  and  come  to  the  rescue.  He  caught  the  ani- 
mal by  the  tail,  and,  giving  it  a  peculiar  twist,  brought  him 
down  to  the  ground,  when  his  feet  were  tied  together  in  a 
twinkling,  and  he  became  quite  still  and  powerless. 

On  another  occasion  we  saw  a  bull  that  was  being  led  in  the 
manner  above  described  break  loose  from  one  of  the  riders, 
while  the  other  adroitly  fastened  the  end  of  his  rope  to  a  tree 
by  the  road-side ;  the  animal,  thus  tied,  succeeded  in  keeping 
at  bay  a  number  of  men  for  several  hours. 

The  nomads  of  the  present  day  often  keep  cattle  which  are 
tended  by  their  herdsmen  ;*  they  have  not  unfrequently  a 
mark  burned  with  a  hot  iron  upon  one  of  their  haunches  or 
shoulders,  just  as  we  see  it  in  the  Egyptian  sculptures. f 

People  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  habits  of  these  tribes 
suppose  that  they  roam  about  at  hap-hazard,  and  that  there  is 
no  plan  in  their  migrations.  This  is  not  the  case,  however; 
all  the  wanderers  with  whom  we  are  acquainted  possess  set- 
tled and  permanent  habitations,  which  they  occupy  during  the 
coldest  part  of  the  winter.  These  abodes  of  theirs  are  rude 
indeed,  often  the  ruined  dwellings  of  former  generations,  but 
more  frequently  mud-hovels,  sadly  in  want  of  repair,  and  gen- 
erally shared  by  their  cattle.  During  this  period,  the  latter 
are  mostly  fed  with  straw,  which  the  nomads  obtain  either  by 
sowing  fields  themselves,  or  through  plunder.:}:  The  greater 
part  of  the  summer  is  spent  by  them  on  the  sides  of  high 
mountains,  where  grass  is  abundant  and  flies  and  gnats  do  not 
torment  the  cattle.  Here  the  people  dwell  in  tents,  but  shel- 
ter their  flocks  and  herds  in  permanent  booths,  constructed  of 
branches  of  trees,  and  repaired  each  successive  summer.§  The 
interval  of  country  between  their  winter  and  summer  abodes 
is  traveled  over  by  regular  stages  in  the  spring  and  autumn,  as 
rapidly  as  the  condition  of  the  herds  and  the  flocks  will  allow. 

In  the  warm  climate  of  Palestine,  booths  often  suflice  for  the 
winter  shelter  of  the  flocks.  We  have  seen  them  thus  protect- 
ed even  in  much  higher  latitudes,  and  particularly  throughout 
the  extensive  plains  to  the  north  and  south  of  Sivri-hissar, 
where  the  people,  like  Jacob  in  Succoth,  live  in  houses,  and 


*  Gen.  xiii.,  2;  xxx.,  43.  t  Wilkinson,  ii.,  fig.  366. 

t  Gen.  xxvi.,  12;  Judg.  vi.,  3,  4,  6.  §  Gen.  xxxiii.,  17. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  176 

shelter  under  booths  their  fine  flocks  of  sheep  and  the  Angora 
goats,  for  which  that  region  is  celebrated.*  The  Arab  tribes, 
however,  make  their  yearly  migrations  northward  instead  of 
ascending  mountains,  of  which,  except  in  the  Hauran,  their 
country  is  destitute.  The  great  tribe  of  the  Enezeh  leads  the 
van,  and,  when  unchecked,  crosses  the  Euphrates  and  the  Ti- 
gris and  overruns  the  whole  of  Mesopotamia, 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  beef  is  rarely  eaten  in  Western 
Asia.  One  never  sees  it  exposed  in  the  markets  of  even  the 
largest  Turkish  or  Arab  cities,  except  where  Europeans  are 
numerous  enough  to  create  a  demand,  and  even  there  the  meat 
stalls  of  the  quarters  occupied  chiefly  by  the  natives  contain 
nothing  but  mutton  and  an  occasional  kid.  It  is  not  that  there 
seems  to  be  a  prejudice  against  the  use  of  beef,  but  rather  that 
the  animal  is  considered  too  valuable  to  be  slaughtered  for 
food ;  and,  moreover,  it  is  never  fattened  for  the  market,  while 
the  flesh  of  sheep  is  always  in  fine  condition. 

In  the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor  it  is  customary  for  every 
family,  in  the  autumn,  to  buy  a  young  bullock  or  a  cow,  which 
is  killed,  the  flesh  made  into  sausages,  or  salted,  pressed,  and 
then,  well  seasoned  with  a  preparation  of  pounded  garlic, 
strong  spices,  etc.,  it  is  dried  and  forms  the  essential  winter 
provision  of  pasturma.  This  is  also  an  important  item  of  ex- 
portation to  other  parts  of  the  East,  the  most  highly  esteemed 
quality  being  prepared  at  Csesarea,  in  Asia  Minor. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  towns  containing  a  considerable  Eu- 
ropean population,  diseased  or  accidentally  injured  cattle  are 
killed,  and  their  flesh  sold  in  the  market ;  but  in  the  interior, 
on  the  contrary,  the  traveler  occasionally  meets  with  the  car- 
cass of  an  ox  by  the  wayside  or  in  the  open  field.  The  He- 
brews, likewise,  appear  to  have  made  but  a  moderate  use  of  the 
flesh  of  cattle,  which  was  mostly  eaten  by  them  in  connection 
with  their  sacrifices.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  case  with 
the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  for  they  would  not  so  often  have 
hankered  after  the  "flesh-pots"  of  Egypt,  had  they  been  in 
the  habit  of  slaughtering  their  cattle  and  sheep  for  food.f  We 
shall  speak  elsewhere  of  the  offering  of  cattle  in  sacrifice. 

*  See  "Travels  in  little-known  Parts  of  Asia  Minor,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  208,  etc. 
t  Exod.  xvi.,  3. 

12 


176 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


The  buffalo,  which  is  now  found  in  all  the  Western  countries 
of  the  continent  of  Asia,  and  even  in  Egypt  and  Italy,  is  a 
much  larger  and  more  powerful  animal  than  the  ox.  His  din- 
gy black  hide  is  almost  destitute  of  hair,  and  his  ponderous 
horns  incline  backward,  almost  lying  upon  his  neck  and  shoul- 
ders. His  great  strength  is  turned  to  valuable  account  by  his 
master,  both  for  the  purpose  of  plowing  and  of  drawing  the 
heaviest  carts.     This  uncouth  beast  is  particularly  valuable  in 


^^')->i\ 

'^' 


all  swampy  districts,  which  the  malaria  renders  almost  unin- 
habitable, even  to  animals;  indeed,  buffaloes  can  not  live  with- 
out the  opportunity  of  frequently  plunging  and  wallowing  in 
mud  and  water.  They  are  chiefly  seen,  when  not  employed  by 
their  masters,  feeding  in  the  swamps  and  lying  in  the  muddy 
streams  with  barely  their  noses  above  the  surftice.  These  ani- 
mals are  of  Indian  origin,  and  are  now  found  in  a  wild  state, 
inhabiting  the  great  swampy  jungles  of  Ilindoostan.  The  wild 
buffalo,  called  arna  by  the  Hindoos,  is  fierce  and  untamable, 
in  si'ze  one-third  larger  than  the  domestic  species,  and  of  such 
power  and  vigor  as  by  his  charge  to  prostrate  a  well-sized  ele- 
phant. The  tame  buffalo,  which  bears  in  India  the  distinctive 
name  hhai-iisa,  appears  to  have  been  introduced  into  Western 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  177 

Asia  about  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Persia  by  the  Arabs,  in 
the  seventh  century,  which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  no  men- 
tion is  made  of  him,  not  only  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  but, 
indeed,  in  any  of  the  ancient  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  He  is 
now  found  in  Palestine,  and  particularly  about  the  swamps  of 
the  Hooleh,  or  Lake  Merom. 

We  have  been  thus  particular  in  describing  this  animal,  be- 
cause we  deem  it  important  to  point  out  the  changes  which 
have  taken  place  in  Bible  lands  since  the  writing  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, that  we  may  the  better  understand  what  remains  unal- 
tered. We  are  aware  that  some  eminent  scholars  have  claimed 
that  there  are  references  in  the  Old  Testament  to  the  arna,  or 
wild  buffalo.  No  doubt,  the  rendering  of  the  word  reem  by 
"  unicorn "  in  our  English  version  is  a  mistake,  probably  de- 
rived from  the  Septuagint.  The  animal  referred  to  must  cer- 
tainly have  had  two  horns,*  and  was  very  fierce  and  powerful. 
But  we  have  no  proof  that  the  arna  ever  existed  to  the  west 
of  Persia ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  refute  the  evidence  of  the 
late  introduction  of  the  bhainsa,  or  tame  buffalo,  which  in  all 
Western  Asia  bears  one  of  its  Indian  names,  jamooz. 


Wild  Ox  of  Central  Asia. 

Job,  who  probably  lived  in  the  Hauran,  might  describe  an 
animal  which  existed  only  in  a  distant  country .f  But  the  oth- 
er passages  imply  that  the  people  who  dwelt  on  both  sides  of 
the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea  were  not  unacquainted  with  the 

*  Dent,  xxxiii.,  17.  t  Job  xxxix.,  9-12. 


178  BIBLE   LANDS. 

reem.'*  We  incline  to  the  opinion  that  the  animal  called  reem 
by  the  Hebrews  was  a  very  large  and  powerful  wild  ox,  which 
has  now  disappeared  from  Europe  and  Western  Asia,  and  is 
only  found  in  regions  north  of  the  Caspian  and  Himalaya.  It 
is  fierce  and  hard  to  tame,  and  is  known  to  naturalists  by  the 
name  of  Bos  Sylhetanus.  Very  similar  to  this,  but  of  larger  size, 
and  still  fiercer,  is  the  wild  cattle  of  Europe,  to  which  Pliny,  in. 
his  "Natural  History,"  gives  the  name  of  Urus;  and  Cgesar 
describes  as  the  gigantic  ox  of  the  Hercynian  forest,  in  stature 
scarcely  below  an  elephant,  and  so  fierce  as  to  spare  neither 
man  nor  beast,  should  it  meet  with  either.  This  view  of  the 
question  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  a  large,  hairy,  and  pow- 
erful bull  is  represented  upon  the  sculptured  walls  of  the  Nim- 
rood  palace,  near  Mossul,  as  pursued  and  slain  by  the  king 
and  his  hunters;  while  the  hunting  scenes  of  the  later  struc- 
tures of  Khorsabad  and  Koyoonjik  do  not  contain  representa- 
tions of  this  animal — an  indication  that  he  had,  at  the  later 
period,  disappeared  from  the  surrounding  region.f 


Iteem.    (Isa.  xxxiv.,  7.) 

We  infer,  therefore,  that  the  common  cattle  of  the  ancients 
bore  the  same  relation,  as  to  size  and  temper,  to  the  fierce 
and  indomitable  reem^  or  wild  bull  of  Asia,  that  the  patient 
and  sluggish  hhainsa  now  bears  to  the  fierce  and  savage  arna 
of  India;  and  we  regard  the  Assyrian  sculptures  of  the  wild 
ox,  and  his  existence  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Asiatic  con- 
tinent, as  interesting  confirmations  of  the  Biblical  allusions  to 
the  facts  of  the  natural  history  of  ancient  times. 

The  meek  and  gentle  sheep  has  probably  contributed,  from 


*  Numb,  xxiii.,  22 ;  Psa.  xxii.,  21 ;  xxix.,  6 ;  Isa.  xxxiv.,  6,  7. 

t  Layard,  ii.,327. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  179 

the  remotest  period,  to  supply  the  wants  of  mankind  quite  as 
much,  if  not  more,  than  cattle.  It  seems,  indeed,  to  have  been 
the  first  animal  brought  into  a  state  of  domesticity ;  for  we  read 
of  Abel  that  he  was  a  shepherd,  or  "  keeper  of  sheep,"  while 
his  brother  Cain,  following  the  first  and  principal  occupation 
of  the  race,  was  "  a  tiller  of  the  ground."* 

We  have,  indeed,  reason  to  think  that  this  was  the  first  of 
the  brute  creation  to  suffer  the  consequences  of  man's  fall ; 
for  it  is  a  natural  supposition  that  the  garments  of  skin  with 
which  our  first  parents  were  clothed  before  they  were  driven 
out  of  Eden  were  taken  from  this  animal,  which  they  were 
probabl}'-  then  taught  to  offer  up  as  an  atonement  for  sin.f 

This  interesting  animal  has  ever  thriven  in  the  north  tem- 
perate zone,  in  many  parts  of  which  it  is  still  found  in  a  wild 
state.  The  wild  sheep,  the  moufflon  of  Buflfon,  is  met  with  at 
this  day  in  Taurus  and  Anti-taurus,  in  Asia  Minor,  and,  we 
presume,  upon  the  mountains  of  Koordistan  and  Armenia, 
which  are  but  the  continuation  of  those  ranges  ;  and  a  variety 
of  the  same  animal  exists  in  the  Eocky  Mountains  in  North 
America.  But  the  sheep  is  not,  by  nature,  fitted  to  climb  upon 
rocky  heights,  although  his  thick  coat  protects  him  from  their 
chilling  winds.  He  is  evidently  a  lover  of  the  plain,  and  thrives 
best  in  the  domestic  state,  under  man's  effectual  protection. 

The  number  of  sheep  produced  and  reared  in  the  region  of 
country  whose  four  corners  are  washed  by  the  Caspian,  the 
Black,  and  the  Mediterranean  seas,  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  is 
truly  amazing,  and  almost  incredible,  if  we  may  judge  from 
the  immense  flocks  which  are  constantly  pouring  west  and 
south-west  from  early  spring  until  the  end  of  autumn,  in  an 
almost  continuous  stream.  The  flocks  which  are  reared  in 
the  northern  portion  of  the  region  of  country  just  described 
go  to  Constantinople  and  the  adjacent  provinces,  but  many  are 
sold  all  along  the  way,  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  towns  and 
villages  through  which  they  pass.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
not  less  than  a  million  and  a  half  of  sheep  annually  reach  the 
capital  alone,  from  the  region  indicated,  beside  those  which 
are  supplied  from  European  Turkey  and  the  Danubian  prov- 
inces.    They  are  seventeen  or  eighteen  months  on  the  way. 

*  Gen.  iv.,  2.  t  Gen.  iii.,  21 ;  comp.  with  Gen.  iv,,  4. 


180 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


The  sheep  reared  in  the  southern  part  of  Koordistan  and  in 
Mesopotamia  supply  the  region  of  Tarsoos  (Tarsus),  Syria,  Pal- 
estine, and  Egypt,  going  down  along  the  sea-shore  in  order  to 
avoid  the  incursions  of  predatory  Arabs.  Besides  these,  there 
are  smaller  localities  in  Western  Asia  where  also  sheep  are 
reared,  and  supply  the  wants  of  particular  districts.  The  re- 
gion of  Caramania,  a  part  of  Southern  Asia  Minor,  for  instance, 
is  famous  for  its  sheep,  which  are  exported  to  the  western  part 
of  the  peninsula ;  and  no  one  who  has  gone  into  the  desert  and 
met  any  of  the  Arab  tribes,  in  their  spring  or  autumn  migra- 
tions, with  their  numerous  sheep  and  goats,  many  of  which  are 
disposed  of  in  the  border  towns,  can  fail  to  consider  the  wilder- 
ness a  great  breeding-place  for  flocks. 


Moufflon,  or  Wild  Sheep  of  Western  A 


The  sheep  that  are  exported  are  males,  or  rams,  the  ewes  be- 
ing kept  at  home  for  breeding  purposes.  It  is  ever  the  former 
that  are  killed  by  the  Christians  at  Easter,  and  by  the  Mus- 
lims at  the  "  Feast  of  Sacrifices,"  or  Corhan-Bairam.  Earns  were 
likewise  mostly  offered  in  sacrifice  by  the  Jews.*  The  Taber- 
nacle was  covered  with  rams'  skins  ;f  and  the  yearly  tribute 
of  Misha,  king  of  Moab,  who  was  a  sheep-master,  consisted  of 
100,000  lambs  (young  rams)  and  100,000  unsheared  rams,  paid 
to  x'Vhab,  king  of  Israel.:}: 

Tiie  foregoing  statements  correspond  with  those  we  meet  in 


•  Exod.  xxix.,38. 
+  Exod.  XXV.,  .'). 


'  Lambs  "  signifies, 


the  Hebrew,  young  rams. 

X  2  King.'!  iii.,  4. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  181 

the  Old  Testament  respecting  the  numerous  flocks  reared  in 
these  same  regions  in  ancient  days.  Job,  before  his  misfor- 
tunes, owned  seven  thousand  sheep,  which  number  was  dou- 
bled on  the  return  of  his  prosperity.*  The  flocks  and  herds 
of  Abraham,  and  Lot,  his  nephew,  who  had  migrated  from  the 
sheep-breeding  Mesopotamia,  became  so  large  that  the  land  of 
Judea  could  not  contain  them,  and  they  were  constrained  to 
separate. t  Just  before  crossing  the  Jordan,  the  Israelites  were 
commanded  to  avenge  themselves  on  the  Midianites,  and  took 
the  spoil  of  all  their  flocks,  amounting  in  sheep  alone  to 
675,000.;]:  At  the  dedication  of  the  Temple,  King  Solomon 
offered  in  sacrifice  120,000  sheep.§  In  Palestine,  the  chief 
pastures  for  sheep  and  goats  are  on  the  east  side  of  Jordan, 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  even  the  Dead  Sea;  and  it  was  here  the 
tribes  of  Eeuben,  Gad,  and  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  prefer- 
red to  settle  down  with  their  numerous  flocks  and  herds,  rather 
than  pass  over  Jordan  with  the  rest  of  Israel,  and  adopt  hus- 
bandry as  their  mode  of  life.  | 

The  journeyings  of  the  flocks  of  sheep  from  their  breeding- 
places  in  Armenia,  Koordistan,  and  Mesopotamia,  to  the  dis- 
tant markets  where  they  are  sold,  take  place  in  ordinary  times 
through  peaceable  regions,  and,  as  wealthy  and  influential  pro- 
prietors always  have  a  personal  interest  in  their  success,  the 
flocks  are  rarely  molested ;  still,  the  animal  is  tender,  and  his 
coat,  which  is  left  unshorn,  in  order  to  enhance  his  value,  in- 
creases the  weariness  of  the  way.  They  travel  by  short  stages, 
like  Abraham  and  Jacob  of  old.  We  have  often  watched  them 
as  they  passed  on  their  long  journey :  the  Armenian  or  Koord- 
ish  shepherd  always  walks  before,  dressed  in  traveling  costume, 
armed  with  a  knife  and  pistol,  and  engaged,  as  is  the  case  with 
most  shepherds  in  the  East,  in  spinning  woolen  yarn  with  a 
ponderous  spindle.  His  diminutive  ass  walks  before,  carrying 
his  provision  and  his  cloak,  made  of  thick  felt,  and  oftentimes 
bearing  in  one  or  both  sides  of  the  saddle-bags  a  tired  or 
disabled  sheep,  which  is  thus  conveyed  to  the  next  market. 
When  the  flock  is  very  large — and  it  not  unfrequently  con- 
tains several  thousand  head — there  are  three  or  four  shepherds, 

*  Job  i.,  3 ;  xlii.,  12.  f  Gen.  xiii.,  6.  t  Numb,  xxxi.,  32. 

§  1  Kings  viii.,  63.  ||  Numb,  xxxii.,  1-5. 


182  BIBLE   LANDS. 

some  of  whom  go  behind  to  look  after  stragglers,  with  dogs, 
watching  for  the  same  purpose. 

But  these  flocks  are  temporary,  the  men  in  charge  simply 
conducting  them  out  of  the  country  to  dispose  of  them.  They 
are  "  hirelings,"  and  neither  become  attached  to  the  flock  nor 
the  flock  to  them.  A  shepherd's  life,  and  the  habits  and  char- 
acter of  the  animal,  are  so  frequently  referred  to  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  constitute,  moreover,  so  important  a  chapter  in  Ori- 
ental life,  that  they  seem  to  deserve  our  special  attention. 

All  writers  upon  this  subject,  even  those  best  acquainted 
with  the  East,  have  apparently  failed  to  notice  the  distinction 
between  the  shepherd  and  the  goat-herd,  and  between  the  hab- 
its and  treatment  of  sheep  and  of  goats;  thus  failing  to  explain 
some  of  the  most  interesting  passages  of  Holy  Writ.  One 
would  naturally  gather  from  their  statements  that  sheep  and 
goats  are  always  led  together  to  the  same  pastures,  and  kept  in 
the  same  inclosures;  nothing,  however,  could  be  farther  from 
the  reality.  It  may  be  the  case,  indeed,  when  very  few  ani- 
mals of  both  kinds  are  kept,  but  not  otherwise. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  both  these  animals  going  forth 
to  feed  with  the  cattle,  under  charge  of  the  herdsman  ;  but 
a  professional  shepherd  understands  too  well  the  difference  be- 
tween them  to  keep  them  together.  The  goat  thrives  best  on 
rocky  declivities,  and  is  so  fond  of  young  leaves  that  he  gener- 
ally feeds  among  the  bushes,  and  sometimes  succeeds  in  climb- 
ing into  a  tree  in  order  to  obtain  them,  whereas  sheep  occu- 
py the  plains  and  gentle  slopes,  and  always  prefer  fresh  grass. 
The  goat  feeds  all  day  long,  and  rarely  minds  the  summer  heat 
enough  to  stand  for  a  few  moments  in  the  shadow  of  a  tree 
or  a  rock:  he  is  driven  into  the  fold  for  the  night,  and  let  out 
again  in  the  early  morning.  The  sheep,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  led  to  pasture  only  toward  sunset  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  year,  and  return  home  in  the  morning,  or  spend  the 
day,  sometimes  the  noonday  hours  only,  in  the  breezy  shade 
of  a  friendly  grove,  or  under  booths  prepared  for  the  purpose.''*' 

It  is  only  during  the  coldest  part  of  winter  that  the  sheep 
are  housed  for  the  night.  But  even  at  that  season  the  shepherd 
endeavors  to  keep  them  out-of-doors  as  much  as  possible,  for 

*  Cant,  i.,  7. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


183 


their  young  are  born  from  January  till  the  beginning  of  March, 
according  to  the  climate,  and  have  to  be  kept  with  the  ewes  in 
the  field,  that  the  latter  may  obtain  sufficient  nourishment  for 
the  support  of  the  lambs,  which  can  not  be  conveyed  to  and 
fro  between  the  house  and  the  pasturage.  This  is  the  most  try- 
ing season  of  the  year  for  the  flock.  Snow  falls  and  frost  sets 
in,  which  kills  many  of  the  lambs,  although  the  shepherd  seeks 
to  save  all  he  can  by  carrying  them  under  his  cloak  and  "in 
his  bosom."*  This  period,  too,  tries  his  own  powers  of  endur- 
ance, for  it  is  the  rainy  season.  He  cuts  small  branches  of 
trees,  and  lays  them  in  a  pile,  to  avoid  the  consequences  of 
standing  in  the  wet.  We  have  frequently  known  instances 
where  the  skin  has  peeled  off  completely  from  the  soles  of 
the  poor  shepherd's  feet  by  such  exposure.  The  only  sleep 
he  can  secure  is  by  lying  on  such  a  pile  of  branches  or  fag- 
ots, enveloped  in  his  heavy  felt  cloak,  or  crouching  in  a  sit- 
ting posture,  with  its  stiff,  heavy  folds  set  up  over  him  like  a 
tent.  A  shepherd  once  told  us  that,  being  alone  with  his  flock 
on  one  occasion,  he  went  to  sleep  at  night  in  this  latter  position, 
and  found  himself,  on  waking  in  the  morning,  half  buried  un- 
der a  heavy  fall  of  snow,  with  the  sheep  and  dogs  floundering 
around  him.  It  is  thus  that,  eighteen  centuries  ago,  the  shep- 
herds of  Bethlehem  were  "abiding  in  the  field,  keeping  watch 
over  their  flocks  by  night,"  when  they  saw  the  angel-vision, 
and  were  bidden  to  go  and  find  the  "Saviour,"  Son  of  the 
shepherd-king,  "lying  in  a  manger. "f 

We  have  been  kept  awake  on  stormy  and  rainy  nights, 
while  endeavoring  to  sleep  in  some  little  mud-hovel,  by  the 
flock  in  the  plain  outside,  the  tinkling  of  whose  little  bells  an- 
nounced them  busy  cropping  the  tender  grass.  It  is,  moreover, 
on  such  a  night  that  the  wolves  are  out,  and  most  active;  they 
are  stout  fellows,  as  we  can  testify,  and  a  match  for  the  most 
powerful  dog  in  the  country.  It  is  on  such  a  night,  too,  that 
the  dogs  are  drowsy,  shake  off"  the  rain-drops  from  their  ears, 
and  seek  the  shelter  of  a  bush  or  a  tree.  We  could  hear  the 
shepherd's  voice  shouting  to  them  from  time  to  time,  to  be  on 
the  lookout;  an  occasional  shot  was  fired  to  rouse  them  up, 
and  then  a  fight  occurred;  the  growling  and  barking  of  dogs, 


*  Isa.  xl,  11. 


t  Luke  ii.,  8-12, 


184  BIBLE   LANDS. 

and  the  shouting  of  the  shepherds,  and  the  firing  of  pistols, 
producing  altogether  an  uproar  of  the  most  exciting  character. 

But  danger  sometimes  comes  from  another  source:  when 
one  of  those  sudden  storms  of  rain  arises  which  characterize 
the  autumnal  season  in  Western  Asia,  the  helpless  flock  of 
sheep,  frightened  by  the  voice  of  thunder,  huddle  together 
under  the  nearest  tree,  and  are  not  unfrequently  killed  by  the 
lightning.  We  have  repeatedly  known  a  large  number  of 
them  to  be  thus  destroyed ;  and  the  shepherd  has  himself 
sometimes  met  with  the  same  fate.* 

The  life  of  a  shepherd  is  arduous.f  His  duties  are  too  se- 
vere to  be  faithfully  performed  by  hirelings.;}:  It  is  rare,  there- 
fore, to  find  any  one  engaged  in  this  calling  simply  for  hire. 
Owners  of  flocks  engage  shepherds  generally  by  bargaining  for 
the  delivery  of  a  certain  amount  of  curdled  milk  and  cheese, 
and  a  fixed  number  of  lambs  and  sheep,  yearly,  besides  main- 
taining the  flock  undiminished;  while  the  shepherds  are  paid 
for  their  trouble  by  whatever  they  can  obtain  beyond  this. 
The  latter,  unlike  Jacob  of  old,  are  apt  to  take  advantage  of 
the  chapter  of  accidents  to  account  for  any  decrease  in  the 
flock,§  and,  like  him,  they  are  generally  able  to  acquire,  ere 
long,  a  flock  of  their  own.  A  young  man  enters  upon  this 
calling  simply  because  his  father  is  in  it;  and  having  himself 
followed  the  flocks  from  boyhood,  he  has  acquired  that  pas- 
sionate fondness  for  the  occupation  which  the  most  perilous 
and  therefore  most  exciting  modes  of  life  are  wont  to  call  forth. 
On  the  line  of  the  desert,  and  on  the  borders  of  the  territo- 
ry overrun  by  the  Koordish  and  Turkmen  tribes-,  not  a  little 
danger  arises  from  the  habits  of  these  highway  robbers,  who, 
not  content  with  driving  away  the  flocks,||  also  frequently  kill 
the  shepherds,  on  the  principle  that  "dead  men  tell  no  tales." 
The  weakness  of  the  Turkish  government,  indeed,  allows  the 
existence  in  all  parts  of  the  country  of  bands  of  robbers,  who 
go  about  during  the  summer  plundering  travelers,  demanding 
heavy  ransoms  from  wealthy  captives,  and  stopping  the  gov- 
ernment mails,  whenever  they  learn,  through  their  numerous 
agents,  that  they  carry  large  sums  of  money.     Tiiese  robbers 


*  Job  i.,  Ifi ;  Psa.  Ixxviii.,  48.         t  Gen.  xxxi.,  40.         t  John  x.,  12,  13. 
§  Gen.  xxxi.,  3!).  ||  Judg.  vi.,  4. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  185 

dare  not  show  themselves  in  the  towns  and  villages,  but  de- 
pend for  their  subsistence  on  the  provisions  they  take  from 
the  helpless  shepherds  ;  the  latter  often,  in  consequence,  aiding 
in  this  nefarious  business,  especially  when  in  charge  of  flocks 
belonging  to  officers  of  the  government,  with  whom  the  rob- 
bers share  their  gains.  When  the  latter  abstain  from  plunder- 
ing the  flock,  they  often  claim  a  present  as  a  reward  for  their 
moderation,  and  protection  against  other  bands  ;  so  did  David 
to  Nabal,  when  he  led  the  life  of  a  kleft,  or  bandit.* 

The  shepherd  leads  an  isolated  life ;  his  wanderings  are  not 
extensive.  He  feeds  his  flock  either  on  public  lands,  or  on  a 
small  run  he  has  hired  from  a  land-proprietor.  A  small  booth 
for  himself,  and  a  much  larger  one  for  his  flock,  surrounded 
by  a  strong  hedge,  constitute  his  premises.  The  sheep  -  fold, 
however,  often  consists  of  a  mere  inclosure,  surrounded  by  a 
palisade  of  thorn-bushes,  or  a  wall  of  loose  stones  with  thorn- 
bushes  upon  the  top ;  and  this  is  usually  an  effectual  barrier 
against  the  wolves.  The  door  consists  of  a  few  sticks  laid 
across  the  entrance,  and  here  the  shepherd  and  his  dog  watch 
all  night.  Thieves  sometimes  climb  up  the  wall  and  push 
aside  the  bushes ;  and  sheep-stealing  is  as  much  a  profession  in 
Turkey  as  horse  -  thieving  in  some  other  countries.f  By  the 
mention  of  a  porter  in  our  Lord's  parable,  we  are  not  to  under- 
stand that  there  is  a  special  porter  to  the  sheep-fold,  but  simply 
that  a  shepherd  acts  as  porter,  opening  or  shutting  the  door. 
Our  Lord's  object  in  mentioning  it  was  to  allude  to  the  great 
Porter  of  God's  kingdom,  who  is  Jehovah  himself,  and  who 
has  opened  the  door  of  the  Church  to  the  great  Shepherd  to 
enter  in  and  govern  his  people.  In  the  winter,  particularly 
when  the  season  is  severe,  the  sheep  are  stabled,  the  door  is 
locked,  and  the  dog  watches  outside. 

The  shepherd  seldom  visits  his  family,  who  live  in  a  neigh- 
boring village;  but  his  little  boys  and  girls  often  go  to  and 
fro,  carrying  to  him  home  provisions,  and  bringing  back  milk, 
cheese,  and  an  occasional  lamb,  which  are  the  envy  of  the 
neighbors,  who  live  upon  the  products  of  the  soil. 

The  shepherd's  garb  is  simple,  consisting  of  a  woolen  coat  of 
coarse-fnlled  cloth  {abba),  trowsers  of  cotton  or  woolen  home- 


1  Sam.  XXV.,  4-8.  t  John  x.,  1-3. 


186  BIBLE    LANDS. 

spun,  and  a  leather  apron,  the  badge  of  his  calling;  his  head  is 
covered  with  a  felt  cap  and  turban  ;  his  cloak,  also,  is  of  thick 
felt,  either  smooth  or  shaggy,  and  without  sleeves.  It  is  often 
so  stiff  that  it  will  stand  up  like  a  little  tent.  But  the  Bedawy 
shepherd,  like  all  the  dwellers  of  the  desert  of  both  sexes,  wears 
a  simple  cotton  shirt,  generally  of  a  dark  blue,  and  a  cloak,  or 
burnoos,  of  camel's  hair,  with  a  gay  handkerchief  thrown  over 
his  head,  and  bound  round  his  temples  with  a  cord  of  camel's 
hair.  But  all  the  shepherds,  both  in  the  desert  and  elsewhere, 
are  usually  shod  with  the  modern  substitute  for  the  sandal ; 
the  latter  is,  however,  yet  seen  in  Egypt  and  in  the  desert,  and 
is  in  general  use  in  Japan.  The  charookh  consists,  first,  of  a 
long  strip  or  band  of  white  woolen  cloth,  wound  like  a  band- 
age around  the  toes,  foot,  and  ankle,  and  so  up  to  the  knee, 
when  it  is  turned  down  again,  and  the  end  made  fast  in  the 
folds ;  this  answers  the  purpose  of  a  thick,  close-fitting  stock- 
ing, but  is  far  more  firm  and  impervious  to  thorns.  The  shoe 
itself,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  consists  of  a  piece  of  strong,  untan- 
ned  skin  (wild  boar  is  preferred  by  the  Christians  on  account 
of  its  durability,  while  Muslims  use  buffalo,  from  religious  scru- 
ples) ;  this  is  cut  somewhat  larger  than  the  sole  of  the  foot,  and 
is  made  fast  by  means  of  strings  or  thongs  of  leather,  which 
gather  the  edges,  and  are  tied  around  the  foot  very  much  like 
the  ancient  sandals.  This  kind  of  shoe  is  used  not  only  by 
shepherds  but  by  the  inhabitants  of  all  the  remote  villages; 
and  it  is  worn  by  the  peasantry  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  Spain. 
It  seems  to  have  been  used  by  the  poorer  classes  in  ancient 
times  ;*  but  muleteers  and  farmers,  who  live  near  large  towns, 
use  a  heavy  boot  instead.  Those  who  have  worn  this  kind  of 
shoe  generally  prefer  it  to  any  other,  as  the  Indians  of  America 
do  their  moccasin,  to  which  it  bears  some  resemblance.  Still  it 
is  apt  to  slip  in  ascents  or  descents,  from  lack  of  a  heel. 

The  shepherd  sometimes  carries  a  pistol  in  his  belt,  always 
a  knife  or  dagger.  From  the  leather  strap  or  belt  fastened 
around  his  waist  often  hangs  a  flute  in  its  wooden  case.  This 
is  made  of  a  reed,  perforated  throughout,  and  having  the  edges 
of  the  upper  extremity  so  sharp  that,  when  blown  upon  in  a 
peculiar  manner,  a  sound  is  produced  very  much  like  that  of  a 

*Gen.  xiv.,23;  Markvi.,9;  John  i.,  27;  Actsxii.,8. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


187 


Shepherd  playing  on  the  Nay,  or  Flute.    (Psa.  xxiii.,  2.) 

common  flute*  This  instrument  is  called  a  nay,  and  is  used 
by  some  dervishes  in  their  religious  worship ;  but  being  rather 
difficult  to  play  upon,  many  shepherds,  especially  young  lads, 
procure  a  common  wooden  flageolet  at  the  nearest  market-town, 
the  fac-simile  of  which  are  found  in  terra  cotta  among  the  ruins 
of  ancient  cities.  Besides  this  flute,  the  shepherd  fastens  to  his 
belt  a  stout  stick  or  "rod"  of  hard  wood,  nearly  three  feet  long, 
which  is  an  important  weapon,  wielded  by  his  practiced  hand. 


Wilkinson,  i.,  fig.  141. 


188  BIBLE    LANDS. 

whether  for  a  close  encounter  or  to  be  hurled  at  an  enemy. 
This  short  stick  may  be  considered  as  occupying  the  same  place 
as  the  boomerang,  the  famous  weapon  of  the  Australian  sav- 
ages, which  was  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  Assyr- 
ians, and  is  represented  in  their  sculptures.*  It  is  still  used  as 
a  formidable  weapon  by  highway  robbers.f 

The  shepherd's  staff  varies  in  length  from  four  to  six  feet, 
and  is  made  by  cutting  the  branch  of  a  tree,  olive  being  gener- 
ally preferred,  which  is  barked,  and  the  thicker  end  gradually, 
and  with  the  aid  of  fire,  bent  into  a  semicircle.  In  this  shape 
it  is  tied  and  left  until  thoroughly  dry.  This  is  the  goat-herd's 
or  shepherd's  crook ;  and  he  uses  it  to  stop  or  punish,  at  pleas- 
ure, his  heedless  sheep  or  goats ;  and  for  this  reason  it  is  used 
by  goat-herds  rather  than  shepherds.  David's  allusion  to  the 
"rod  and  staff"  is  thus  explained. :{:  They  are  weapons,  the 
one  of  defense  and  the  other  of  rule,  in  the  shepherd's  vigorous 
and  devoted  hand,  and  constitute  the  surest  guarantee  for  the 
protection  of  the  flock. 

The  invention  of  fire-arms  has  not  superseded  the  old  weap- 
ons of  antiquity,  and  it  is  almost  as  common  now  to  see  a  shep- 
herd armed  with  a  sling  as  it  was  in  David's  time.§  This  is 
particularly  true  of  the  Bedawin,  or  Arabs 
of  the  desert.  Young  lads  wile  away  their 
time  by  throwing  pebbles  with  their  slings 
at  marks  which  they  set  up,  and  we  can, 
from  personal  observation,  testify  to  the  ex- 
treme accuracy  of  their  aim.  The  ancient 
Israelites  were  also  very  skillful  in  the  use 
of  this  weapon, II  which  used  to  be  an  instru- 
ment of  war. 

Every  shepherd  carries  on  his  back  a  bag 

or  wallet,  as  he  goes  into  the  fields,  in  which 

Aucient  Sling.   (1  Sam.    he  puts  his  provision  of  food,  usually  con- 

xvii.,  49.)  sisting  of  bread  and  cheese,  with  an  onion  or 

two,  and  garlic;  and  he  usually  carries  a  little  box  containing 

a  variety  of  spices  which  are  used  medicinally.     This  bag  or 

*  Bonomi,  153-'55. 

t  "Travels  in  little-known  Parts  of  Asia  Minor,"  ii.,  21-28. 

t  Psa.  xxiii.,  4.  §  1  Sam.  xvii.,  40. 

II  Jiidg.  XX.,  IG;  1  Chron.  xii.,  2. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


189 


Native  Iluversack,  or  Sach- 
el,  made  of  an  entire 
Lamb  -  skin.  ( 1  Sam. 
xvii.,  40.) 


scrip  is  sometimes  of  goat  or  horse  hair; 
but  the  kind  most  commonly  used  is  of  the 
shepherd's  own  manufacture.  He  takes  off 
the  skin  of  a  lamb  entire  (as  described  page 
56),  and  carefully  removes  the  hair;  the 
extremities  are  then  sewed  up  and  slit  into 
fine  shreds,  which  hang  down  like  tassels; 
two  straps,  passed  over  the  shoulders,  serve 
to  carry  the  bag,  whose  mouth  is  kept  closed 
by  its  own  weight.  This  is  the  "scrip"  con- 
stantly used  by  travelers  on  foot,  or  couriers, 
or  runners  carrying  the  post.* 

As  might  be  supposed,  the  isolation  of 
the  shepherds  from  the  rest  of  the  world, 
and  the  constant  companionship  of  their 
sheep  and  dogs,  generates  a  mutual  attach- 
ment. Many  of  the  sheep  bear  particular 
names,  such  as  "Spotted,"  "Black-eyed,"  "Mother,"  etc.,  and 
they  readily  answer  to  the  call  of  their  master,  as  intelligently 
and  faithfully  as  any  dog.f  It  is  also  remarkable  to  notice  the 
ease  with  which  the  shepherd  is  able  to  direct  the  movements 
of  the  entire  flock,  by  means  of  peculiar  cries  or  different 
modes  of  whistling.  On  a  given  signal,  you  see  the  sheep 
rushing  toward  him  or  scattering  in  every  direction,  standing 
still  or  defiling  in  regular  order.;}:  Some  shepherds  have  a 
wonderful  control  of  their  flock;  they  will  order  the  sheep  to 
come  down  to  the  river's  edge  and  drink,  and,  the  moment  they 
are  about  to  do  so,  will  shout  to  them  to  stop,  the  docile  crea- 
tures instantly  obeying.  Nor  will  they  heed  the  voice  of  a 
stranger.  The  experiment  has  been  tried  by  persons  who  had 
doubts  on  this  point;  they  have  even  assumed  the  garb  of  the 
shepherd,  have  imitated  his  cry,  have  called  the  sheep  by  name, 
but  to  no  purpose :  the  sheep  have  invariably  fled  from  the 
stranger.§  Yet  sheep  are  very  foolish  animals;  the  whole 
flock  will  unhesitatingly  run  into  danger,  if  only  one  or  two 
set  the  example ;  or  a  silly  lamb  will  gradually  wander  away 
from  its  companions,  and  then  stand  bleating  and  rushing 
hither  and  thither  in  despair,  until  the  prowling  wolf  devour 


Matt.  X.,  10. 


t  John  X.,  3. 


t  John  X.,  4. 


§  John  X. 


190  BIBLE   LANDS. 

it;  or  the  anxious  shepherd,  leaving  the  "  ninety -and -nine'" 
sheep  at  home,  goes  in  search  of  the  strayed  one,  and,  find- 
ing it,  "layeth  it  on  his  shoulders,"*  holding  its  hind -feet  in 
one  hand  and  its  fore-feet  in  the  other,  as  represented  in  an- 
cient sculptures,  and  thus  conveys  it  in  safety  to  the  flock. 
"Verily  he  rejoiceth  more -of  that  sheep  than  of  the  uinety- 
and-nine  which  went  not  astray. "f 

When  the  flock  goes  to  the  pasture  the  shepherd  usually 
leads  the  way,  though  an  experienced  old  ram  carrying  a  bell 
sometimes  takes  his  place.  There  are  usually  not  more  than 
two  or  three  such  in  a  flock,  and  the  shepherd  could  not  easily 
be  induced  to  part  with  them.  These  leaders  have  a  mark 
upon  the  forehead,  branded  with  a  hot  iron,;}:  while  the  mark 
of  the  rest  of  the  flock  is  made  with  a  dye  of  a  single  color 
placed  upon  the  forehead  and  back,  different  from  the  color  of 
the  neighboring  flocks,  so  that  every  shepherd  knows  his  own 
sheep.  When  the  flock  is  led  to  the  watering-place,  if  it  be  a 
well,  the  shepherd  has  to  let  down  his  bucket  of  leather  and 
fill  the  troughs  from  which  the  sheep  drink.§  The  best  wa- 
tering-place for  sheep  is  either  a  running  stream,  or  a  fount- 
ain whose  water  is  conducted  through  a  long  line  of  stone  or 
wooden  troughs.|l  When  the}^  have  reached  the  pasturage, 
the  shepherd  usually  sits  down,  and,  being  irregular  in  his  sea- 
sons of  rest,  is  very  apt  to  fall  asleep,  lulled  by  the  continuous 
tinkling  of  the  bells  of  his  flock ;  and  the  sheep  might  gradual- 
ly stray  away  from  him,  were  it  not  for  a  device  well  adapted 
to  the  case.  The  shepherd  wears  on  his  right  arm  a  woolen 
band,  often  tastefully  knitted  or  woven  by  his  mother,  wife,  or 
sister.  When  he  sits  down  in  the  pasture,  he  calls  to  him  one 
of  the  leaders,  and  ties  the  long  loose  end  of  the  cord  or  band 
to  his  horns.  These  animals  are  so  prone  to  follow  one  anoth- 
er's lead,  that,  should  the  flock  begin  to  move  away  in  any  di- 
rection, the  captive  sheep  makes  such  efforts  to  join  them  that 
he  pulls  at  his  master's  arm,  tinkling  his  bell  incessantly,  till  be 
awakes  him. 

One  of  the  plcasantest  sights  to  be  witnessed  under  the  clear 
and  brilliant  sky  of  Western  Asia  is  a  flock  of  snow-white 

*  Luke  XV.,  5.  t  Matt,  xviii.,  13.  t  Rev.  xiii.,  IG. 

§  Gen.  xxix.,  2,  10;  Kxod.  ii.,  17. 

II  "Travels  in  little-known  Parts  of  Asia  Minor,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  208. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


191 


sheep*  scattered  over  the  surface  of  a  fine  green  meadow  ;  the 
lambs  skipping  and  gamboling  in  frolic;  the  shepherd  sitting 
on  the  soft  turf,  playing  with  his  flute  ;  his  favorite  shaggy  dog 
by  his  side,  keeping  watch  in  all  directions;  and,  to  complete 
the  picture,  we  might  add  the  long-tailed  magpie,  jet-black  with 
a  white  ring  around  its  neck,  perched  upon  the  backs  of  the 
grateful  sheep,  or  hovering  about  them,  catching  the  flies  that 
trouble  these  useful  creatures.  The  beautiful  pastoral  contain- 
ed in  the  twenty-third  Psalm  bears  internal  evidence  of  hav- 
ing been  written  by  the  shepherd-king,  who  had  learned  from 
his  own  experience  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  indescrib- 
able charms  of  this  simple  mode  of  life.  How  often,  as  the  time 
drew  nigh  when  the  sheep  must  return  to  their  fold,  have  we 
gazed  upon  that  beautiful  picture  drawn  by  Isaiah:  "He  shall 
gather  the  lambs  with  his  arm,  and  carry  them  in  his  bosom, 
and  shall  gently  lead  those  that  are  with  young  !"f 


Oriental  Shepherd-dog.    (Job  xxx.,  1.) 


But  we  must  say  a  word  in  behalf  of  the  faithful  shepherd- 
dog,  with  which  the  Hebrew^s  could  not  dispense  any  more 
than  their  modern  successors.;}:     We  do  not  concur  with  the 


Cant,  iv.,  2. 


t  Isa.  xl,  11. 

13 


t  Job  XXX.,  1. 


192  BIBLE    LANDS. 

sentiment  expressed  in  the  following  sentence,  i.  e.,  that  "Ori- 
ental shepherd-dogs  are  a  mean,  sinister,  ill-conditioned  gener- 
ation, kept  at  a  distance,  kicked  about  and  half  starved,  with 
nothing  noble  or  attractive  about  them."  This  description  ap- 
plies to  the  street  dogs  of  Turkey,  which  are  probably  the  de- 
scendants of  half- tamed  wolves  and  jackals,  and  possess  the 
meanest  qualities  of  both;  but  such  a  judgment  is  wholly  un- 
just when  applied  to  the  shepherd-dog  of  Western  Asia,  which 
closely  resembles  those  of  the  ancient  Chaldeans,  if  we  may 
judge  from  the  accompanying  copy  of  a  Babylonian  sculpture. 


Shepherd-dog,  from  Babylouiau  Sculpuire.     (Psa.  xxii.,  '20.) 


There  are  two  species  of  dogs  in  Turkey,  whose  breed  is  kept 
pure,  and  which  really  possess  fine  qualities,  namely — the  grey- 
hound and  the  shepherd's  dog.  Of  the  latter  there  are  sev- 
eral varieties,  all  of  which  are  characterized  by  their  large 
size,  and  white  or  slightly  gray  color,  and  black  noses.  Those 
which  come  from  the  region  of  Batoom,  on  the  Black  Sea,  not 
unfrequently  stand  three  feet  high,  and  can  not  usually  be  pur- 
chased for  less  than  forty  dollars  apiece. 

The  shepherd-dog  follows  the  flock,  and  performs  his  duties 
by  a  sort  of  natural  instinct,  and  without  special  training. 
We  well  remember  that  on  one  occasion  a  shepherd  brought  us 
a  present  of  a  beautiful  pup,  almost  like  a  ball  of  white  wool 
or  silk.  He  was  kept  for  six  months  as  a  pet  in  the  house, 
and  was  the  universal  favorite.  But  one  day  the  shepherd 
brought  his  flock  to  within  half  a  mile  of  the  place,  and  that 
very  day  the  young  dog  disappeared.     Having  occasion  to  go 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  19o 

to  the  flock  on  the  ensuing  morning,  what  was  our  surprise,  on 
approaching  it,  to  spy  our  young  favorite  guarding  the  road  by 
which  we  were  advancing,  and  to  hear  him  give  the  usual  sig- 
nal of  a  sharp  bark  to  intimate  the  approach  of  a  stranger,  be- 
fore he  ran  forward  to  lick  our  hand.  Both  we  and  the  shep- 
herd made  every  effort  to  induce  him  to  give  up  this  gypsy 
life,  and  return  to  the  luxury  of  a  house  and  home,  but  in 
vain ;  nothing  could  induce  him  even  to  pay  a  short  visit  to 
the  place  where  he  had  been  reared  and  so  much  petted. 

These  creatures  are  faithful,  untiring,  intelligent,  and  brave 
even  to  ferocity.  They  will  allow  themselves  to  be  torn  in 
pieces  rather  than  cease  fighting  for  the  defense  of  their  master 
and  flock.  We  have  known  a  panther  to  surprise  the  flock  at 
night,  when  she  was  bravel}^  attacked  by  a  full-grown  dog  and 
three  young  ones,  not  a  year  old.  One  of  the  latter  bit  the 
panther  in  the  face,  so  that  the  tooth  of  his  upper  jaw  entered 
her  eye,  and  that  of  the  lower  jaw  held  her  mouth  firmly 
closed  ;  and  though  his  shoulder  was  broken  and  his  body  terri- 
bly lacerated  by  the  creature's  claws,  he  did  not  give  up  until 
the  other  dogs  had  torn  in  pieces  and  killed  the  common  en- 
emy. It  is  not  safe  to  pass  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  flock  of 
sheep  without  first  attracting  the  attention  of  the  shepherds, 
that  they  may  prevent  the  dogs  from  falling  upon  you.  These 
creatures  are  especially  dangerous  when  met  with  at  dusk  or 
at  night;  the  natives  then  employ  the  expedient  to  which  they 
resort  in  the  case  of  wolves.  They  take  off  their  long  white 
girdle  and  let  it  trail  upon  the  ground  as  they  run.  Both  the 
wolf  and  the  dog  are  intimidated  by  this,  seeming  to  regard  it 
as  a  trap,  and  keep  away. 

The  shepherd-dogs  are  frequently  employed  by  the  proprie- 
tors of  the  flock,  and  sometimes  by  governors  of  towns,  in 
making  "battues"  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  wild  boars,  or 
wolves,  or  even  bears,  when  they  become  troublesome  by  their 
increase.  In  such  cases  their  master  has  to  go  with  them,  and 
their  sagacity,  fine  scent,  and  courage  can  be  depended  upon. 

What  we  have  said  thus  far  of  the  shepherd's  habits  and 
mode  of  life  strictly  applies  to  those  only  who  pursue  this  bus- 
iness as  their  sole  occupation.  We  shall  speak  hereafter  of  no- 
madic life,  and  will  now  simply  remark  that  it  is  customary  at 
the  present  day,  as  it  has  been  all  along  at  different  periods  of 


194  BIBLE    LANDS. 

history,  for  young  women  to  engage  in  leading  and  tending  a 
flock  of  sheep  at  no  great  distance  from  the  dwelling  of  the 
famil}^,  whose  assistance  they  can  secure  in  case  of  need.*  We 
also  frequently  see  women  of  all  ages,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
nomadic  camps,  driving  about  herds  of  cattle,  or  flocks  of 
sheep  and  goats,  and  leading  them  to  the  well  or  river  to 
water.f 

It  is  customary  among  Christians  to  purchase  a  young  lamb 
to  be  eaten  at  Easter,  and  the  same  thing  is  done  by  Muslims, 
at  the  feast  of  Corhan-Bairam.  These  customs  are  evidently 
relics  of  the  Jewish  Passover.  The  lambs  are  brought  into  ev- 
ery town  and  village,  and  their  white  wool  is  often  dyed  red 
in  patches,  in  order  to  enhance  their  beauty  in  the  eyes  of  pur- 
chasers. The  usual  price  is  from  twenty  cents  to  a  dollar,  ac- 
cording to  the  locality.  It  is  a  great  event  for  the  children 
of  a  family,  who  may  be  seen  leading  the  little  pet  about,  and 
vying  with  each  other  who  shall  give  it  the  nicest  handful  of 
grass.  The  fathers  must  have  quite  a  struggle  to  bring  about 
the  slaughter  of  these  favorites  of  the  little  ones ;  for  many  of 
them  are  spared,  and  become  installed  as  members  of  the  fami- 
ly ;  and  for  this  reason  two  lambs  are  sometimes  bought,  only 
one  of  which  is  killed  for  the  Easter  festival.  Thenceforward 
the  lamb  is  the  children's  inseparable  companion.  It  follows 
the  little  girls  to  a  pasture  close  by,  or  runs  behind  a  donkey 
the  boys  are  riding  to  the  vineyard,  and  at  night  the  little  ones 
dispute  who  shall  have  it  for  his  bed-fellow.  It  goes  to  sleep 
with  their  little  arms  about  its  neck,  or  "  lying  in  its  master's 
bosom,  and  being  unto  him  as  a  daughter."  So  it  was  with 
the  poor  man's  "  one  little  ewe  lamb "  in  the  parable  of  the 
prophet  Nathan ;:{:  and  many  a  time  since  that  day  has  the  rich 
and  powerful  sheik  or  aga,  when  desirous  to  entertain  a  pass- 
ing traveler,  "spared  to  take  of  his  own  flock,"  but  has  taken 
"  the  poor  man's  lamb  and  dressed  it.''§  Attention  should  also 
be  paid  to  the  prophet's  specification,  "a  eive  lamb,"  as  cast- 
ing a  characteristic  of  peculiar  meanness  upon  the  act  of  the 
sheik ;  for  the  ram  is  exclusively  eaten  by  the  rich,  and  al- 

♦  Gen.  xxix.,  9,  12,  13 ;  Exod.  ii.,  16. 

t  "  Innumerable  goats  and  sheep  crowded  at  the  water,  led  hy  black-veiled  Be- 
dawy  women." — Stanley,  "Sinai  and  ralcbtine,"  \i.  85. 

J  2  Sam.  xii.,  3.  §  2  Sam.  xii.,  4. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  195 

ways  preferred  at  an  entertainment:  its  meat  sells  for  double 
the  price  of  the  ewe  in  the  market. 

We  have  spoken  elsewhere  of  the  custom  of  killing  an  ox 
or  cow  in  the  autumn,  and  of  putting  up  its  flesh  as  winter  pro- 
vision for  the  family.  The  lamb  purchased  in  Easter-week, 
and  kept  and  fattened  through  the  summer,  is  killed  in  the  au- 
tumn, and  its  flesh  is  chopped  up  and  partially  cooked  in  the 
mass  of  fat  obtained  chiefly  from  the  tail  or  rump.  This  is 
packed  in  jars,  and  a  spoonful  or  two  serves  to  flavor  many  a 
family  meal  through  the  winter.  This  is  the  "one  sheep"  re- 
ferred to  in  Matt,  xii.,  11. 


The  Broad-tailed  Sheep  iu  Persia  2500  Years  ago. 

The  common  and  the  broad-tailed  sheep  are  the  only  varie- 
ties of  this  animal  known  in  the  East.  The  latter  seems  to 
have  originated  in  Arabia,  for  Herodotus  speaks  of  such  a 
sheep  as  occurring  in  that  country.*  This  variety,  however, 
appears  to  have  been  the  only  one  in  existence  in  Egypt  and 
Palestine  in  the  days  of  Moses,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  direc- 
tions contained  in  the  Mosaic  law  with  regard  to  the  use  of  the  fat 
tail,  or  "rump,"  of  the  sheep,  in  offering  the  animal  in  sacrifice.f 

*  Bk.  iii.,  §  113. 

t  Lev.  iii.,  9.  The  English  translators  of  the  Bible  seem  to  have  been  embar- 
rassed by  the  importance  given  by  Moses  to  the  fat  tail  of  the  sheep,  which  they 
call  "  rump."  The  Hebrew  ri'^^X  is  identical  with  the  Arabic  <X>Jf)  which  the 
Arabs  pronounce  liyeh,  and  apply  only  to  the  sheep's  tail  fat. 

At  a  later  period,  or  about  2300  years  ago,  Herodotus  described  it  as  occurring 
in  Syria,  and  differing  from  the  Greek  sheep  by  having  a  tail  "one  cubit  in  width  " 
(eighteen  inches).  It  is  now  the  common  species  in  the  Barbary  States,  in  Egypt 
and  Western  Asia  as  far  as  the  Anti-taurus,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  the  mountains  of 
Koordistan,  north  of  which  it  gives  place  to  the  common  species.  And  it  is  proved 
that  this  was  the  variety  described  by  Aristotle  and  Herodotus,  from  the  excellent 
bass-reliefs  of  the  animal  sculptured  among  the  ruins  of  Persepolis,  in  Persia. 


196 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


The  broad-tailed  sheep  is  deservedly  esteemed  in  the  lands 
where  it  occurs,  on  account  of  its  caudal  appendage,  which  con- 
sists of  an  accumulation  of  delicate  fat,  a  medium  between  tal- 
low and  butter,  and  an  excellent  substitute  for  lard.  It  enters 
largely  into  the  preparation  of  Oriental  dishes,  being  fresh  and 
sweet,  and  by  many  preferred  to  butter,  which,  in  hot  weath- 
er, is  apt  to  grow  rancid,  and  never  in  those  lands  equals  the 
butter  of  colder  climates.  The  peculiar  tail  of  this  species  of 
sheep  consists  of  a  mass  of  fat  formed  on  each  side  of  the 
caudal  spine;  its  general  form  is  nearly  circular,  resembling  a 


Broad-tailed  Sheep,  uushorn.     lExod.  xxis.,  22.) 


chair  cushion,  while  the  tail  proper  extends  several  inches  be- 
yond it.  When  the  wool  is  thick  and  long  upon  the  animal, 
his  form  is  effectually  concealed.  It  is  only  when  closely  shorn 
that  one  can  obtain  an  exact  idea  of  this  peculiarity.  The 
preceding  and  following  cut  will  show  the  appearance  it  pre- 
sents before  and  after  shearing.  It  certainly  seems  sometimes 
to  be  a  great  inconvenience  to  the  poor  creature;  for  though 
usually  not  more  than  twenty  pounds  in  weight,  it  is  not  un- 
frequently  three,  and  even  four  times  as  heavy. 

This  is  the  only  variety  of  large-tailed  sheep  we  have  ever 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  197 

met  in  Western  Asia;  nor,  after  many  inquiries,  have  we  been 
able  to  catch  the  faintest  rumor  of  the  existence  of  any  other. 

We  have  often  wondered  in  what  locality  could  have  exist- 
ed the  original  of  the  extraordinary  picture  published  in  Cas- 
sel's  "Illustrated  Bible,"  and  in  various  religious  journals  and 
Bible  dictionaries,  representing  a  sheep  with  a  tail  of  stupen- 
dous length,  narrow  at  the  root  and  enlarging  toward  the  end, 
and  formed  apparently  for  the  sole  purpose  of  delaying  the 
progress  of  the  animal  by  dragging  in  its  rear  —  exposed  by 
its  weight  to  inevitable  excoriation  and  ulceration.  To  relieve 
the  ill-fated  animal  from  the  pain  and  annoyance  of  such  an 
incumbrance,  it  would  seem  that  man  has  contrived  for  it  a 
little  cart  drawn  by  ribbons  (doubtless  sky-blue),  tied  in  a 


Broad-tailed  Sheep,  shorn.    (Lev.  ix.,  I'.i.) 

pretty  bow  to  a  collar  around  the  animal's  neck  !  We  had,  in- 
deed, occasionally  seen  a  pet  sheep  kept  in  the  house,  and  so 
pampered  and  overfed  that  its  tail  had  grown  inconveniently 
heavy ;  and  some  member  of  the  family  had  taken  compassion 
upon  it  and  fastened  its  tail  on  one  of  the  little  carts  which 
Oriental  children  use  as  playthings,  and  which,  with  their  solid 
wheels,  are  tolerable  imitations  of  the  common  ox-cart  of  the 
country.  We  have  specially  in  mind  at  this  moment  four  fine 
sheep  belonging  to  an  Armenian  gentleman,  each  of  which 
knew  its  name  perfectly.  The  largest  of  these,  called  Kara- 
rjeuz — black-eye — was  an  uncommonly  fine  animal:  it  grew 
so  fat  that  one  of  the  lobes  of  its  tail  dropped  off  by  its  own 
weight;  and,  following  the  advice  of  a  shepherd,  the  owner  had 
a  little  cart  made  for  it  upon  which  the  tail  was  fastened.     A 


198  BIBLE    LANDS. 

wealthy  Turk  offered  thirty-five  dollars  for  the  animal,  desir- 
ing to  offer  it  as  a  sacrifice  on  account  of  his  son's  recovery 
from  sickness,  but  the  owner  refused  to  sell  it.  The  animal 
was  finally  killed,  and  its  flesh  and  fat  were  sold  to  the  butch- 
er for  a  hundred  dollars.  The  diminished  tail  alone  weighed 
forty  okes,  or  one  hundred  and  ten  pounds! 

But  the  tails  of  the  sheep  we  have  described  differ  so  entire- 
ly in  form  from  Cassel's  illustration,  that  we  felt  confident  our 
sheep  could  never  have  stood  for  that  picture;  and  we  began 
to  wonder  whether  somebody  had  not  discovered  that  sheep  of 
Herodotus  whose  tail,  as  he  avers,  was  three  cubits,  or  four 
and  a  half  feet  in  length,  and  had  to  be  conveyed  in  a  carriage! 


The  Broad-tailed  Sheep,  according  to  Harri:^.    ("An  Eastern  Sheep  drawing  his  fatt 
Tayle  in  a  cart,  weighing  40  pounds'  weight  or  more.") 

Finally,  however,  we  accidentally  came  across  "  John  Harris's 
Voyages  and  Travels,"  published  in  London,  1705,  and  found 
in  it  the  original  of  all  these  pictures,  as  may  easily  be  seen 
from  the  position  of  the  animal.*  But  his  copyists  seem  to 
have  known  more  of  the  East  than  he  did ;  they  have  simpli- 
fied the  harness,  and  substituted  solid  wheels  instead  of  the  ele- 
gant European  spokes  of  Harris's  original ;  they  at  least  knew 
that  a  wheel  with  spokes  had  not  been  made  in  the  East  in 
modern  times.  Looking  at  the  text  in  Harris's  book  for  an 
explanation  of  his  picture,  we  found  a  description  of  Abyssinia 

*  The  picture  in  Cassel's  Bible  is  evidently  an  unfaithful  copy  of  Harris.  One 
of  our  best  religious  weeklies,  which  never  publishes  illustrations,  took  the  pains, 
not  long  since,  to  reproduce  Cassel's  picture  in  its  columns  as  a  faithful  portrait  of 
the  "Syrian  Sheep!" 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


199 


taken  from  the  lips  of  "Gregory,"  a  native  of  that  country, 
by  Job  Luclolf,  in  which  occurs  the  following  sentence:  "They 
have  very  large  sheep,  whose  tails  weigh  ten  or  twelve  and 
sometimes  more  than  forty  pounds,  so  that  the  owners  are 
forced  to  tie  a  little  cart  behind  them  to  ease  the  creature  and 
preserve  the  wool."  This  description  agrees  with  our  own  of 
the  broad-tailed  sheep,  as  will  readily  be  seen  by  comparing 
them.  The  author  does  not  claim  that  the  picture  he  gives  of 
it  was  furnished  him  by  Gregory.  It  would,  indeed,  be  pre- 
posterous to  suppose  that  this  native  Oriental  was  a  draughts- 
man, Harris  doubtless  drew  it  himself  from  his  own  imagina- 
tion, to  satisfy  the  laudable  curiosity  of  his  readers.  This  is 
further  proved  by  the  pictures  of  monkeys  also  published  by 
him,  some  of  which  are  represented  as  "  throwing  sand  or  dust 


Etruscan  Sheep.    From  a  Vase. 

in  the  eyes  of  wild  beasts*  that  came  to  set  upon  them."  Greg- 
ory, however,  or  Job  Ludolf,  can  not  altogether  be  relied  upon 
for  the  correctness  of  their  statements,  for  the  description  goes 
on  to  add  further  the  following  interesting  facts  in  natural  his- 
tory: "Ivory  is  not  of  the  teeth  of  the  elephants  but  of  their 
horns,  which  grow  out  of  their  head  and  not  their ya?6-s,  upon 
the  brow  of  the  males  only ;"  and  thereupon  Mr.  Ilarris  gives 
us  a  very  lively  picture  of  a  troop  of  elephants  without  horns 
"  upon  the  brows,"  but  with  a  single  tusk  in  their  mouths  in- 
stead, tearing  away  and  demolishing  a  forest  of  trees,  while  "  a 
corn-field"  is  represented  as  "defended"  against  their  ravages 
"by  a  tame  she-elephant."f 


Lions. 


t  Harris,  i.,  391. 


200  BIBLE   LANDS. 

The  present  habitat  or  region  occupied  exclusively  by  the 
broad-tailed  sheep  is  quite  marked,  and  appears  to  have  been 
nearly  the  same  in  ancient  times,  though  it  may  perhaps  have 
extended  not  quite  so  far  north  and  west.  The  cut  on  the  pre- 
ceding page,  copied  from  an  Etruscan  vase,  represents  a  sheep 
with  a  very  small  tail,  doubtless  the  same  variety  as  is  still 
prevalent  in  Europe,  and  apparently  cut,  as  done  by  our  farm- 
ers at  the  present  day. 

Rams  are  not  unfrequently  met  having  three,  four,  and  even 
eight  horns.  The  accompanying  sketch 
represents  a  specimen  that  was  old,  and 
his  horns  small ;  but  they  are  sometimes 
very  large  and  fine.  To  an  Oriental  mind 
there  is  nothing  unnatural  or  improbable 
in  the  prophet  Daniel's  beast,  "  which  had 
ten  horns,"*  or  the  "Lamb  having  seven 
horns,"  seen  by  the  apostle  John.f 
Four-horned  Kam.  rji^^g  ^^ility  of  the  shccp  to  Oriental  na- 

tions is  probably  greater  than  to  any  other  people,  and  is  un- 
surpassed by  that  of  any  other  animal.  Its  flesh  is  almost  the 
only  meat  eaten  in  Western  Asia,  and  is  decidedly  superior  to 
the  mutton  of  Europe.  Its  tallow,  mixed  with  that  of  the  goat, 
is  exclusively  employed  for  lighting  purposes  in  all  regions 
where  the  olive  does  not  flourish,  except  in  the  rural  districts, 
where  pitch-pine  is  used  instead  by  the  humble  villagers.  We 
have  already  spoken  of  the  uses  of  the  tail-fat,  or  rump,  which 
is  sold  in  the  market-places,  packed  in  bags  of  skin.  The  milk 
of  the  sheep  is  richer  than  that  of  the  goat,  and  the  "  leben," 
or  curdled  milk  made  of  it,  is  preferred  to  any  other.  It  is, 
however,  mostly  converted  into  white  cheese,  which  every- 
where finds  a  ready  market ;  sweet  curds  are  also  made  of  it, 
and  the  shepherd's  family  is  considered  as  living  upon  the  fat 
of  the  land,  especially  if  he  can  occasionally  bring  home  a  little 
honey,  for  he  often  has  a  hive  in  the  forest,  or  some  secluded 
dale  not  far  from  his  sheep-walks. 

But  this  animal  is  especially  useful  to  man  by  furnishing 
him  the  best  material  for  his  clothing.  Before  the  introduction 
of  the  cotton  fabrics  of  Europe,  the  garments  of  the  entire  pop- 

*  Dan.  vii.,  7.  t  Rev.  v.,  6. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  201 

ulation  were  made  of  wool,  of  silk,  and  occasionally  of  linen, 
with  the  exception  of  a  coarse  cotton  cloth  manufactured  in  the 
country  and  woi-n  by  the  poorer  classes;  but  wool  and  linen 
alone  were  known  to  the  Israelites.*  Wool  is  also  extensively 
manufactured  into  carpets,  the  finest  of  which  are  made  at 
Ooshak,  in  Asia  Minor.f  Smaller  kinds  are  woven  by  the 
wandering  nomads,  and  brought  to  the  city  markets  for  sale. 
It  is  an  old  custom  among  these  that  every  girl  weave  with 
her  own  hand  a  sejadeh,  or  praying  carpet,  into  the  centre  of 
which  she  works  some  of  her  own  hair;  this  she  sends  as  a 
present  to  her  betrothed,  who  is  then  supposed  to  learn  for  the 
first  time  the  color  of  her  hair. 

The  trappings  also  of  horses,  asses,  and  camels,  as  well  as  the 
saddle-bags,  which  in  the  East  take  the  place  of  the  trunks 
and  valises  of  the  "Western  world,  are  made  of  wool ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  notice  that  the  figures  and  patterns  of  all  these  man- 
ufactures are  quaint  and  peculiar,  and  after  a  fixed  model,  bear- 
ing a  resemblance  to  flowers  and  leaves.  We  entertain  no 
doubt  of  their  great  antiquity,  which  may  be  asserted  of  all  the 
ornamental  arts,  and  also  applies  to  the  trades  and  business  of 
the  East. 

The  goat  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  and  occupies 
as  important  a  part  in  the  life  of  modern  Oriental  nations  as  it 
did  in  that  of  the  ancients.  The  wild  goat  exists  at  the  pres- 
ent day  on  all  the  high  and  rocky  mountains  of  Western  Asia 
from  Circassia  to  Arabia,  though  he  has  been  pursued  by  the 
hunter  from  time  immemorial.  Moses  mentions  him  in  the 
list  of  the  animals  which  the  Israelites  were  permitted  to  eat.:}: 
This  wild  goat  is  the  paseng,  which  closely  resembles  the  tame 
goat  of  the  mountain  districts  in  every  particular,  save  in  his 
long  and  powerful  horns,  knobbed  upon  their  upper  surface. 
The  hunters  assert  that  when  hard-pressed,  this  creature  es- 
capes by  throwing  himself  down  a  precipice  and  falling  upon 
his  horns,  whose  knotted  edge  enables  him  again  to  recover  his 
footing  among  the  rocks. 

These  animals  are  of  a  fliwn  color,  shading  off  into  dark  red. 
They  climb  the  steepest  acclivities  with  amazing  speed,  leap 

*  Ezek.  xxxiv.,  3 ;   Hos.  ii.,  9. 

t  See  "Travels  in  Asia  Minor,"  ii.,  258. 

X  Deut.  xiv.,  5. 


202 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


The  Paseng,  or  Wild  Goit  oi  Wc-tern  Asia 


ing  from  rock  to  rock  with  admirable  agility,  and  balancing 
themselves  most  unconcernedly  along  stupendous  precipices.* 
Their  habits   also   much    resemble  those   of  the   tame   goat. 

When  they  go  forth 
to  feed  in  the  morning, 
the  strongest  males 
lead  the  way  over  the 
rocks  and  chasms,  and 
the  whole  flock  follow 
in  single  file.  The 
hunters  take  advan- 
tage of  this  habit,  and, 
secreting  themselves, 
shoot  several  in  suc- 
cession, the  fall  of 
their  companions  not 
deterring  the  rest  from 
pursuing  the  same 
path.  When  the  win- 
ter is  very  severe,  they  sometimes  take  refuge  among  the 
tame  goats,  and  are  thus  secured  by  the  shepherd,  but  if  al- 
lowed to  accompany  the  flock  to  the  pasture,  they  are  sure 
to  take  to  the  mountains  again  when  the  weather  moder- 
ates. The  latest  naturalists  consider  the  original  of  the 
tame  goat  to  be  the  wild  goat  we  have  described;  but  the 
varieties  of  the  domestic  goat  are  very  numerous  in  West- 
ern Asia,  and  inferior  only  to  those  of  the  dog.  The  differ- 
ence consists  in  variations  of  form,  size,  color,  quality  of  the 
hair,  and  even  in  the  temper  and  habits  of  the  animal.  The 
Aleppo  goat  has  excessively  long,  pendant  ears,  while  the 
Egyptian  is  slender  in  his  form,  and  commonly  marked  with 
two  hairy  wattles  hanging  at  the  top  of  the  throat.  The 
"Teftik"  goat  is  peculiar  to  a  region  which  extends  about  five 
daj^s'  journey  southward  from  the  ancient  Ancyra  (now  An- 
gora), and  mostly  consists  of  an  elevated  plain,  or  plateau,  cul- 
tivated only  on  the  margins  of  its  rivers.  It  is  called  the  An- 
gora goat  by  Europeans,  from  the  town  in  Galatia,  which  is 
the  mart  for  the  exportation  to  Europe  of  its  valuable,  soft, 


Psa.  civ.,  18. 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


203 


silky  hair,  employed  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  sbawls,  and 
surpassed  only  by  that  of  the  Thibet  goat,  of  which  the  well- 
known  Cashmere  shawls  are  made. 

The  Teftik  goat  is  a  small  animal,  delicate,  and  closely  re- 
sembling in  its  habits  the  sheep  with  which  it  is  always  kept. 
Its  color  is  uniformly  white,  and  its  glossy  hair  very  long  and 
wavy ;  the  little  kids  particularly  are  beautiful  after  a  shower, 
being  covered  with  soft,  shining  curls.*  As  it  seems  to  have 
been  unknown  in  Asia  Minor  before  the  Turkish  invasion,  it 


The  Tefnk  oi  An„ori  Goat 

is  generally  supposed  that  it  was  introduced  from  the  region 
of  Cashmere  by  some  of  the  Turkmen  tribes.  There  appears 
to  have  been  a  breed  of  goats  very  highly  esteemed  in  ancient 
times,  in  the  district  of  Bashan,  the  modern  Hauran,f  but  it  is 
impossible  to  say  what  were  its  peculiarities.  All  attempts  to 
produce  the  Angora  goat  in  other  parts  of  Western  Asia  have 
heretofore  been  unsuccessful,  yet  the  goats  of  the  district  of 
Konia  (the  ancient  Iconium)  bear  a  near  resemblance  to  the 
Angora,  though  the  quality  of  their  hair  is  decidedly  inferior. 

There  are  probably  more  goats  than  sheep  kept  throughout 
Western  Asia.  The  Bedawin  of  the  desert  keep  more  of  the 
former,  probably  because  they  can  better  endure  their  roving 


*  See  "Travels  in  little-known  Parts  of  Asia  Minor,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  209. 
t  Deut.  xxxii.,  14. 


204:  BIBLE    LANDS. 

habits;  so  it  is  likewise  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountain 
districts  throughout  the  entire  country.  These  statements  cor- 
respond with  what  w^e  learn  from  the  Scriptures  respecting  the 
vast  numbers  of  goats  kept  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the 
same  lands.  Nabal  had  a  thousand  goats  feeding  on  Carmel;* 
the  Arabians  (ancestors  of  the  Bedawin)  brought  tribute  to 
King  Jehoshaphat  seven  thousand  seven  hundred  he-goats.f 
The  keeping  of  goats  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  chief 
occupations  of  this  people.:}:  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  in  near- 
ly every  description  of  a  hospitable  entertainment  provided  foi- 
a  passing  guest,  a  kid,  and  not  a  lamb,  is  the  animal  killed 
for  the  purpose,  and  the  same  is  true  in  the  case  of  a  present. § 
Yet  the  flesh  of  the  goat  will  not  compare  with  mutton,  though 
the  kid  is  tender  and  delicate,  especially  when  boiled  in  milk.|| 
Goats'  milk  is  generally  preferred  to  any  other,  and  is  almost 
exclusively  used  throughout  the  East.^"  It  is  also  made  into 
cheese  and  feJen,  or  sour  milk.  Goats  hair,  though  of  less 
general  utility  than  wool,  is  much  employed  in  Western  Asia, 
particularly  by  the  nomadic  tribes ;  their  black  tents  are  made 
of  this  material,**  and  so  are  coarse  kinds  of  cloth  used  as 
carpeting,  bagging,  "sackcloth,"  and  even  as  garments  for  the 
poor.ff 

The  difference  between  the  goat  and  the  sheep,  with  respect 
to  their  habits,  has  already  been  explained.  The  life  of  the 
goat-herd  is  in  many  respects  less  arduous,  and  fraught  witli 
fewer  dangers,  than  that  of  the  shepherd.  This  is  owing  to  the 
temper  of  the  goat,  which  is  more  intelligent,  more  courageous, 
and  not  so  helpless  as  the  sheep.  It  will  not  allow  an  enemy 
to  triumph  without  a  trial  of  strength.  Moreover,  the  goat 
does  not  suffer  from  the  heat,  its  haunts  being  on  the  mount- 
ain-side, where  the  fresh  breezes  blow.  There  is  no  need  of 
feeding  goats  in  the  night-time,  and  so  they  can  safely  be  pro- 
tected within  a  fold.  This  consists  of  a  wall  of  uncemented 
stones,  or  more  frequently  of  a  strong  hedge  made  of  thorny 
bushes,  twisted  between  strong  posts  driven  firmly  into  the 

*  1  Sam.  XXV.,  2.  t  2  Cliiou.  xvii.,  11. 

t  1  Chion.  xxvii.,  31 ;   Ezek.  xxvii..  '21. 

§  Gen.  xxxviii.,  17;  Judg.  vi.,  1!);   xv.,1;  ISnm.  vi.,  20;  Luke  xv.,  21). 

II  Exod.  xxiii.,  19.  ^  l^rov.  xxvii.,  27. 

**  Exod.  xxvi.,  7;  Cunt,  i.,  5.  +t  1  Sam.  xix.,  13,  IG. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  205 

ground.  These  folds  are  built  in  a  mountain  valley,  or  on  the 
outskirts  of  a  village;  in  the  latter  case  they  are  connected 
with  flat-roofed  mud-houses,  inside  which  the  goats  are  stabled 
in  winter.  Even  at  that  season  of  the  year,  however,  they  are 
not  wholly  kept  in  the  fold,  for  as  soon  as  the  weather  clears 
the  goat-herd  may  be  seen  leading  out  his  flock,  and  tracing  a 
path  for  them  through  the  snow  to  some  cluster  of  bushes  or 
trees  not  far  off^  where  they  may  crop  the  evergreen  leaves  or 
nibble  the  bark.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  this  most  useful  an- 
imal endures  equally  well  the  severest  cold  of  the  highest 
mountain  ridges  and  the  burning  heat  of  the  desert.  The  fa- 
vorite places,  however,  for  folding  the  goats  are  the  natural 
caves,  which  abound  in  all  the  calcareous  regions  of  Western 
Asia ;  and  not  only  these,  but  the  sepulchres  of  the  ancients,  as 
well  as  the  ruins  of  antiquity,  are  appropriated  by  the  goat- 
herds for  the  folding  of  their  flocks.  An  inclosure  of  stones  is 
made  in  front  of  a  cave,  so  that  both  the  goats  and  their  mas- 
ter can  remain  in  the  open  air  in  fine  weather,  while  the  deep- 
er recesses  afford  them  a  shelter  to  which  they  may  retreat 
from  the  rains  and  storms  of  winter.  There  every  evening 
you  may  see  a  bright  fire  lighted  and  shadows  moving  about. 
Should  you  ask  for  hospitality,  it  would  be  readily  granted, 
with  a  share  of  the  frugal  meal.  Early  in  the  morning  the 
place  is  wholly  deserted.  The  traveler,  when  he  visits  the 
tombs  of  the  kings  of  Seleucia,  the  church  of  Tortosa,  the  ru- 
ins of  Baulbec  or  Palmyra,  sees  tangible  proofs  that  the  habita- 
tions of  the  great  and  powerful  of  the  earth  have  become  an 
abiding-place  of  flocks.*  In  the  early  morning  the  goat-herd 
leads  his  flock  to  the  pasture;  but  when  they  go  forth  along  a 
well-known  path,  an  old  he-goat  with  tinkling  bell  takes  his 
place,t  whose  majestic  bearing  is  particularly  noticed  by  King 
Solomon.:};  They  move  to  the  adjacent  hills,  covered  with  trees 
or  shrubs,  and  aromatic  herbs,  the  delicate  shoots  and  flowers 
of  which  they  crop  with  the  greatest  avidity.  They  boldly 
clamber  upon  the  steepest  rocks  in  all  directions,  seeming  to 
vie  with  each  other  in  displaying  their  address  and  sure-footed- 
ness.     The  goat-herd  and  his  dog  must  be  constantly  on  the 

*  Isa.  xvii.,  2  ;  xxxii.,  14  ;   Ezek.  xxv.,  r).  t  Jer.  1.,  8. 

J  Prov,  XXX.,  29,  31. 


206  BIBLE    LANDS. 

watch  to  prevent  them  from  scattering  too  much  as  they  feed, 
though  a  well-trained  flock  will  obey  tlieir  master's  voice  witli 
tolerable  promptness  and  unanimity.  Goats  are  liable  to  be 
attacked  by  the  same  enemies  as  sheep;  but  as  they  are  out 
only  during  the  day,  it  is  easier  to  protect  them;  they  are,  be- 
sides, more  nimble  in  their  movements.  You  may  see  them 
coming  down  the  hills  a  little  before  sunset,  advancing  more 
and  more  rapidly  as  they  approach,  for  they  are  expecting  to 
meet  their  young.  The  little  kids  are  active  from  their  birth, 
but  are  not  allowed  for  several  months  to  follow  the  flock, 
both  to  spare  their  strength  and  to  secure  their  mothers'  milk. 
They  are  given  in  charge  to  the  little  boys  and  girls,  who  lead 
them  a  short  distance  off,  or  suffer  them  to  feed  among  the 
tents  of  the  encampments.*  When,  toward  evening,  the  flock 
is  seen  coming  home  from  the  mountain,  the  kids  are  all  shut 
up  in  one  of  the  folds,  and  there  is  a  general  bleating  of  the 
mothers  and  the  little  ones,  who  are  impatient  to  meet  each 
other.  The  former  are  now  all  driven  into  another  inclosure, 
across  the  door  of  which  the  shepherds  sit  down,  side  by  side, 
in  a  row,  with  their  backs  to  the  fold.  Each  one  is  provided 
with  a  vessel  or  dish  of  some  kind :  the  kids  are  then  let  out 
of  their  own  fold,  and  there  is  a  general  rush  of  their  dams  to 
get  to  them  by  dashing  through  between  the  shepherds.  Their 
speed  is  further  increased  by  a  little  boy  within  the  inclosure, 
who  drives  them  toward  the  door  of  the  fold.  The  shepherds 
make  room  from  time  to  time  for  a  goat  to  pass  out,  when, 
catching  it  by  the  hind  leg  as  it  dashes  past,  they  detain  it 
long  enough  for  the  milking.  We  have  often  wondered  how 
the  shepherds  could  so  easily  and  expeditiously  manage  two  or 
three  hundred  goats,  some  of  which  they  milk  dry,  others  only 
partially,  while  others,  again,  are  suffered  to  pass  through  un- 
impeded, according  to  the  condition  of  each. 

The  use  of  goats'  milk  by  the  ancients  as  an  article  of  food 
is  attested  by  the  Greek  and  Eoman  writers,  and  is  proved  by 
the  pictures  on  the  monuments.  The  cut  on  the  following 
page  is  a  copy  of  a  gem  published  by  Rawlinson.  Reference 
to  this  custom  will  also  be  found  in  Prov.  xxvii.,  27. 

When  sheep  and  goats  are  fed  together  in  the  same  pasture, 

*  1  Kings.  XX.,  27;  Cant,  i.,  8. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


20^ 


the  shepherd  often  has  occasion  to  sepa- 
rate them,  especially  as  the  goats  are  apt 
to  be  troublesome  to  the  sheep  when 
folded  in  the  same  inclosure,  on  account 
of  their  butting  propensities  and  general 
restlessness;  hence  it  is  a  very  common 
sight  to  see  a  shepherd  "dividing  his 
sheep  from  the  goats."*  It  is  done  with  Milking  a  G.>at.  From  a 
the  crook,  by  striking  the  goats  either  on 
their  bodies  or  their  horns,  and  thus  driv- 
ing them  off  by  themselves,  while  the  quiet  sheep  remain  in 
their  places.  The  comparison  of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked 
to  these  two  classes  of  animals  has  a  foundation  in  their  re- 
spective tempers  and  characteristic  traits,  and  to  an  Oriental 
mind  is  extremely  graphic  and  appropriate.  The  goat  is  con- 
stantly compared,  by  the  inhabitants  of  Eastern  lands,  to  the 
Evil  One. 


Babylonisti  Gem. 
xxvii.,  27.) 


(Prov. 


Matt.  XXV. 

14 


32. 


208  BIBLE   LANDS. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  HORSE,  THE  MULE,   THE  ASS,  AND   THE  CAMEL. 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  chariot  or  carriage  drawn  by 
horses,  so  often  mentioned  by  ancient  writers,  both  sacred  and 
profane,  has  entirely  disappeared  from  Western  Asia  and  Af- 
rica, though  it  has  now  become  so  common  in  the  once  barba- 
rous Europe,  and  in  the  new  continent  of  America.  The  only 
wheeled  vehicles  now  used  in  Bible  lands  are  of  foreign  man- 
ufacture, and  of  recent  importation.  The  natives  make  and 
employ  only  the  rude,  heavy  cart,  with  solid  wheels,  drawn  by 
oxen  or  buffaloes,  already  described  page  80 ;  yet  the  chariot 
seems  to  have  originated  in  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  and  was 
gradually  brought  into  use  in  Syria,  Canaan,  and  Egypt.  In 
the  last  of  these  countries  the  horse  does  not  appear  on  the 
monuments  before  the  eighteenth  dynasty,*  after  which  period 
he  is  often  met  with.  So  that  this  valuable  animal  had  not 
long  been  known  in  Egypt  at  the  time  that  Jacob  removed 
thither  with  his  household.  When  Joseph  was  proclaimed 
"grand  vizier"  of  that  country,  he  was  made  to  ride  in  the 
second  chariot  of  King  Pharaoh. f  He  himself  also  sent  either 
two  or  four  wheeled  "wagons"  to  bring  his  aged  father,  with 
the  little  ones,  and  the  wives  of  his  brethren,  to  the  land  of 
their  adoption,  and  "  made  ready  his  chariot  and  went  up  to 
meet  them.":};  Such  "  wagons "  drawn  by  mules  are  repre- 
sented on  the  monuments  of  Egypt.  When  the  patriarch  died, 
Joseph  conveyed  his  body  to  the  land  of  Canaan,  accompanied 
by  "  chariots  and  horsemen,  and  a  very  great  company."§ 

The  chariots  of  Egypt  were  not  employed  for  purposes  of 
conveyance  alone;  for  when  the  Israelites  had  been  reluctantly 
permitted  to  depart  for  Mount  Sinai,  and  seemed  to  be  entan- 
gled in  the  land  and  shut  in  by  the  wilderness,  Pharaoh  pur- 


*  Wilkinson,  i.,  38G,  B.C.  ir,30.  t  Gen.  xii..  43. 

:  Gen.  xlv.,  1!)-21  :  xlvi.,  2!).  §  Gen.  1.,  ;>. 


The  modem  Arab  Horse.    (Job  xxxiv.,  19.) 


THE   HORSE,   MULE,   ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  211 

sued  after  them  with  his  six  hundred  chosen  chariots,  and  all 
the  chariots  of  Egypt.*  The  "chariots  of  iron"  possessed 
by  "the  inhabitants  of  the  valley,"  which  for  a  time  success- 
fully withstood  the  arms  of  Israel's  hosts  under  Joshua,  were 
in  all  probability  similar  to  those  long  in  use  among  other  na- 
tions, being  armed  with  scythe-like  blades,  firmly  fixed  in  the 
axles,  f 

In  the  time  of  Saul,  the  Philistines  were  able  to  bring  thirty 
thousand  chariots  and  six  thousand  horsemen  against  the  Is- 
raelites in  the  level  country.:}:  The  Syrians  gathered  together 
thirty-two  thousand  chariots,  in  the  hope  of  being  able  to  pre- 
vail against  King  David. § 

To  these  engines  of  war,  both  chariots  and  cavalry,  God  al- 
lowed the  Israelites  to  oppose  "footmen"  alone  ;  for  they,  and 
their  kings  in  particular,  were  prohibited  from  "multiplying 
horses  to  themselves."!  The  object  of  this  prohibition  was  to 
prevent  the  people  from  having  relations  with  Egypt,  and  thus 
relapsing  into  idolatry,  which  very  thing  occurred  in  the  days 
of  Solomon.^  It  was,  moreover,  the  divine  purpose  to  isolate 
the  Israelites  from  all  their  idolatrous  neighbors,  to  maintain 
the  liberal  institutions  established  by  Joshua,  and  to  prevent 
the  formation  of  a  standing  army,  which  would  at  once  destroy 
their  own  liberty  and  foster  the  love  of  foreign  conquest ;  for 
it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  standing  armies  of  ancient  times 
mainly  consisted  of  chariots  and  cavalry,  the  foot-soldiers  be- 
ing, as  now,  a  sort  of  militia,  drafted  from  the  common  people 
only  on  occasion  of  a  warlike  expedition.  King  David  was 
the  first  of  the  Hebrews  to  adopt  the  chariot  as  an  instrument 
of  warfare,**  and  King  Solomon,  in  accordance,  doubtless,  with 
an  already  established  custom,  still  extant  throughout  the  East, 
by  which  cities  and  provinces  are  made  responsible  for  specific 
armaments  in  war,  imposed  on  certain  cities  the  duty  of  holding 
fourteen  hundred  war- chariots  in  readiness  against  his  call.ff 
During  this  reign  chariots  and  horses  were  imported  from 
Egypt,  both  for  the  use  of  the  Hebrews,  "  and  for  all  the  kings 
of  the  Hittites,  and  for  the  kings  of  Syria."     The  price  of  a 

*  Exod.  xiv.,  3-7.  t  Josh,  xvii.,  16, 18;  Judg.  i.,  19. 

X  1  Sam.  xiii.,  5.  §  1  Chron.  xix.,  7. 

II  Deut.  xvii.,  16.  f  1  Kings  x.,  28,  29  ;  xi.,  7-10. 

**  2  Sara,  viii.,  4.  tt  1  Kings  ix.,  19  ;   x.,  25. 


212  BIBLE   LANDS. 

chariot  with  a  span  of  horses,  and  an  extra  one  (according  to 
the  custom  of  that  day),  was  six  hundred  shekels,  or  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  for  each  of  the  three  horses,  and  the  same  for 
the  chariot.*  This  is  equivalent  to  about  £18  10s.,  or  $93  per 
horse;  a  high  price,  compared  with  modern  times,  especially 
if  we  consider  that  money  was  worth  three  or  four  times  as 
much  then  as  at  present. 

From  the  time  of  David  and  Solomon  the  Hebrews  employ- 
ed these  engines  of  war  in  common  with  their  enemies,  the  As- 
syrians and  Babylonians,  the  pictorial  representations  of  whose 
horses  and  chariots  have  been  so  remarkably  preserved  in  the 
monuments  of  Nimrood  and  Koyoonjik  throughout  Western 
Asia.f 

How  shall  we  account  for  the  total  disappearance  of  the  war- 
chariot  and  the  convenient  carriage,  once  so  common  in  these 
lands?  Civilization  has  moved  westward  and  northward,  and 
has  been  utterly  crushed  and  destroyed  in  Western  Asia  by 
the  barbarous  tribes  which  have  issued  forth  from  the  Arabian 
peninsula  and  the  great  plains  of  Tartary.  They  have  ruined 
the  palace  and  the  temple,  have  gorged  themselves  with  the 
accumulated  treasures  of  centuries  of  prosperity,  and  have  set- 
tled down  into  the  barbarism  whence  they  originated,  adopting 
such  of  the  customs  and  comforts  of  civilization  as  happened 
to  suit  their  fancy.:}: 

The  word  "  carriage,"  both  in  the  singular  and  in  the  plural, 
is  sometimes  employed  in  a  peculiar  sense  in  our  English  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible,  It  means  whatever  is  carried  by  a  traveler, 
i.  e.,  baggage,  as  is  evident  from  the  context  of  some  of  the  pas- 
sages in  which  it  occurs.  Thus,  in  Judg.  xviii.,  20,  21,  the  word 
carriage  evidently  refers  to  the  baggage  of  the  Danites ;  1  Sam. 
xvii.,  22,  also  contains  the  word,  evidently  referring  to  the 
presents  brought  by  young  David  from  his  father  Jesse  for  his 
elder  brothers  and  their  captain;  while  in  Acts  xxi.,  15,  we 
find  the  same  mode  of  expression  which  is  used  at  the  present 
day  in  speaking  of  loading  beasts  of  burden  with  the  baggage, 
when  starting  on  a  journey :  "  We  took  up  our  carriages,"  /.  <?., 
our  baggage — the  very  language  still  in  use. 

It  is  impossible  to  ascertain  in  what  country  originated  the 

*  1  Kings  X.,  29.  +  Acts  viii.,  28.  J  Mic.  v.,  10;  Zech.  ix.,  10. 


THE   HORSE,  MULE,  ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  213 

noble  and  useful  animal  which  has  now  become  naturalized  in 
all  portions  of  the  habitable  globe.*  We  have  already  men- 
tioned that  the  horse  does  not  appear  to  have  existed  in  Egypt 
before  the  definite  historic  period,  nor  would  it  seem  that  he 
was  employed  by  man  in  the  neighboring  countries  during 
prehistoric  times;  for  the  monument  of  Euyuk,  and  other  re- 
mains in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  generally  attributed  to  the 
Egyptians  under  Sesostris,  contain  no  figure  of  a  horse,  though 
they  represent  cattle  and  goats.  The  earliest  mention  of  this 
animal  in  any  historic  record  is  found  in  the  Scriptural  account 
of  Joseph's  elevation  to  power  in  Egypt.f  As  no  ancient 
author,  sacred  or  profane,  makes  any  mention  of  the  horse  in 
his  wild  state,  it  would  appear  that  this  noble  animal  originated 
near  the  cradle  of  the  human  race  and  within  narrowly  circum- 
scribed limits,  and  that  he  was  early  brought  into  a  state  of 
domesticity.  He  is  now  found  wild,  or  partly  so,  in  the  plains 
of  Tartary,  in  North  and  South  America,  and  on  such  of  the 
deltas  of  Asia  Minor  as  are  covered  with  forests  and  almost 
inaccessible  swamps;  and  we  know  that  in  each  of  these  in- 
stances the  wild  horse  originated  from  the  domestic  stock. 

There  is  perhaps  no  part  of  the  world  in  which  horses  are 
more  numerous,  and  useful  to  all  classes  of  the  population, 
than  in  Western  Asia.  Though  evidently  intended  by  nature 
to  live  on  the  plain,  the  horse  now  seems  quite  at  home  climb- 
ing the  steepest  mountain  declivities,  whether  bearing  heavy 
goods,  or  carrying  the  traveler  or  the  warrior.  The  common 
horse  is  an  extremely  hardy  animal,  usually  worked  to  the  ut- 
most limit  of  his  strength,  and  scantily  fed  on  straw  and  barley. 
This  animal,  with  the  mule  and  the  ass,  does  most  of  the  bur- 
den-bearing of  the  country,  the  heaviest  loads  being  conveyed 
on  camels  and  buffalo-carts ;  but  though  sturdy,  and  most  use- 
ful, it  is  much  neglected,  and  does  not  receive  the  attention  it 
deserves.  The  finer  races  of  horses,  however,  are  thorough- 
ly appreciated,  and  well  cared  for.  They  are  chiefly  used  for 
purposes  of  warfare,  whether  in  predatory  expeditions  or  the 
cavalry  service ;  and  it  is  in  such  circumstances  that  the  most 
remarkable  qualities  of  the  animal  are  best  displayed.  The 
description  of  the  war-horse  contained  in  the  book  of  Job  is  the 

*  Bruce,  v.,  284.  t  Gen.  xli.,  43. 


214  BIBLE   LANDS. 

dnest  ever  written,  as  applicable  to  the  war-horse  of  "Western 
Asia  and  North  Africa.  ''  Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength  ?"' 
No  one  can  look  upon  the  Arabian  thorough-bred,  whose  di- 
aphanous skin  and  coat  of  silken  hair  reveal  the  form  of  every 
muscle  and  vein  of  his  body  —  no  one  who  has  witnessed  his 
lightning  speed,  seen  him  leap  like  a  gazelle,  or  suddenly  stop 
in  the  midst  of  his  career,  can  fail  to  pronounce  him  the  image 
of  strength  and  power.  "  Hast  thou  clothed  his  neck  with 
thunder?"  a  true  picture  of  the  horse's  mane  floating  in  the 
breeze,  while  he  champs  the  bit  and  neighs,  impatient  of  re- 
straint. "Canst  thou  make  him  afraid,^'  when  he  bounds  "as 
a  grasshopper?"  "He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth  in 
his  strength,"  admirably  represents  the  impatience  of  the  war- 
horse  as  he  sees  the  valley  spread  out  before  him,  and  pants  to 
display  his  strength  and  agility.  "  He  goeth  on  to  meet  the 
armed  men.  He  mocketh  at  fear,  and  is  not  affrighted ;  neither 
turneth  he  back  from  the  sword."  "The  quiver"  (quiverful 
of  arrows)  "  rattleth  against  him,  the  glittering  spear  and  the 
shield.  He  swalloweth  the  ground  with  fierceness  and  rage : 
neither  believeth  he  that  it  is  the  sound  of  the  trumpet.  He 
saith  among  the  trumpets.  Ha,  ha!  and  he  smelleth  the  battle 
afar  off,  the  thunder  of  the  captains,  and  the  shouting." 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that,  though  horses  unaccustomed  to 
the  sight  of  elephants  and  camels  have  fled  before  these  animals 
when  they  first  saw  them,  yet  they  have  speedil}^  overcome  this 
natural  fear ;  and  the  common  cavalry-horse  has  been  so  great- 
ly excited  by  the  sound  of  war  that  he  has  repeatedly  been 
known,  when  losing  his  rider,  to  dash  without  him  upon  the 
enemy,  and  to  fight  on  alone. 

There  are  other  beautiful  passages  also  in  the  poetic  writings 
of  the  Bible  as  applicable  to  the  modern  war-horse  of  Turkey 
as  Job  xxxix.,  19-25.  Such  are,  for  instance,  Psa.  cxlvii.,  10; 
Prov.  xxi.,  31;  Jer.  iv.,  13;  viii.,  6;  and  Hab.  i.,  8. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that,  as  the  modern  horse  is  chiefly  prized 
in  connection  with  warfare  and  predatory  expeditions,  so  also 
the  Bible  refers  to  the  noble  animal  almost  wholly  in  a  similar 
sense;  and  as  it  was  in  ancient  times,  so  at  the  present  day  dif- 
ferent portions  of  the  country  are  celebrated  for  the  peculiar 
qualities  of  their  breeds  of  horses.  The  Circassians  are  noted 
for  the  skill  with  which  they  manage  their  small  mountain 


^,-, 


THE    HORSE,  MULE,  ASS,  AND    CAMEL,  215 

horse,  and  the  Russian  troops  have  often  had  occasion  to  ad- 
mire the  quality  of  their  steeds.  They  indeed  employ  the  evo- 
lutions of  their  horses  as  a  system  of  telegraphy,  by  which  they 
are  able  to  communicate  to  the  mountaineers  beyond  the  reach 
of  their  voices  the  orders  of  their  chiefs,  or  the  movements  of 
their  enemies.  We  have  known  one  of  their  chieftains  to 
shoot  a  crow  on  the  wing  with  his  rifle,  while  galloping  at  full 
speed. 

The  Cappadocian  and  GaJatian  horses  are  the  most  highly 
esteemed  of  the  peninsula,  and  were  equally  so  under  the  Ro- 
man dominion.  But  the  Koordish  is  the  most  hardy,  and  best 
able  to  endure  the  rough  usage  of  the  lawless  mountaineers, 
who,  under  the  name  of  Koords,  are  the  terror  of  the  popula- 
tions occupying  the  country  from  Csesarea  to  Ooroomia,  and 
from  Trebizond  to  Aleppo.  These  men  are  celebrated  for 
their  equestrian  skill ;  and  whenever  they  appear  at  any  of 
those  tournaments  called  "the  jerid,"  of  which  the  indolent 
Turks  are  fast  abandoning  the  practice,  and  which  occur  on 
occasions  of  special  festivities  and  at  annual  fairs,  they  are  al- 
most sure  to  win  the  honors  of  the  day.  It  is  truly  marvelous 
to  see  the  facility  with  which  the  Koordish  horse  obeys  the 
slightest  wish  of  his  master,  suddenly  darting  forward  at  full 
speed,  stopping  instantly  in  his  career,  wheeling  to  the  right  or 
the  left,  until  he  is  white  with  foam,  his  mouth  bleeding,  and 
his  flanks  lacerated  by  the  heavy  stirrups,  while  the  brawny 
arm  of  his  expert  rider  hurls  the  blunt  javelin  with  astonishing 
force  and  unerring  aim,  and  he  leans  forward  almost  out  of 
sight  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  horse,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
weapon  of  his  antagonist.  The  Koordish  robber  is  armed, 
like  the  ancients,  with  a  shield,  javelin,  sword,  and  a  long  spear 
ornamented  with  a  tuft  of  wool. 

The  Koordish  horse  has  made  his  rider  from  time  immemo- 
rial the  undisputed  master  of  Kdordistan,  and  the  terror  of  all 
the  neighboring  countries.  The  Koords  are  probably  the  de- 
scendants of  the  fierce  Carducians,  who  impeded  the  retreat  of 
the  ten  thousand  Greeks  under  the  leadership  of  Xenophon, 
from  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia  to  Trebizond,  on  the  Black 
Sea.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that  the  country  they  occupy  is  a 
portion  of  what  has,  from  time  immemorial,  been  called  Arme- 
nia, a  land  celebrated  for  its  horses.     Strabo  says  that  it  pro- 


216  BIBLE   LANDS. 

duced  great  quantities  of  horses,  which  were  as  highly  esteemed 
as  those  of  the  celebrated  Nesiean  breed.*  The  Koords  are  the 
people  referred  to  under  the  name  of  Togarmah,  the  common 
ancestor  of  that  nation  and  of  the  Armenians.f  Since  those 
days,  the  Koords  have  left  their  mark  on  the  pages  of  history, 
alternately  as  highwa}^  robbers  and  as  soldiers  of  fortune — 
ever  ready  to  ofier  their  swords  to  the  highest  bidder.  They 
have  thus  plaj^ed  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  historj'  of  Asia 
Minor,  Syria,  and  Palestine.  In  Egypt  the  Koordish  cav- 
alry was  the  right  arm  of  the  Fatimite  caliphs,  after  whose 
downfall  some  of  its  most  fortunate  chiefs  even  occupied  the 
throne. 

The  Persian  horse  is  also  highly  esteemed  in  the  East,  and 
there  are  no  better  horsemen  anywhere  than  the  Persians  of  the 
present  day.  The  M^ord  soos  in  the  Hebrew  Scripture  is  gen- 
erally supposed  to  designate  a  carriage-horse,  and  some  critics 
have  claimed  that  the  word  must  have  been  derived  from 
Susa,:}:  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Elam,  a  portion  of  the  present 
territory  of  Persia,  lying  to  the  south-east  of  Babylon.  This 
etj-mology  is  liable  to  serious  objections.  Susa  could  more 
easily  be  derived  from  soos  than  the  latter  from  the  former ;  it 
is,  however,  probable  that  the  two  words  have  no  connection 
with  each  other.  But  the  Hebrew  name  for  a  saddle-horse  is 
parash  {faras  in  Arabic),  supposed  by  many  to  be  derived  from 
Pares  (Persia).  Should  this  etymology  be  correct,  it  would  in- 
dicate that  the  first  horses  the  Hebrews  saw  had  come  from 
Persia.  This  may  have  been  at  the  time  that  Chedorlaomer, 
king  of  Elam,  and  the  kings  under  his  command,  made  an  in- 
cursion into  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  were  overthrown  by 
Abraham  and  his  servants. §  This  is  further  confirmed  by 
the  fact  that  large  numbers  of  horses  were  anciently  reared  in 
that  portion  of  Persia  which  was  called  Media,  now  Azerbijan, 
and,  according  to  Polybius,  x.,  27,  §  2,  were  thence  "sent  to  all 
parts  of  Asia."  Their  great  superiority  to  the  Greek  horses 
was  fully  proved  during  Xerxes's  invasion  of  Greece.||  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus  states  that  the  great  horse-pastures  near  Bagistun 
nourished  one  hundred  thousand  horses,  and  that  Media  paid 

*  "Geography."  hk.  xi.,  chap,  xiv.,  §  9,  +  Gen.  x.,  3 ;  Ezek.  xxvii.,  14. 

X  Or  Shushan  (Esth.  iii.,  l.'>).  §  Gen.  xiv.,  1-16. 

II  Gillies's  "Ancient  Greece,"  p.  233. 


THE  HORSE,  MULE,  ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  217 

to  the  King  of  Persia  a  tribute  of  three  thousand  horses  a  year. 
However  this  may  be,  excellent  horses  now  abound  in  the  level 
tracts  of  Persia,  and  are  particularly  remarkable  for  their  great 
powers  of  endurance.  Some  of  them  have  repeatedly  been 
known  to  travel  under  the  saddle  nearly  two  hundred  miles  in 
three  consecutive  days.*  These  animals  are  there  raised  in 
large  numbers  by  the  nomadic  tribes  who  rule  the  countr}', 
numbering  from  seven  hundred  thousand  to  eight  hundred 
thousand  souls,  whose  cavalry  forms  the  flower  of  the  Per- 
sian army.  The  Shah  himself  belongs  to  a  family  of  these 
nomads. 

In  ancient  times  it  is  supposed  that  the  finest  horses  came 
from  Persia,  from  a  district  called  Nesaea  by  the  Greek  writers. 
There  is  a  fine  picture  of  a  horse  still  preserved  among  the 
sculptures  of  Persepolis,  which  we  reproduce  on  the  following 
page,  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  it  with  the  most  highly  es- 
teemed modern  horses,  and  particularly  with  the  sketch  of  an 
Arab  horse  on  the  same  page.  The  latter  was  drawn  from  a 
fine  specimen,  and  brings  out  to  view  some  of  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  breed.  The  comparison  of  the  two  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  Persepolitan  horse  is  a  pure  Arab;  for  they 
both  have  the  tail  set  very  low,  and  the  mouth  small,  and  the 
forehead  well  developed  about  the  eyes.  They  are  also  tall  in 
the  hind-quarters.  The  sculptures  of  the  ancients  represent 
several  of  the  paces  of  the  horse,  such  as  the  trot,  the  canter, 
the  leap,  etc. ;  but  this  Persepolitan  work  is  the  only  one  we  re- 
member which  represents  the  amhle,  a  favorite  pace  in  the  East; 
and  he  is  formed  after  the  most  approved  model  for  that  move- 
ment, i  e.,  thick-set.  Again,  the  mode  of  tying  up  the  tail  is 
prevalent  among  the  moderns,  who  always  do  it  to  a  valuable 
animal;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  bell  around  the  neck, 
which  is  referred  to  in  Zech.  xiv.,  20. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  horse  was  introduced  into 
Egypt  from  some  foreign  country,  most  probably  by  the  shep- 
herd-kings, whose  successful  invasion  occurred  just  before  the 
time  of  Joseph,  and  whose  dominion  extended  over  several  cen- 
turies. But  though  of  foreign  origin,  this  animal  could  not 
fliil  to  succeed  in  a  land  to  which  he  was  so  well  adapted,  and 

*  Morier,  ii.,  359. 


218 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


whose  proverbial  fertility  offered  him  the  best  sustenance.  The 
chariots  of  Egypt,  and  its  numerous  and  etfective  cavalry,  were 
the  dread  of  the  Israelites.*  The  Pharaohs,  however,  until  the 
defeat  of  Pharaoh -necho  by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Carchemish, 


The  Moderu  Arab  Horse. 


Sculptured  ITorse  at  Persepolis.    (Zech.  xiv.,  20.) 

usually  pursued  a  friendly  policy  toward  the  Hebrews,  and  the 
latter  were  much  inclined  to  seek  their  alliance,  and  the  aid  of 
their  military  power.     Since  the  commencement  of  the  Chris- 


♦  Exod.  xiv.,  9;  2  Chron.  xii.,  2-4;  2  Chron.  xxxv.,  20-24;  corap.  Jer.  xlvi.,  2-4. 


THE    HORSE,   MULE,  ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  219 

tian  era,  and  particularly  since  the  appearance  of  Mohammed, 
the  cavalry  of  Egypt  has  always  been  celebrated  for  its  valor 
and  dash  in  the  battle-fields  of  the  Saracenic  warriors,  from 
the  plains  of  Persia  to  those  of  Spain.  It  has  ever  constituted 
the  principal  force  of  the  Egyptian  monarchs,  but  acquired  its 
greatest  fame  under  the  noted  name  of  the  "Mamelukes,"  who 
were  mostly  Circassian  slaves,  purchased  by  the  successive  gov- 
ernors of  Egypt,  with  whom  they  shared  its  wealth  and  emolu- 
ments. It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  "the  Battle  of  the  Pyra- 
mids," where  they  were  conquered  by  the  tactics  of  modern 
discipline  and  military  science.  They  were  revived  again  after 
the  flight  of  Bonaparte,  and  maintained  their  power  until  Mo- 
hammed Ali  put  a  final  end  to  their  existence.  This  wily 
ruler,  being  determined  to  share  with  no  one  the  ownership 
and  plunder  of  the  "  garden  of  the  earth,"  invited  the  whole 
body  of  the  Mamelukes,  under  some  attractive  pretense,  to  meet 
in  the  Castle  of  Cairo.  They  accepted  the  invitation,  and  when 
all  had  assembled  within  the  ample  area,  the  gates  were  closed, 
and  the  newly  disciplined  troops  of  Mohammed  Ali  were  led 
in,  and  ordered  to  shoot  down  the  unsuspecting  beys  and  their 
numerous  retainers.  They  were  all  butchered  without  mercy, 
one  alone  escaping,  saved  by  the  intelligence  of  his  noble  horse, 
which  climbed  the  battlements  and  leaped  down  the  high  wall, 
losing  his  own  life,  but  saving  his  master.  This  was  the  last 
of  the  Mamelukes,  and  he  was  alive  at  Constantinople  some 
twenty  years  ago. 

The  finest  race  of  horses  is  universally  acknowledged  to  be 
the  Arabian.  This  is  probably  owing,  not  so  much  to  the 
climate,  as  to  the  early  training  and  peculiar  use  of  this  animal 
by  the  Arabs  of  the  desert.  The  young  colt  has  free  admit- 
tance to  his  master's  tent,  and  is  treated  like  one  of  the  family. 
The  Arab  is  as  careful  to  preserve  the  pedigree  of  his  horse,  as 
the  Jews  were  that  of  their  tribes,  and  the  documents  which  he 
hoards  in  proof  are  written  and  sealed  by  sheikhs  of  the  high- 
est authority.  The  colt  is  the  playmate  of  the  children  until 
old  enough  to  carry  them  on  its  back,  when  it  is  ridden  with- 
out saddle  or  bridle,  and  guided  by  the  mere  voice  or  hand  of 
its  master.  Every  Arab  is  ambitious  of  acquiring  ownership 
in  a  blood-mare ;  it  often  happens  that  several  persons  are  part 
owners  of  a  single  animal,  and  may  thus  become  sole  possessors 


220  BIBLE  LANDS. 

of  the  progeny  for  a  small  sum.  The  cost  of  keeping  is  insig- 
nificant, for  the  horses  eat  grass  during  all  the  year,  unless  they 
are  fed  on  barley  and  straw  which  has  been  stolen  in  a  foray. 

Every  tribe  of  the  Arabian  peninsula  possesses  horses  of  val- 
uable breeds,  but  that  of  the  Nejd  is  most  highly  esteemed;  and 
particularly  a  breed  which  is  characterized  by  prominence  of 
the  forehead  between  the  eyes,  and  noted  for  its  remarkable  in- 
telligence. Nothing  will  induce  the  Arabs  to  part  with  their 
best  mares;  not  only  because  they  desire  to  preserve  the  breed, 
but  from  the  fact  that,  in  their  frequent  marauding  expeditions 
by  night,  they  can  rely  upon  their  silence,  to  say  nothing  of 
their  superior  intelligence.  The  Arabs  often  relate  the  story 
of  an  Englishman,  who,  being  determined  to  acquire  the  most 
highly  esteemed  mare  in  the  whole  peninsula,  was  led  by  his 
inquiries  to  the  tent  of  a  man  clothed  in  rags.  The  unanimous 
verdict  of  all  the  Arabians  had  declared  him  to  be  the  owner 
of  the  finest  mare  in  existence.  The  Englishman  vainly  offered 
fabulous  sums  of  money  for  the  beautiful  creature,  when  the 
Arab,  to  put  an  end  to  the  interview,  declared  that  he  would 
not  part  with  her  even  if  he  brought  to  his  tent  ten  camel-loads 
of  gold  sequins.  When  Mohammed  Ali  conquered  the  Waha- 
bies,  he  offered  £1800  to  £2000  ($10,000)  to  Arabs  of  the  des- 
ert for  single  mares,  but  their  owners  utterly  refused  to  part 
with  them  ;  yet  the  price  of  an  ordinary  blood-mare  is  £60,  or 
$300.  We  have  repeatedly  asked  these  people  what  made 
them  prize  their  horses  so  highly,  and  they  uniformly  an- 
swered, "A  fleet  and  intelligent  horse  is  every  thing  to  us. 
He  who  possesses  the  best  is  king  of  the  desert.  If  your  en- 
emy is  mounted  on  a  fleeter  horse  than  yourself,  of  what  use 
is  untold  wealth  to  you?  Your  life  and  property  are  in  his 
hands.  With  such  a  horse  caravans  are  arrested  and  brought 
to  your  tent,"  etc.*  The  gun  is  almost  unknown  in  the  desert, 
and  success  depends  upon  the  speed  of  the  horse,  his  power  of 
endurance,  and  the  skillful  management  of  the  long,  tufted 
spear,  the  sword,  and  the  shield,  which  are  still  the  trusty 
weapons  of  the  lawless  Ishmaelites;  and  these  qualities  are  pos- 
sessed by  the  Arab  horse  to  a  degree  unsurpassed  by  any  other. 
The  Persians,  who  are  the  best  riders  in  the  world,  as  of  old,  as 

*  Job  i.,  17. 


THE   HORSE,  MULE,  ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  221 

members  of  the  Parthian  empire,  esteem  the  pure  Nejd  (Arab) 
as  superior  to  all  others,  and  detect  him  by  the  following  rule: 
He  must  be  made  to  travel  fast  over  ninety  miles  at  one  stretch, 
then  dashed  into  a  stream  up  to  his  breast,  and  fed  immediately 
with  barley ;  if  he  eats  it  with  a  good  appetite,  he  is  all  that  can 
be  desired.* 

There  is  no  end  of  the  anecdotes  related  among  the  Arabs 
and  by  their  neighbors,  to  illustrate  the  sagacity  of  this  remark- 
able animal  and  his  devotion  to  his  master.  A  friend  once  told 
us  that,  in  a  town  of  Northern  Syria,  the  pasha,  while  enter- 
taining an  Arab  chieftain,  expressed  doubt  as  to  the  superior 
qualities  of  the  mare  he  rode ;  the  Arab  challenged  twenty  of 
the  pasha's  best  horsemen  to  lay  hold  of  him  within  the  limits 
of  the  public  meidan,  or  square.    They  attempted  it,  and  failed. 

The  following  seems  to  be  well  accredited:  An  Arab,  having 
been  captured  by  a  predatory  party,  was  at  night-fall  thrown 
upon  the  ground,  with  his  hands  firmly  tied  behind  his  back. 
His  captors  laid  themselves  down  around  him,  and  were  soon 
sound  asleep.  His  mare  had  been  tied  near  by:  about  the 
middle  of  the  night  she  tore  her  fastenings,  stole  up  to  her 
master,  and,  lifting  him  up  with  her  teeth,  succeeded  in  seating 
him  on  her  back  ;  she  then  darted  off,  and  fled  home  with  such 
speed  and  perseverance,  that  she  died  of  exhaustion  soon  after 
safely  depositing  her  master  in  his  tent 

The  Druses  of  Mount  Lebanon  and  the  Hauran  possess  a 
breed  of  the  Arab  horse  distinguished  for  its  superior  strength 
and  power  of  endurance,  doubtless  acquired  among  the  rugged 
mountains  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon.  The  sheikhs,  more- 
over, and  the  Druse  nobles  are  so  constantly  in  the  saddle,  and 
so  devoted  to  the  manly  game  of  the  jerid,  that  they  may  well 
be  reckoned  among  the  best  riders  in  the  world.  The  resi- 
dence, or  palace,  of  every  sheikh  or  noted  chieftain  has  a  level 
space,  or  meidan,  in  front  of  it,  some  eighty  yards  by  forty, 
which  is  devoted  to  this  exercise.  Here,  on  festive  occasions, 
guests  arrive  mounted  on  their  finest  steeds,  dressed  in  the 
gayest  costumes,  and  each  armed  with  several  blunt  javelins  or 
stout  sticks  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  a  yard  and  a  half  in 
length,  rounded  at  both  ends;  this  is  the  jerid.    Soon  they  may 

*  Chardin,  v.,  175. 

15 


222  BIBLE   LANDS. 

be  seen  trying  the  paces  of  their  horses,  backward  and  forward. 
The  riders  then  divide  into  two  equal  parties  of  a  dozen  at  most, 
which  stand  opposed  to  each  other  at  either  extremity  of  the 
meidan.  The  animals  paw  the  ground,  and  display  the  greatest 
impatience  to  begin  the  sport,  for  their  blood  is  up.  A  horse- 
man from  one  of  the  parties  now  advances  at  a  sharp  canter, 
slightly  reclining  back  in  the  saddle,  the  right  arm  extended 
and  drawn  down  to  a  little  below  the  level  of  the  waist,  with 
the  jerid  well  balanced  in  the  hand,  which  grasps  it  by  the  mid- 
dle, the  clasped  fingers  being  uppermost.  After  traversing  two- 
thirds  of  the  meidan,  he  suddenly  turns,  wheels  his  horse  round 
to  the  left  without  sensibly  checking  his  speed,  and  delivers  his 
jerid  with  full  force  among  the  horsemen  opposed  to  him.  The 
weapon,  thus  obtaining  impulse  not  only  from  the  muscular 
strength  of  the  rider's  arm,  but  from  the  impetus  of  the  animal 
in  the  sweeping  course  which  it  is  made  to  perform,  parts  like  a 
stone  from  a  sling.  The  moment  the  horseman  has  delivered 
his  jerid,  he  puts  his  horse  into  full  gallop  to  return  to  his  own 
side,  pursued  by  one  of  the  opposing  party,  who  darts  out  after 
him,  and,  choosing  his  time  and  distance,  hurls  his  jerid  at  his 
back.  The  former  either  avoids  the  blow  by  stooping  down  in 
his  saddle,  or,  if  expert  enough,  parries,  and  sometimes  catches, 
his  adversary's  weapon  in  his  left  hand.  In  this  manner  the 
whole,  who  take  part  in  the  meidan,  are  successively  engaged 
until  the  rneUe  becomes  general,  constant,  and  exciting.  Foot- 
men are  present,  who  pick  up  and  supply  the  riders  with  the 
jerids.  Severe  and  indeed  injurious  blows  are  sometimes  ex- 
changed. The  Druse  sheiks  will  often  get  so  ruffled  in  temper 
as  to  throw  away  the  jerid,  draw  their  swords,  and  begin  to 
fight  with  each  other  in  downright  earnest;  and  it  is  only  the 
prompt  interposition  of  the  by-standers  which  on  such  occa- 
sions prevents  bloodshed. 

Each  game,  or  meidan,  as  it  is  called,  lasts  from  two  to  three 
hours,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time  both  riders  and  horses 
are  ready  to  drop  from  exhaustion. 

The  Mamelukes  of  Egypt  were  also  celebrated  for  their  skill 
in  these  manly  games ;  yet  it  is  related  that  the  Druse  sheikh  All 
Amad,  esteemed  in  his  day  the  best  horseman  in  Syria,  was 
once  present  at  a  meidan  performed  in  Cairo  before  the  vice- 
roy, Mohammed  Ali  Pasha,  where  the  pasha's  favorite  black 


THE    HORSE,   MULE,   ASS,   AND    CAMEL. 


223 


eunuch  was  the  terror  of  all  combatants,  from  the  skillful  and 
merciless  manner  in  which  he  handled  his  jerid.  The  pasha 
taunted  Ali  Amad  with  his  reputation  as  a  first-rate  horseman, 
and  challenged  him  to  enter  the  lists  with  his  eunuch.  The 
sheikh  at  once  accepted  the  defiance,  but  first  obtained  the 
pasha's  solemn  assurance  that  he  should  not  be  held  responsi- 
ble for  any  consequences  that  might  ensue.  After  one  or  two 
passes,  the  sheikh  parried  the  eunuch's  well-delivered  weapon, 
pursued  him  in  his  retreat,  and  drove  his  jerid  (which,  how- 
ever, it  must  be  observed,  he  had  privately  pointed)  with  such 
force  that  it  entered  the  eunuch's  back  between  the  shoulders 
and  came  out  at  his  breast.  Mohammed  Ali,  faithful  to  his 
word,  took  not  the  least  notice  of  the  fatal  occurrence.*  This 
incident  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  power  of  the  javelin  and 
the  spear  in  the  hands  of  the  ancients.f 

Western  travelers  in  the  East  often  notice  the  fiict  that  the 
women  never  ride  sideways,  as  with  us,  but  astride  like  the 
men.  It  has  generally  been  supposed  that  the  custom  now 
prevailing  among  ourselves 
dates  back  only  to  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  or  even  later. 
But  this  appears  to  be  a  mis- 
take; for  there  are  several 
representations  of  women 
riding  sideways  upon  Etrus- 
can vases  older  than  the 
founding  of  Rome  (B.C.  752), 
showing  that  the  custom 
prevailed  in  Italy  in  those 
early  days.  One  of  these 
pictures  is  here  given,  on  ac- 
count of  the  singularity  of  the  fact.  We  also  reproduce  on 
the  following  page  a  picture  of  two  Assyrian  women  riding 
astride  upon  a  mule.  The  former  may  now  be  seen  in  the 
museum  of  Naples,:}:  and  the  latter  is  taken  from  Rawlinson.§ 

The  trappings  of  the  horses  appear  scarcely  to  have  changed 
in  any  respect  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present,  if  we  may 

*  Churchill's  "Mount  Lebanon,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  282. 

t  2  Sam.  ii.,  23 ;  1  Chron.  xi.,  20.  t  Gargiulo's  Collection,  iv.,  pi.  48. 

§  "Five  Monarchies," iii.,  233. 


Woman  ridiug  sideways.    From  a  Vase  found 
at  Ruvo,  in  Italy. 


224 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


judge  from  the  sculptures  so  remarkably  preserved  at  Nineveh 
and  in  Egypt.  The  very  form  of  the  bit  and  bridle  is  the  same 
now  as  then.* 

The  Bedawin,  the  Circassians,  and  the  Tartars  never  shoe 
their  horses,  and  such  seems  to  have  been  the  case  anciently. f 
Each  country,  too,  has  its  own  style  of  saddle,  which,  when  mtro- 
duced  elsewhere,  is  used  only  exceptionally,  and  bears  a  name 
indicative  of  its  origin.  The  "  Egyptian  saddle  "  is  known  in 
all  parts  of  Western  Asia,  and  so  is  the  "Turkish;"  both  the 
riding  and  the  pack  saddle  of  several  districts  differ  materially 
from  one  another. 


Assyi-iau  Women  ridiug  astride  on  a  Mule.    (Isa.  Ixvi.,  20.) 

The  mule  is  held  in  high  estimation  throughout  the  East. 
It  is  greatly  preferred  to  the  horse  as  a  beast  of  burden,  on  ac- 
count of  its  sure-footedness,  its  ability  to  carry  heavier  loads, 
and  the  economy  of  its  keeping,  requiring  but  a  quarter  as 
much  barley  as  the  horse.  It  can  not  be  purchased  for  less 
than  four  times  the  value  of  a  common  horse.  The  white  mule 
is  rare,  and  its  price  very  high.  This  animal  appears  to  have 
been  known  to  the  ancients  nearly  as  early  as  the  horse,  for,  as 
we  have  already  stated,  it  is  represented  on  the  ancient  monu- 
ments of  Egypt. 

The  earliest  mention  of  the  mule,  according  to  our  version 
of  the  Bible,  is  found  in  Gen.  xxxvi.,  24,  which  some  commen- 


2  Kings  xxxix.,  28 ;  Psa.  xii.,  9  ;  Isa.  xxx.,  28. 


THE   HORSE,  MULE,  ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  225 

tators  have  supposed  to  be  a  commemoration  of  the  first  dis- 
covery of  the  mule  in  a  wild  state.  But  the  translation  appears 
to  be  incorrect.  The  best  authorities  render  the  word,  here 
translated  "mules,"  by  '■'■hot  springsJ''  This  would  be  deemed 
even  now  an  important  discovery,  and  worthy  of  record. 

The  Israelites,  until  the  time  of  David,  would  seem  to  have 
possessed  very  few  horses  or  mules.  The  latter  came  all  at 
once  into  fashion  during  this  reign,  for  the  king  and  all  the 
royal  princes  rode  upon  mules.* 

We  have,  at  different  times  during  a  long  residence  in  Tur- 
key, seen  the  mule  adopted  by  the  grandees  of  some  city,  so 
that  for  several  consecutive  years  none  gf  the  chief  men  of  the 
place  were  seen  riding  on  horses ;  yet  the  latter  is  usually  pre- 
ferred, and  this  seems  to  have  been  the  case  among  the  He- 
brews after  David's  time.  From  this  period  the  mule  is  inci- 
dentally mentioned  as  in  use  in  the  land  of  Israel  together  with 
the  horse,  as  was  the  case  in  neighboring  countries.f 

Absalom  appears  to  have  ridden  his  sumpter-mule  while  ac- 
companying the  expedition  against  his  father.:}: 

The  mules  now  most  highly  prized,  on  account  of  their 
superior  size  and  strength,  are  those  of  Mesopotamia ;  such,  at 
least,  is  their  nominal  origin  ;  but  being  brought,  many  of  them, 
from  the  regions  of  Ilarpoot  and  Mardin,  they  appear  to  be 
bred  in  the  same  locality  as  furnished  those  of  Togarmah  in 
ancient  times.§  It  is  probable  that  to  this  breed  belonged 
the  two  hundred  and  forty-five  mules  which  the  impoverished 
remnant  of  Israel  had  with  them  on  their  return  from  Babylon 
to  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem.  | 

In  order,  however,  fully  to  appreciate  the  value  of  the  mule, 
we  must  consider  that  most  of  the  internal  trade  in  a  large 
portion  of  Western  Asia,  as  well  as  nearly  all  the  traveling,  is 
done  by  means  of  this  animal.  On  the  most  frequented  thor- 
oughfares there  are  companies  of  three,  four,  or  a  dozen  loaded 
animals  almost  constantly  passing  to  and  fro ;  but  wherever  the 
road  is  a  little  isolated,  and  especially  where  reports  are  circu- 
lating that  Zeibek,  Koordish,  or  Bedawy  robbers  have  appear- 
ed on  the  road,  the  travelers  and  muleteers  wait  for  one  anoth- 

*  2  Sam.  xiii.,  29 ;  1  Kings  i.,  33.  t  1  Kings  xviii.,  5  ;  Ezra  ii,,  66. 

t  2  Sam.  xviii.,  9,  §  Ezek.  xxvii.,  14. 

II  Neh.  vii.,  68. 


226 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


er,  and  keep  together  for  mutual  protection.  Thus  a  cara- 
van is  formed,  and  though  it  contains  horses  and  asses,  yet  the 
mules  predominate,  and  are  the  most  reliable.  So  it  must  have 
been  in  Bible  times.*  In  these  caravans  and  ordinary  travel- 
ing companies  may  be  seen  a  mingling  of  riders  upon  horses, 
traders  perched  on  the  top  of  their  goods,  children  riding  in 
large  baskets  —  a  pair  of  which  is  slung  across  the  back  of  an 
animal — and  women  in  "  maffas."  These  last  consist  of  two 
low,  open  boxes,  three  feet  long  and  a  foot  and  a  half  wide, 
cushioned  within,  and  fastened  on  the  sides  of  the  pack-saddle 
of  a  powerful  mule;  two  women  are  seated  in  them,  while  a 
light  awning  protects  them  above.  Persons  of  wealth  and 
rank,  when  journeying,  often  ride,  either  themselves  or  their 
fjimilies,  in  a  ''litter,"  or  takhtravan,  probably  referred  to  in 


Eastern  Litter. 

Isaiah  Ixvi.,  20,  and  which  corresponds  to  the  palankeen  of  In- 
dia, the  traveler  reclining  on  a  mattress  and  cushions.  It  was 
doubtless  such  a  litter  that  carried  the  children  of  Darius,f  for 
it  is  used  in  Persia  to  this  day  for  the  conveyance  of  women, 
children,  and  the  sick.  In  the  "Arabian  Nights,"  King  Zahr 
is  said  to  have  prepared  for  the  journey  of  his  daughter  a  "  lit- 
ter" (takhtravan),  covered  with  red  cloth  (still  the  universal  cus- 
tom), adorned  with  pearls  and  jewels,  together  with  ten  mules, 
to  bear  it  in  turn  (two  at  a  time).  This  vehicle  is  similar  to  an 
oblong  box,  or  the  body  of  a  carriage,  with  a  latticed  door  at 


2  Kings  v.,  17;  1  Chron.  xii.,  40. 


+  Qiiintius  Curtius,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  iii- 


THE   HORSE,  MULE,  ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  227 

each  side,  and  usually  covered  with  crimson  cloth  ;  it  is  set  and 
firmly  fastened  upon  the  middle  of  two  long  parallel  poles  or 
shafts,  whose  extremities  are  attached  to  the  pack-saddles  of 
the  front  and  hind  mule.  Such  a  vehicle  seems  to  be  denoted  by 
the  word  translated  "  chariot"  in  Cant,  iii.,  9.  It  occurs  nowhere 
else  in  the  Bible,  and  its  literal  meaning  is  "moving  couch" — 
precisely  the  signification  of  the  modern  word  "  takhtravan." 

The  men  who  own  the  animals  engaged  in  thus  transporting 
travelers  and  goods  are  hardy,  and  usually  form  the  entire 
male  population  of  particular  villages.  Though  their  animals 
are  not  mules  alone,  but  pack-horses  and  asses  also,  yet  the 
former  beasts  are  so  much  more  highly  valued  for  this  purpose 
that  these  men  are  called  muleteers  in  all  the  languages  of  the 
East.  It  is  their  great  ambition  to  adorn  all  their  animals 
about  the  neck,  head,  and  haunches  with  broad  bands  of  leath- 
er, carefully  embroidered  with  coarse  beads,  shells,  or  colored 
wool ;  sometimes  a  sentence  is  worked  upon  the  bands,  and 
numerous  bells  of  various  size  and  tone  are  fastened  upon 
them.*  The  object  of  these  bells  is  twofold :  should  a  mule 
stray  from  his  companions,  their  sound  enables  his  master  to 
trace  and  secure  him ;  and  when  entering  the  narrow  streets  of 
a  market-town  or  village,  the  jingling  of  a  hundred  bells  is  not 
only  a  gratification  to  the  muleteer's  pride,  but  also  serves  as  a 
warning  against  the  mischief  often  done  by  his  headstrong  ani- 
mals, as  they  go  crashing  against  the  shops  or  the  luckless 
passer-by,  for  which  he  would  otherwise  be  called  to  account. 
The  inscription  "upon  the  bells  of  the  horses,"  "Holiness  unto 
the  Lord,"  spoken  of  by  Zechariah,  seems  to  us  aptly  illustrated 
by  the  above-named  custom,  and  the  meaning  appears  to  be 
that  the  very  trade  and  common  business  of  the  people  would, 
in  the  fulfillment  of  prophecy,  be  consecrated  to  the  Lord.  All 
the  more  forcible  will  this  language  appear  if  we  bear  in  mind 
that  the  muleteer  of  Western  Asia  is  notorious  for  his  profane- 
ness  and  coarse  brutality,  and  is  often  guilty  of  highway  rob- 
bery and  murder. 

The  ass  was,  probably,  one  of  the  first  animals  brought  into 
subjection  to  the  will  of  man,  and  made  to  share  his  toils. 
History  mentions  him  as  early  as  Abraham's  time;f  and  the 

*  Zech.  xiv.,  20.  t  Gen.  xxii.,  3. 


228  BIBLE   LANDS. 

wealth  of  the  patriarchs,  Abraham  and  Job,  is  said  to  have 
consisted  in  flocks,  cattle,  camels,  and  asses,  no  mention  being 
made  of  the  horse,  which  seems  to  have  been,  at  that  early 
period,  unknown  to  the  people  of  Canaan. 

The  natural  docility  and  gentleness  of  this  useful  animal 
must  have  rendered  his  domestication  an  easy  task,  while  the 
extreme  economy  of  his  keeping,  and  his  powers  of  endurance, 
eminently  fit  him  to  be  the  poor  man's  servant. 

The  frequent  allusions  to  the  wild  ass  in  the  Old  Testament 
make  it  evident  that  this  animal  was  once  common  in  all  parts 
of  Western  Asia,  though  he  is  now  confined  to  Arabia  and 
Persia.  We  once  saw  a  beautiful  specimen,  which  was  being 
conveyed  by  our  friend  Mr,  Barker,  of  Aleppo,  to  the  British 
Zoological  Gardens,  but  never  reached  its  destination,  having 
died  at  Sinope,  on  the  Black  Sea.  It  was  young,  and  had  been 
caught  but  a  little  while  before,  yet  it  was  gentle  and  tame. 
Its  color  was  a  reddish  fawn,  white  underneath,  with  a  dark 
line  along  the  mane  and  back  to  the  tail,  crossed  by  a  short  line 
on  the  shoulders.  This  shows  the  fitness  of  the  Hebrew  name 
"  khamor,"  signifying  red,  which  is  given  to  the  ass  in  Gen. 
xlix.,  14,  and  some  other  passages.  A  similar  name,  with  like 
import,  is  also  found  in  the  Arabic,  as  well  as  the  Greek,  Latin, 
Spanish,  and  French  languages. 

The  disappearance  of  the  wild  ass  from  its  former  haunts  is 
doubtless  to  be  attributed  to  its  being  hunted  down  for  its  flesh, 
which  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  Greeks  and  the  Eomans, 
and  which,  though  it  was  forbidden  to  the  Jews,  was  proba- 
bly eaten  by  their  neighbors.  It  was,  also,  reduced  to  a  state 
of  domesticity,  as  is  still  the  practice  in  Persia.  The  ancient 
kings  of  Nineveh  hunted  the  animal  as  a  pastime;  so  do  the 
Persian  nobility  of  our  day.  Olearius  states  that  he  saw  no 
fewer  than  thirty-two  wild  asses  slain  in  one  day  by  the  Shah 
of  Persia  and  his  court,  the  bodies  of  which  were  sent  to  the 
royal  kitchens  at  Ispahan.*  The  fleetness  of  this  animal,  how- 
ever, is  such  that  no  mounted  horseman  can  hope  to  over- 
take it,  and  the  only  successful  modes  of  hunting  it  are  by 
means  of  hounds,  or  of  relays  which  successively  take  up  the 
chase  as  the  game  passes   by,  as  described  by  Xenophon.f 

*  "Travels,"  p.  73r>.  t  "Anabasis,"  lib.  i.,  cao.  v 


THE    HORSE,   MULE,   ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  229 

Among  the  Assyrian  sculptures  there  are  many  representing 
the  hunting  of  the  wild  ass.  The  annexed  is  taken  from 
Koyoonjik. 

The  descriptions  given  of  this  animal  in  its  wild  haunts 
correspond  with  the  allusions  contained  in  the  book  of  Job, 


Colt  puisiied  by  a  Houud.    (Job  xsxix.,  6.) 


and  the  Hebrew  prophets.  "  Doth  the  wild  ass  bray  when  he 
hath  grass  ?"*  All  the  beasts  of  the  field  bray,  neigh,  or  bellow, 
as  the  expression  of  a  want  or  a  desire.  "  Who  hath  sent  out 
the  wild  ass  free?"f  This  and  the  context  assert  the  original 
wild  state,  not  only  of  the  ass,  but  of  all  the  brute  creation, 
which  is  amply  sustained  by  the  science  of  natural  history. 
"The  wild  asses  quench  their  thirst":}:  are  words  which  can  be 
appreciated  only  in  South-western  Asia,  and  some  portions  of 
Africa,  where  the  long  summer  drought  leaves  the  land  parch- 
ed and  dry ;  the  "  beasts  of  the  field  "  boldly  advance  by  night 
to  the  neighborhood  of  man's  habitations  to  slake  their  burning 
thirst,  and  rejoice  at  the  early  autumn  rains  that  replenish  "  the 
springs  in  the  valleys  which  run  among  the  hills."§  "A  wild 
ass  used  to  the  wilderness,  thatsnuffeth  up  the  wind  at  her  pleas- 
ure."! The  deer,  the  gazelle,  and  other  wild  animals,  which  we 
have  repeatedly  met  in  the  plains  and  on  the  hills  of  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor,  are  spirited  creatures,  and  constantly  "  snuff  up  the 
wind  "  as  they  go ;  their  scent  is  even  keener  than  their  sight, 
and  they  travel  against  the  wind,  the  more  surely  to  detect  a 
lurking  foe ;  and  this  is  evidently  the  case  with  the  wild  ass, 
an  animal  as  fleet  and  wary  as  any  of  them. 

The  domestic  ass  is  probably  more  numerous  in  the  lands  of 
the  Bible  than  any  other  beast  engaged  in  the  service  of  man. 

*  Job  vi.,  5,  t  Job  xxxix.,  5.  J  I'sa.  civ.,  11. 

§  Jer.  xiv.,  4-G.  |i  Jer.  ii.,  24. 


230 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


It  can  be  procured  for  so  small  a  price,  and  kept  at  so  trifling 
a  cost  in  all  the  rural  districts,  that  no  one,  however  poor,  need 
do  without  it.  We  have  known  a  tolerably  good  donkey, 
in  the  interior  of  the  country,  to  be  sold  for  a  single  dollar,  and 
we  could  name  a  man  who  rode  his  faithful  beast  a  week's 
journey  for  the  purpose  of  selling  it  at  a  sea-port  town,  and, 
having  disposed  of  it  for  four  dollars,  trudged  home  on  foot, 
quite  satisfied  with  his  bargain. 

The  ass  appears  to  have  been  as  common  in  ancient  times  as 
it  is  now,  for  even  in  the 
days  of  Job  the  wicked 
man  is  described  as  "  driv- 
ing away  the  ass  of  the 
fatherless."*  The  sculp- 
tures of  Beni- Hassan,  in 
Egypt,  contain  a  very  good 
representation  of  the  do- 
mesticated ass,  carrying  a 
saddle  of  the  kind  which 
goes  all  over  the  East  by 
the  name  of  the  "Egyp- 
tian saddle."  The  patriarch  Job,  in  his  later  prosperity,  owned 
no  less  than  one  thousand  she- asses ;f  and,  as  a  further  evi- 
dence of  the  general  use  of  this  animal  in  early  times,  we  may 
notice  that  in  the  neighboring  country  of  Midian  the  conquer- 
ing Israelites  captured  no  less  than  sixty-one  thousand  asses.:|: 
Further,  when  Moses  indignantly  repelled  the  charges  of  the 
rebellious  Dathan  and  Abiram,  he  declared  that  he  had  taken 
nothing  from  them,  not  even  an  ass.§  Samuel,  the  prophet, 
testifying  his  integrity,  challenged  the  entire  people  of  Israel 
to  witness  against  him  whose  ass  he  had  taken  ;||  and  it  is  at 
once  an  evidence  how  common  was  this  animal,  and  to  what 
great  depths  of  poverty  the  remnant  of  the  captive  Ilcbrews 
were  reduced,  that,  on  their  return  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem, 
forty-and-two  thousand  three  hundred  and  three-score  souls  of 
them  brought  but  seven  hundred  and  thirty -six  horses,  two 
hundred  and  forty -five  mules,  four  hundred  and  thirty -five 


Ass  with  "Egyptian  Saddle."    From  Beni- 
Hassan.    (1  Kings  xiii.,  13.) 


*  Job  xxiv. ,  3. 
§  Numb,  xvi.,  15. 


t  Job  xlii.,  12. 
II  1  yam.  xii.,  3. 


+  Numb,  xxxi.,  33. 


THE   HORSE,  MULE,  ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  231 

camels,  yet  as  many  as  six  thousand  seven  hundred  and  twenty 
asses,  which,  by -the -way,  is  about  one  ass  to  each  household; 
indeed  there  w^ere  but  eight  thousand  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
six  animals,  all  told ;  so  that  four  out  of  five  of  the  returning 
captives  performed  the  entire  journey  on  foot,  as  is  done  by 
the  very  poor  at  the  present  day.*  But  the  strongest  evidence 
that  this  animal  was  extremely  common  among  the  Hebrews 
is  contained  in  the  references  made  to  him  in  the  Mosaic  legis- 
lation. He  is,  doubtless,  included  in  the  fourth  commandment 
of  the  Decalogue,  under  the  word  cattle,  and  is  distinctly  men- 
tioned in  the  tenth  ;f  and  Moses  certainly  enjoined  kindness  to 
animals,  when  he  commanded  the  Hebrew  to  assist  even  his 
enemy  to  raise  his  fallen  ass,  an  operation  which  can  be  per- 
formed for  a  loaded  animal  only  by  lifting  up  the  burden  on 
both  sides  at  once,  unless  it  be  unloaded  and  loaded  again,  im- 
plying much  loss  of  time,  and  even  this  often  can  not  be  done 
without  assistance.:}:  We  are  happy  to  testify  that  at  the  pres- 
ent day  this  precept  of  Moses  is  generally  obeyed  in  Western 
Asia,  not  simply  by  those  who  profess  to  venerate  his  name,  but 
even  by  the  tribes  who  do  not  acknowledge  it.  Jew  and  Chris- 
tian, Muslim  and  Koord,  mutually  assist  each  other,  though  in- 
imical to  one  another's  faith.  We  must  not,  however,  gather 
from  these  passages  that  this  animal  was  so  common  among  the 
Hebrews  as  not  to  be  appreciated.  The  wealthy  and  powerful, 
as  we  shall  show  farther  on,  did  not  disdain  to  own  and  ride 
upon  the  ass;  suffice  it  here  to  remind  the  reader  that  King 
David,  in  the  plenitude  of  his  power,  deemed  no  mean  portion 
of  his  substance  to  consist  in  his  herds  of  asses,  and  appointed 
an  officer  as  "ruler"  over  them.§ 

There  is  a  great  variety  in  the  breeds  of  this  animal.  Some 
are  as  large  as  an  ordinary  mule,  and,  when  confined  for  sev- 
eral days  in  the  stable,  they  become  restless,  and  almost  incapa- 
ble of  control ;  indeed,  their  pugnacity  is  proverbial.  Jacob, 
in  his  blessing,  does  not  cast  reproach  upon  Issachar  by  com- 
paring him  to  an  ass:|  he  is  the  "strong,  male,  red  ass" — for 
this  is  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  here,  and  in  Deut.  xxii.,  10 — 
"couching  down,"  rolling  and  feeding,  in  a  rich  pasture-land, 

*  Neh.  vii.,  66-69.  t  Exod.  xx.,  10,  17. 

t  Exod.  xxiii.,  5;  Deut.  xxii.,  4.  §  1  Chron.  xxvii.,  30. 

II  Gen.  xlix.,  14. 


232  BIBLE   LANDS. 

between  two  "hedge-rows;"  it  loves  abundance  and  its  own 
repose  too  well  to  seek  for  freedom,  like  tbe  wild  ass,  upon  the 
steep  and  rocky  heights,  and  is  willing  often  to  "  bear  the  bur- 
den." The  position  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  in  the  fertile  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  left  them  at  the  mercy  of  the  conquering  hordes, 
who  made  it  their  highway,  while  the  rest  of  Israel  were  able 
to  defend  themselves  in  their  mountain  districts.* 

A  very  fine  ass  is  found  in  Cyprus,  which  will  keep  up  with 
any  horse  on  a  journey ;  these  cost  two  hundred  dollars,  and 
even  more.  The  Egyptian  donkey,  also,  is  highly  appreciated 
in  all  the  surrounding  countries.  The  finest  breed  of  this  ani- 
mal is  the  white  ass,  more  rare  than  the  white  mule,  and  gen- 
erally brought  from  the  region  of  Bagdad.  It  is  a  spirited 
creature,  and  commands  as  high  a  price  as  eight  hundred  or 
a  thousand  dollars.  The  best  way  to  obtain  a  correct  im- 
pression of  the  comparative  numbers  and  usefulness  to  the 
people  of  Western  Asia  of  their  mules  and  asses,  is  to  post 
one's  self  not  far  from  the  gate  of  an  Eastern  city,  toward  sun- 
set on  a  fine  summer's  day.  It  is  a  season  of  the  year  when 
all  who  possess  a  country  house  leave  the  heated  atmosphere 
of  the  city,  and  seek  the  purer  air  and  cool  shades  of  their 
orchards  and  gardens ;  and  there  is  scarcely  a  man  so  poor  as 
not  to  own  a  small  vineyard,  with  a  little  hut  of  mud-bricks, 
where  his  wife  and  children  are  glad  to  take  refuge  during  the 
summer  months,  while  he  goes  every  morning  to  his  work  in 
town,  and  returns  to  them  at  night.  Take  your  seat  on  that 
rude  little  stool,  or  mat,  offered  you  at  the  coifee-shop  close  by 
the  roadside,  beneath  the  shelter  of  a  booth  of  green  branch- 
es, and  beside  a  sparkling  fountain  or  a  sluggish  stream.  The 
scene  of  this  evening  exodus  to  the  inviting  country  is  thor- 
oughly Scriptural.  The  people,  their  dress,  their  very  speech, 
so  similar  to  the  ancient  Hebrew  and  Syriac ;  the  beasts  they 
ride,  with  the  housings  and  trappings  which  adorn  them — all 
this,  and  much  more  that  could  be  noted,  vividly  illustrates 
the  scenes  enacted  in  the  same  localities  more  than  three  thou- 
sand years  ago.  Notice  how  few  of  these  people  are  mounted 
on  horses  or  mules ;  you  see  at  least  ten  asses  to  one  other  ani- 
mal.    There  goes  an  entire  fornily — the  mother,  with  a  babe 

*  Judg.  iv. 


THE   HORSE,  MULE,  ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  233 

in  her  arms,  astride  the  family  donkey,  and  bright  little  faces 
peering  out  of  the  basket  slung  at  each  side,  while  the  father 
follows  on  foot,  one  hand  upon  the  crupper,  and  a  stick  in 
the  other.  Yonder  two  youngsters,  riding  the  same  donkey, 
dash  along,  vigorously  belaboring  the  poor  brute  with  their 
bare  heels,  and  striking  him  incessantly  with  sticks,  laughing 
and  shouting  at  the  top  of  their  voices.  Here  comes  a  long 
line  of  loaded  camels,  following  a  diminutive  ass  almost  hidden 
from  sight  by  the  loose  garments  and  gaunt  form  of  the  camel- 
driver,  whose  feet,  encased  in  oddly  shaped  boots  of  red  mo- 
rocco, drag  upon  the  ground.  After  these  comes  the  white 
turbaned  cadi,  or  judge,  mounted  on  a  fine,  ambling  Egyptian 
donkey,  leading  a  whole  company.of  Muslim  grandees,  similar- 
ly mounted,  and  followed  by  their  pipe-bearers ;  they  are  the 
invited  guests  of  the  judge,  going  to  spend  the  evening  and 
night  at  his  country-seat. 

To  the  same  extent  was  the  ass  used  by  the  Israelites  for 
riding  and  as  a  beast  of  burden ;  inaeed,  from  the  Exodus  to 
the  reign  of  King  David,  it  must  have  been  almost  the  only 
animal  ridden  by  the  Hebrews;  for  during  this  period  the 
horse  and  the  mule  are  not  even  mentioned  as  in  use  among 
them.  The  proud  and  mercenary  Balaam  went  to  meet  the 
King  of  Moab,  riding  upon  his  ass.*  The  song  of  Deborah 
speaks  of  the  judges  of  the  land  "that  ride  upon  white  asses."f 
Jair  the  Gileadite,  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel,  "had  thirty 
sons  that  rode  on  thirty  ass- colts.:}:  Abdon  the  Pirathonite, 
also  one  of  the  judges,  "  had  forty  sons,  and  thirty  nephews, 
that  rode  on  three-score  and  ten  ass-colts."§  We  likewise  re- 
peatedly read  of  the  women  of  old  riding  upon  the  ass,  attend- 
ed by  a  servant  on  foot,  a  most  familiar  sight  at  the  present 
day  in  all  parts  of  Western  Asia  and  in  Egypt.||  In  such  a 
case  the  servant  performs  the  part  of  donkey-driver,  making 
the  animal  go  fast  or  slow,  according  to  the  wish  of  the  rider. 
Often  have  we  heard  the  words  of  the  Shunamite,  from  the 
lips  of  ladies  on  somewhat  similar  occasions,  "i>ru'e,  and  go 
forward;  slack  not  (the)  riding  for  me,  except  I  bid  thee."^ 
Zechariah's    prophecy   concerning   the    Messiah,  who   should 

*  Numb,  xxii.,  21,  22.  t  Judg.  v.,  10.  t  Judg.  x.,  4. 

§  Judg.  xii.,  14.  II  Josh,  xv.,  18  ;  1  Sam.  xxv.,  23. 

t  2  Kings  iv.,  24. 


234 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


make  his  entry  into  Jerusalem  "upon  an  ass,"  even  "upon  a 
colt,  the  foal  of  an  ass,"*  does  not  produce  upon  the  Oriental 
mind  that  idea  of  abject  poverty  and  humility  which  would 
be  suggested  to  the  Occidental.  Had  he  come  riding  in  a 
chariot,  it  would  have  been  an  emblem  of  earthly  grandeur: 
had  he  rode  upon  a  horse,  he  would  have  seemed  a  conqueror; 
his  riding  upon  an  ass  only  showed  that  he  was  gentle  {Trpaoc),f 
and  that  the  weapons  of  his  warfare  were  persuasion  and  the 
diffusion  of  truth.:}: 


Bactriaii  Camel,  seen  in  Asia  Minor. 

The  camel  is  only  incidentally  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures; 
yet  enough  is  said  of  him  to  prove  that  he  existed  anciently  in 
great  numbers  in  the  lands  of  the  Bible,  and  that  his  useful 
qualities  were  fully  appreciated  by  their  inhabitants.  We  feel 
authorized,  therefore,  to  conclude  that  he  occupied  as  im- 
portant a  place  in  the  life  of  those  people  as  he  does  in  the 
same  countries  at  the  present  day,  and  that  we  may  draw  from 
our  fuller  acquaintance  with  the  modern  camel  the  materials 
with  which  to  fill  out  the  incomplete  sketch  of  this  animal  con- 
tained m  Holy  Writ. 

It  was  long  supposed  that  there  were  two  distinct  species, 
called  by  some  the  Bactrian  and  the  Arabian,  and  by  others 
the  camel  and  the  dromedary.  It  is  now,  however,  fully 
proved  that  the  two  varieties,  properly  denominated  the  Bac- 


Zech.  ix.,  9. 


t  Matt,  xxi.,  5, 


t  2  Cor.  X.,  4. 


THE    HORSE,   MULE,  ASS,  AND   CAMEL. 


235 


trian  and  the  Arabian,  form  but  one  and  the  same  species. 
They,  indeed,  differ  considerably  in  their  appearance,  though 
not  more  essentially  than  some  varieties  of  the  horse  and  dog. 
The  Arabian  camel  stands  higher  on  his  feet,  and  has  a  shorter 
body ;  but  the  chief  difference  between  them  consists  in  the 
fact  that  the  Bactrian  has  two  humps,  while  the  Arabian  has 
but  one.  The  former  is  a  much  more  powerful  animal,  with 
a  longer  body,  and  heavy  masses  of  hair  about  his  neck, 
shoulders,  and  haunches;  still  they  are  only  varieties  of  the 
same  species ;  for  the  common  camel  of  Asia  Minor  is  a  cross 
between  the  two,  which  has  the  general  form  of  the  Bactrian, 
yet  possesses  but  one  hump.  Both  varieties  appear  to  have 
existed  from  time  immemorial;  for  the  Arabian  is  represented 
on  the  monuments  of  Nimrood ;  and  Mr.  Layard  states  that 


Bactrian  Camels.    From  the  Nimrood  0belisl£. 

the  Bactrian,  figured  on  an  obelisk  in  the  same  locality,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  brought  from  a  distant  country  :*  the  lat- 
ter is  also  portrayed  among  the  bass-reliefs  of  Shehel-minar; 
this  agrees  with  the  present  habitat  of  the  two  varieties.  The 
Bactrian  occupies  the  great  plains  of  Tartary  and  Central  Asia, 
with  Northern  China  and  Southern  Kussia,  regions  to  whose 
climate  he  is  well  adapted.  He  exists  in  a  wild  state  only  in 
some  portions  of  Tartary,  having  been  allowed  to  go  free,  as  is 
supposed,  according  to  a  custom  of  the  Kalmucks,  The  Ara- 
bian camel,  on  the  other  hand,  is  found  in  India,  Persia,  South- 
western Asia,  and  throughout  Northern  Africa,  to  the  Senegal. 
It  does  not  appear  to  have  existed  upon  the  latter  continent 
as  early  as  in  Asia,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  monuments  of 


Layard,  vol.  ii.,  p.  32-t. 


236  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Egypt;  it  was,  however,  known  there  in  Abraham's  time,  be 
ing  enumerated  among  the  presents  bestowed  by  Pharaoh  upon 
the  patriarch.*  Camels  are  found  wild,  it  is  said,  in  some  of 
the  desert  tracts  of  Africa,  having,  not  improbably,  strayed 
from  a  state  of  domesticity. 

The  earliest  historical  mention  of  the  animal  refers  to  him 
as  domesticated,  and  fully  subjected  to  the  will  of  man.  A 
portion  of  Abraham's  wealth  consisted  of  camels ;  and  Job,  in 
the  height  of  his  prosperity,  possessed  six  thousand  of  these 
animals.f  The  Arabian  variety  is  the  one  referred  to  in  the 
Scriptures,  and  to  this,  therefore,  we  shall  confine  our  remarks. 

There  is  no  stronger  evidence,  in  the  entire  range  of  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  than  this  creature  affords  of  a  wise  and  benefi- 
cent design  toward  mankind  on  the  part  of  the  Creator.  Vast 
barren  tracts  extend  in  several  directions  from  the  cradle  of 
our  race,  by  which  one  would  suppose  mankind  would  have 
remained  shut  up  within  the  boundaries  of  the  land  they  orig- 
inally occupied.  It  has  often  been  remarked  that  the  sea, 
which  appears  only  a  watery  waste  destined  to  separate  the 
nations  of  the  earth,  has,  on  the  contrary,  proved  the  chief 
promoter  of  that  commercial  intercourse  which  has  ever  been 
one  of  the  most  powerful  agents  of  civilization.  The  same,  es- 
sentially, has  been  true  of  the  land-wastes  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
despite  the  inroads  of  those  pirates  of  the  desert,  the  Chaldeans,:}: 
and  the  Ishmaelites,  or  modern  Bedawin.§  Similar  deserts 
exist  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  but  they  were  not  connected 
with  the  early  history  of  our  race,  and  no  such  animal  was 
provided  to  enable  man  to  traverse  their  dreary  wastes. 

The  fact  that  the  Arabian  camel  has  essentially  the  same 
name  in  all  the  countries  where  it  is  found,  is  a  proof  that  this 
animal  occupied  at  first  a  very  circumscribed  locality,  and 
multiplied,  as  did  man,  from  an  original  stock.  The  name 
gamal,  in  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  which  we  have  changed  to 
camel,  is  supposed  by  Gesenius  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
word  hamal,  signifying  to  bear  a  hurden  —  a  porter,  denoting 
the  use  to  which  this  animal  has  ever  been  put  by  man. 

A  close  examination  of  the  peculiarities  of  form  and  temper 
of  the  camel  can  not  fail  to  excite  admiration  at  his  wonderful 

*  Gen.  xii.,  16.  t  Job  xlii,,  12.  J  Job  i.,  17.  §  Gen.  xvi.,  12. 


THE    HORSE,   MULE,   ASS,  AND   CAMEL. 


23i 


adaptation  to  the  purpose  for  whicli  he  was  evidently  intend- 
ed. Sonne  people  claim  that  he  is  very  homely  and  uncouth. 
We  believe  this  prejudice  arises  from  the  difficulty  men  expe- 
rience in  altering  their  standard  of  beauty.  People  of  the  East, 
who  are  accustomed  to  the  sight  of  the  camel,  find  nothino-  un- 
graceful either  in  his  form  or  motion,  but,  on  the  contrary,  con- 
sider him  comely  and  majestic ;  and  all  must  acknowledge  that 
his  figure  adds  not  a  little  to  the  picturesque  character  of  Ori- 
ental scenery.  But  what  is  worthy  of  our  special  attention  is, 
the  wonderful  adaptation  of  means  to  an  end,  of  which  this  ani- 
mal is  a  living  illustration.  His  foot  is  two-lobed,  with  a  pow- 
erful nail  or  claw  on  the  extremity  of  each  division,  and  its  tex- 
ture closely  resembles  that  of  the  human  foot.     Pie  is  thus  emi- 


Foot  aud  Stomach  of  the  Camel :  1.  Pore-foot,  front ;  2.  Sole ;  3.  Hiud-foot,  side  ;  4.  Struc- 
ture of  one  of  the  Camel's  four  Stomachs. 

nently  adapted  to  tread  the  sands  of  the  desert.  When  the 
ground  is  wet,  on  the  other  hand,  and  becomes  slippery  to  the 
iron-shod  horse,  the  great  weight  of  the  camel's  foot  presses 
away  the  mud,  and,  placing  him  in  immediate  contact  with  the 
solid  earth,  appears  to  adhere  to  it  like  the  foot  of  a  fly  to  the 
ceiling,  or  as  a  piece  of  wet  leather  which  little  boys  press 
upon  the  flat  surface  of  a  stone,  and  are  thereby  enabled  to  lift 
heavy  weights.  This  is  the  reason  why  the  camel,  like  the 
llama  of  South  America,  is  fitted  to  climb  the  steepest  mount- 
ains. He  is  appropriately  called  the  "ship  of  the  desert,"  be- 
cause he  is  able  to  travel  the  arid  sandy  plain,  and,  with  equal 
ease,  the  most  rugged  and  barren  mountains,  which  the  term 
"desert"  also  includes;  and  travelers  uniformly  testify  to  his 
sure-footedness,  even  on  the  roughest  roads.  Other  parts  of  the 
camel  equally  command  our  attention.  His  scent  is  extremely 
keen,  so  that  he  quickly  detects  a  lurking  enemy,  whether  man 
or  beast;  and  he  has  been  known,  when  traveling  in  the  des- 
16 


238 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Head  of  a  Camel. 


ert,  to  discover  water  hidden  from  the  sight  of  his  master,  and, 
breaking  his  halter,  to  rush  frantically  toward  it  in  order  to 
slake  his  thirst.     His  nostrils,  moreover,  are  so  formed  that  he 

can  close  them  at  will,  so 
as  to  exclude  the  finest 
particles  of  sand  ;  were  it 
not  for  this,  a  far  greater 
number  of  these  valua- 
ble animals  would  be  de- 
stroyed by  the  "  simoon," 
or  hurricane  of  the  des- 
ert, as  much  feared  by 
those  who  wander  upon 
the  land  waste  as  is  the 
typhoon  by  mariners  in  the  China  seas.  The  simoon  seldom  lasts 
more  than  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  though  sometimes  as  much 
as  two  or  three  hours ;  it  drives  clouds  of  sand  before  it,  and 
often  buries  whole  caravans  of  men  and  animals.  The  camel 
instinctively  knows  its  distant  approach,  and,  uttering  piteous 
cries,  lies  down  with  its  back  to  the  coming  storm.*  It  has  a 
blasting  influence  upon  vegetation  when  it  passes  over  culti- 
vated regions,  and  so  withers  and  burns  the  growing  corn  that 
no  animal  will  touch  a  blade  of  it.f  This  is  probably  referred 
to  in  2  Kings  xix.,  26.  Indeed  that  part  of  the  desert  in 
which  the  simoon  occurs  is  a  wilderness  of  rock  and  sand, 
where  one  meets  not  the  smallest  trace  or  vestige  of  animal  or 
vegetable  life.:]:  There  is  probably  a  reference  to  the  rav- 
ages of  the  simoon  in  the  account  of  the  catastrophe  which 
overtook  the  army  of  Sennacherib,  when,  on  marching  from 
Pelusium  to  attack  Jerusalem,  one  hundred  and  eighty -five 
thousand  men  were  destroyed  in  a  single  night;  for,  though 
Herodotus  attributes  it  to  another  cause,§  yet  the  Scriptural 
account  is  much  more  distinct  and  probable.|i 

The  camel's  adaptation  to  traverse  the  desert  is  further  shown 
by  the  small  quantity  of  food  he  consumes,  and  the  length  of 
time  he  can  abstain  from  water.     In  the  desert,  the  Arabs  wa- 


*  Job  i.,  19;  Lane,  "Modem  Egyptians,"  i.,  Introd.  2;  Bruce, 

"Travels,"  v., 

32.3,  3r,0. 

t  Morier,  "Second  Voynge,"  p.  4.3.               J  Bruce,  v..  S')!. 

§  Lib.  i. 

II  2  Kings  xix.,  35  ;  Isa.  xxxvii.,  7 ;  Jer.  li.,  1. 

THE   HORSE,   MULE,  ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  239 

ter  their  flocks  once  in  two  days,  and  the  camels  once  in  three ; 
while,  in  traveling,  the  latter  easily  go  without  drinking  for 
nine,  and  even  for  fifteen  days  ;*  and,  according  to  the  African 
Arabs,  all  the  way  from  the  Niger  across  the  Great  Desert,  a 
journey  of  no  less  than  forty  days.f 

The  Being  who  designed  this  animal  for  the  desert  has  pro- 
vided him  with  an  extra  stomach  in  which  to  carry  his  water, 
just  as  the  ship-builder  provides  his  ship  with  casks  or  tanks 
for  the  same  purpose;  and  it  is  an  undeniable  fact  that  trav- 
elers have,  when  in  distress,  quenched  their  thirst  by  killing 
their  camels.  It  is  amazing  how  small  an  amount  of  food  will 
sustain  so  large  an  animal.  When  traveling,  they  are  fed  only 
once  in  twenty-four  hours ;  this  is  in  the  morning,  during  the 
summer,  as  they  then  travel  by  night.  A  dozen  camels  or  so 
are  made  to  stand  in  a  circle,  with  their  heads  toward  the  cen- 
tre, while  their  master  sets  a  small  quantity  of  barley  in  the 
midst,  to  which  straw  is  often  added.:};  When  fed  upon  dates 
or  beans,  a  cake  made  from  these  is  tossed  into  the  mouth  of 
each  one  in  turn,  as  they  kneel  upon  the  ground.  The  camel 
takes  his  rest  crouching  down  upon  his  breast  and  leisurely 
chewing  his  cud,  moving  his  jaw  to  and  fro  in  a  manner  quite 
peculiar  to  himself.  Besides  his  regular  meal,  this  animal,  as  he 
journeys,  snatches  mouthfuls  of  thorny  shrubs  growing  by  the 
wayside,  and  browses  upon  thistles,  which  cover  the  entire  sur- 
face of  the  desert,  evidently  preferring  them  to  any  other  food. 

The  wonderful  adaptation  of  the  camel  to  the  barren  waste 
has  led  to  its  adoption  by  the  inhabitant  of  the  desert,  as  his 
chief  companion  and  main-stay.  Thus  it  has  been  from  time 
immemorial.  In  the  days  of  the  Hebrew  judges,  B.C.  1256, 
the  Midianites  and  "the  children  of  the  East"  came  up  "as 
grasshoppers  for  multitude,"  with  their  tents  and  "camels  with- 
out number,"  and  for  seven  successive  summers  "destroyed 
the  increase  of  the  earth. "§  The  same  is  now  done  every  year 
by  the  Bedawy  Arabs,  under  the  impotent  government  of 
Constantinople ;  and  the  remnants  of  the  people  are  compelled, 
as  of  old,  to  live  in  "  dens  which  are  in  the  mountains,  and  in 
caves  and  strongholds."!     The  Amalekites  had  many  camels, "jf 


Tavernier,  p.  47.  t  Bruce,  v.,  368.  t  Gen.  xxiv.,  25. 

Jiulg.  vi.,  1-6.  II  Judg.  vi..  2.  1[  1  Sam.  xxvii.,  8,  9. 


240  BIBLE   LANDS. 

and  so  had  the  Hagarites.*  The  Israelites  themselves,  who 
lived  upon  the  borders  of  the  desert,  found  this  animal  very 
serviceable.  Camels  were  owned  by  Isaac,f  by  Jacob,:}:  by 
many  of  the  people  in  King  David's  time,§  and  by  David  him- 
self,! and  are  often  spoken  of  afterward,  both  in  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  in  a  manner  indicating  that  they  continued 
to  be  familiarly  known  to  the  people  of  Palestine,!^  The  pres- 
ent inhabitants  of  the  same  regions  appear  to  value  this  ani- 
mal quite  as  highly  as  their  ancestors,  for  its  numbers  are  not 
diminished.  To  give  one  illustration  out  of  many,  Thevenot 
speaks  of  a  man  by  the  name  of  Ali  Bey,  who,  when  he  died, 
owned  no  less  than  "fourscore  thousand  camels,  and  about  as 
many  asses."** 

But  there  is  still  another  feature  in  the  physical  character- 
istics of  this  wonderful  animal  which  pre-eminently  marks  him 
as  designed  for  the  service  of  man.  Writers  on  this  subject 
always  speak  of  his  hump  as  a  reservoir  of  fat,  which  is  drawn 
upon  by  the  animal  whenever  kept  on  a  low  diet.  Our  obser- 
vation, which  has  not  been  limited,  does  not  accord  with  this 
opinion.  We  regard  the  camel's  hump  as  his  natural  pack- 
saddle,  intended  to  enable  him  to  carry  burdens  for  his  master, 
man  ;f  f  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  conceive  any  better  substance 
of  which  it  might  be  composed.  When  remaining  without 
work  for  any  length  of  time,  the  camel's  hump  grows  so  high 
as  to  become  pointed  at  the  top,  and  to  hang  over  on  one  side, 
as  in  our  picture  of  a  Bactrian  camel,  page  234;  but  his  mas- 
ter usually  takes  care  to  keep  it  down  by  hard  labor,  so  that 
it  often  almost  disappears,  just  as  would  be  the  case  with  an 
artificial  saddle  which  could  not  be  spared  long  enough  for 
needed  repairs.  It  thus  often  happens  that  the  poor  over- 
worked camel's  back  is  covered  with  painful  sores,  plainly 
showing  what  would  have  been  his  plight  were  he  not  pro- 
vided with  a  natural  saddle;  and  such  is  often  his  condition, 
even  with  this  provision,  that  the  master  is  obliged  to  cut  off 
with  his  knife  considerable  pieces  of  flesh  in  order  to  keep  it 
from  mortifying — an  operation  we  have  repeatedly  witnessed. 
The  following  illustration  will  show  the  state  of  the  hump  of 


*  1  Chron.  v.,  21.  t  Gen.  xxiv.,  10.  J  Gen.  xxx.,  4,S. 

§  1  Chron.  xii.,  40.         ||  1  Cliion.  xxvii.,  30.         f  Isa.  Ix.,  G;  Matt,  xix.,  24. 

*♦  Thevenot,  235.  tt  Isa.  xxx.,  C. 


THE   HORSE,   MULE,  ASS,  AND   CAMEL. 


241 


Overworked  Camel. 


many  a  camel  at  the  end  of  winter.  The  pack-saddle  used  for 
the  camel  is  large,  heavy,  and  supported  by  a  wooden  frame, 
whose  cross-bars  project  at  the  top.  It  is  often  decorated 
with  coarse  glass  beads,  small  white  shells  {Cyprcea  arida 
mo7ieta),  and  long  woolen  cords,  with  red  or  blue  tassels  hang- 
ing down  on  each  side  of  the  animal,  which  sway  to  and  fro, 
as  he  walks,  and  help  to  keep  off  the  flies.  A  bell  is  hung  in 
front  of  the  saddle,  which  gives  notice  when  the  wearer  be- 
comes separated  from  the  line  of  his  companions.  The  camel 
bells  are  among  the  most  familiar  Eastern  sounds,  occurring 
as  they  do  in  lands  where  are  no  church  bells,  and  marking 
the  solemn  tread  of  the  "ship  of  the  desert," so  unlike  the  in- 
cessant jingle  of  the  mule  bells.  The  same  sound  was  famil- 
iar to  the  ancients;  for  in  the  antique  sculptures  camels  are 
often  represented  with  bells.  Collars  and  bands  of  dyed  wool, 
adorned  with  tassels  and  embroidered  with  shells  and  beads, 
often  hang  about  the  neck  and  head  of  favorite  animals,  while 
a  showy  ornament,  with  a  looking-glass  for  a  centre-piece, 
covers  the  entire  forehead.  They  are  also  decked  with  long 
strings  of  little  brass  bells  suspended  from  the  saddle,  or  fas- 
tened to  the  head,  legs,  and  even  the  tail.  This  is  their  holi- 
day attire,  and  thus  are  they  represented  on  the  slabs  of  the 


242  BIBLE   LANDS. 

palaces  of  Nineveh,  when  brought  as  articles  of  tribute  to  the 
Assja-ian  kings.*  The  favorite  camels  of  Zebah  and  Zalmunna, 
kings  of  Midian,  who  were  slain  by  the  hand  of  Gideon,  were 
ornamented  in  a  similar  but  much  more  costly  manner.f 

A  strong  camel  will  often  carry  eight  hundred  and  one  thou- 
sand pounds'  weight,  but  the  ordinary  load  is  about  one  hun- 
dred rottles^  or  six  hundred  pounds.  When  overloaded,  he 
utters  cries  of  distress  or  rage,  and  even  attempts  to  bite ;  this 
is  particularly  the  case  when  he  is  suffering  from  a  sore  back. 
He  has  the  name  of  being  vindictive,  and  has  been  repeatedly 
known  to  kill  a  man  instantly  by  a  kick  in  the  breast.  Usu- 
ally, however,  he  is  gentle,  patient,  and  much-enduring;  yet 
among  the  Turks  his  combative  propensities  are  encouraged 
and  excited,  and  there  is  perhaps  as  much  pleasure  enjoyed  in 
camel-fighting  as  in  bull-baiting  and  cock-fighting  among  peo- 
ple claiming  a  higher  civilization.  The  jjekhliwans,  or  wrestling 
camels,  as  they  are  called,  have  to  be  muzzled,  for  their  bite  at 
the  throat  of  an  antagonist  is  often  fatal.  Their  struggle  re- 
sembles a  human  wrestling-match  till  they  resort  to  kicking; 
and  the  combat  is  ended  by  the  flight  of  the  vanquished. 

In  assuming  a  sitting  posture,  the  camel  first  bends  his  fore- 
legs and  falls  upon  his  knees,  and  then  gradually  settles  down, 
so  that  his  breast  lies  square  upon  the  ground.  The  points  of 
his  body  on  which  he  is  supported,  seven  in  number,  are  pro- 
tected by  callosities  or  thickening  of  the  outer  skin.  The 
thickest  of  these  is  heart-shaped,  and  lies  upon  the  breast,  while 
the  rest  are  situated  near  the  joints.  Some  writers  claim  that 
this  posture  of  the  camel  is  a  thing  taught  him  by  his  master 
for  his  own  convenience,  and  that  these  callosities  have  thus 
been  produced.  We  are  aware  that  the  camel  has  to  be  train- 
ed to  kneel  down  or  rise  up  at  the  word  of  command,  which 
word  or  signal  is  a  guttural  sound  or  prolonged  kJi  ,•+  but  we 
have  never  seen  a  camel  resting  otherwise,  whether  old  or 
3'oung,  not  even  the  new-born  foal ;  if,  then,  this  habit  be  arti- 
ficial, it  has  become  a  second  nature,  and  needs  no  longer  to 
be  taught.  The  callosities  of  the  camel  ma}^  in  our  opinion,  be 
deemed  an  additional  proof  that  his  present  sitting  posture  is 
one  natural  to  him.     The  elephant,  when  in  a  domestic  state, 

♦  Layaid,  ii.,  p.  324.  t  Judg.  viii.,  21,  26.  t  Gen.  xxiv.,  11. 


THE   HORSE,   MULE,  ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  243 

kneels  down  in  a  similar  manner,  but  when  wild  he  takes  his 
rest  leaning  against  a  tree :  he  has  no  callosities  in  any  part 
of  his  body. 

In  Bible  times  the  camel  was  used,  as  at  present,  for  convey- 
ing merchandise  and  as  a  beast  of  burden  ;  there  seem,  indeed, 
to  have  been  from  the  earliest  periods  of  history  regular  routes 
for  caravans  of  camels,  mostly  across  or  along  the  edge  of  the 
desert,  which  carried  the  produce  of  one  country  into  another 
and  returned  freighted  with  articles  of  exchange.  It  was  one 
of  these  caravans,  bearing  Midianite  merchantmen  across  the 
desert  from  the  region  of  Babylon,  which  carried  Joseph  into 
Egypt.*  A  similar  caravan,  following  the  same  route,  more 
than  seventeen  centuries  later,  brought  the  "wise  men  from  the 
East,"  with  a  similar  freight  of  gold,  frankincense,  and  myrrh, 
to  worship  the  new-born  babe  at  Bethlehem.f  From  the  visit 
of  the  Queen  of  Sheba  to  King  Solomon,  who  came  with  a  very 
great  train,  and  camels  that  bore  spices,  and  very  much  gold, 
and  precious  stones,;}:  down  to  the  visit  of  the  Ethiopian  eunuch 
who  returned  home  from  Jerusalem  in  a  chariot,  and  carried 
with  him  the  Christianity  he  learned  from  the  lips  of  Philip,§ 
there  had  doubtless  been  frequent  communication  kept  up 
between  Ethiopia  and  Judea,  chiefly  by  means  of  caravans  of 
camels.  || 

In  riding  the  camel,  the  same  saddle  is  used  as  for  loading, 
a  cushion  being  added  for  the  greater  comfort  of  the  rider,  who, 
when  proceeding  at  a  slow  pace,  sits  or  lies  down  in  every  im- 
aginable posture. ^[  A  simple  halter  is  used  in  guiding  him. 
The  camel  also  frequently  carries  a  maffa,  or  two  of  them  bear 
a  takJiiravan,  vehicles  already  described  as  borne  by  mules. 
The  passage  in  Isa.  xxi.,  7,  may  denote  a  litter  borne  by 
camels.  It  is  supposed  by  some  that  the  camel  furniture  in 
which  Eachel  hid  the  household  gods  of  Laban,  her  father,  de- 
notes such  a  litter.  To  this  view  there  are  great  objections. 
It  can  not  be  said  that  any  one  sits  upon,  but  wiihin,  a  maffa  or 
a  takhiravan;  besides,  these  refinements  of  civilization,  particu- 
larly the  latter,  were  not  likely  to  be  found  any  more  then  than 
now  in  the  tent  of  a  nomad  whose  wife  and  children  are  accus- 

*  Gen.  xxxvii.,  28.  t  Matt,  ii.,  11.  %  1  Kings  x.,  2. 

§  Acts  viii.,  26-39.  ||  2  Kings  viii.,  9;  1  Cliion.  xi.,  40;  Ezra  ii.,  1-67. 

T  Gen.  xxiv.,  64;  1  Sam.  xxx.,  17. 


244  BIBLE    LANDS. 

tomed  from  their  earliest  years  to  ride  in  the  usual  manner. 
To  us,  the  picture  of  Rachel  seated  upon  the  "camel  furniture" 
is  true  to  life,  for  we  have  often  seen  its  counterpart.  Jacob 
was  hastily  breaking  up  his  encampment;  his  goods  were  pack- 
ed and  loaded,  and,  with  his  flocks  and  herds,  already  on  the 
way.  Rachel's  favorite  camel*  knelt  at  the  door  of  the  tent ; 
the  saddle-bags  and  cushions,  which  were  to  be  set  upon  him 
for  her  convenience  and  comfort,  lay  piled  upon  the  floor  while 
she  sat  upon  them,  that  the  carpets,  utensils,  and  other  articles, 
and,  finally,  the  tent  itself,  might  be  packed  and  loaded  upon 
the  camels.  Laban  had  arrived  in  pursuit  the  evening  before, 
and  had  encamped  at  a  short  distance  off.  Jacob,  with  three 
days'  start,  had  traveled  seven  days  before  he  was  overtaken. 
He  now  hoped  to  start  off  his  entire  company,  with  the  flocks, 
so  early  in  the  morning  that  he  would  remain  alone  on  the 
spot  to  encounter  the  wrath  of  his  father-in-law.  Laban  doubt- 
less discovered  what  was  going  on,  and  went  over  before  the 
encampment  was  quite  broken  up.  The  favorable  turn  which 
Jacob's  afiixirs  then  unexpectedly  took  induced  him  to  remain 
where  he  was  through  the  day  and  the  following  night,  while 
his  flocks  and  herds  pursued  their  journey  under  the  guidance 
of  his  shepherds  and  servants.f  Our  interpretation  of  this 
historical  incident  essentially  agrees  with  the  view  of  the  mat- 
ter taken  by  Josephus;  the  only  difference  is  that  in  the 
"  camel's  furniture  "  he  includes  the  camel's  large  saddle,  with- 
in which  he  supposes  the  images  to  have  been  secreted;  and 
this  may  have  been  the  case,  or,  as  we  have  suggested,  the 
camel  may  have  been  already  saddled  for  Rachel's  use.:}: 

The  attempt  has  often  been  made  to  establish  a  specific  dis- 
tinction between  the  dromedary  and  the  common  camel,  which 
does  not  exist  in  nature.  It  would  be  as  reasonable  to  con- 
sider the  saddle-horse  a  distinct  species  from  the  pack-horse. 


*  Gen.  xxxi.,  17.  t  Gen.  xxxi.,  .")4. 

t  Josephus,  "Antiquities,"  bk.  i.,  cliap.  20.  Tlie  foregoing  objections  to  the 
takhtravan  and  maffa  equally  apply  to  the  contrivance  described  by  Layard, 
"Nineveh,"!.,  101.  The  "Arabian  Nights"  (p.  4.53)  mention  the  hodage  on 
which  sat  the  Princess  of  Yeniana,  ui)on  her  hetnaka ;  and  the  note  explains 
that  "the  ladies  of  Arabia  ride  upon  female  camels,  and  sit  ujjon  a  carpet  rolled 
into  a  sort  of  cushion  called  hodage ;"  but  we  think  that  in  the  case  of  Rachel  the 
"furniture"  includes  more  than  this.  Tlie  word  hodage  is  now  often  used  as 
synonymous  with  maffa. 


TPIE   HORSE,   MULE,   ASS,  AND   CAMEL.  245 

The  dromedary  is  only  a  more  higbly-bred  animal,  well  tend- 
ed, trained  to  the  best  paces,  and  never  loaded.  His  long, 
swinging  gait  is  trying  to  the  rider,  being  a  racking  amble ; 
but  his  speed  is  great,  often  amounting  to  seven  or  eight  miles 
an  hour,  and  he  can  travel  long  without  stopping.  He  is  often 
employed  by  the  couriers  or  posts,  as  in  ancient  times.* 

The  powers  of  endurance,  speed,  and  utility  of  the  dromeda- 
ry, or  riding  camel,  may  be  exemplified  by  the  following  cir- 
cumstance: before  the  establishment  of  a  telegraph  line  from 
England  to  Bagdad,  the  British  resident  at  the  latter  place  re- 
ceived his  mails  far  in  advance  of  every  one  else  by  dromeda- 
ry post,  which  traveled  once  a  fortnight  from  Damascus  to 
Bagdad,  right  across  the  desert,  a  distance  of  eight  hundred 
miles,  which  was  performed  in  nine  days.  The  dromedary 
was  changed  three  times  during  the  entire  journey,  in  one  part 
of  which  there  was  no  water  for  three  days.f 

The  camel  has  often  been  used  in  warfare,  both  in  ancient 
and  modern  times.  He  is  thus  represented  on  the  monuments 
at  Nineveh,  was  so  used  by  Bonaparte  in  Egypt,  and  is  still 
employed  in  like  manner  by  the  present  viceroy. :j: 

We  have  described  the  valuable  qualities  of  the  camel,  chief- 
ly to  the  nomad  of  the  desert,  both  as  a  beast  of  burden  and 
for  riding.  We  ought  to  add  that  his  usefulness  is  not  limit- 
ed to  these  particulars,  for  his  master  eats  his  flesh,  drinks  his 
milk,  wears  sandals  made  of  his  skin,  uses  his  manure  for  fuel, 
is  clothed  in  garments  woven  from  his  hair,§  and  often  dwells 
in  tents  whose  curtains  are  made  of  the  same  material.  His 
bleaching  bones  lie  scattered  in  the  desert,  attesting  his  life- 
long fidelity  to  his  master.f 

*  Esther  viii.,  10,  14  ;  Jer.  ii.,  23.  t  Ussher,  p.  49.3. 

t  In  the  celebrated  b.ittle  fought  under  the  walls  of  Sardis  between  Cyrus  and 
Croesus,  the  cavalry  of  the  latter  fled  at  the  sight  and  smell  of  the  camels,  which 
formed  the  first  rank  of  the  Persian  army.  Some  writers  have  infeiTed  from 
this  circumstance  that  the  horse  always  has  an  antipathy  for  the  camel;  that 
Cyrus  had  no  cavalry  in  his  army,  etc.  (Gillies,  "Ancient  Greece,"  vol.  i.,  chap, 
vii.,  p.  321.)  This  is  a  mistake.  It  is  Avell  known  in  the  East  that  the  horse  is 
always  frightened  the  first  time  he  sees  a  camel,  but  he  very  soon  becomes  accus- 
tomed to  him,  and  does  not  mind  him  at  all.  He  is  also  frightened  the  first  time 
he  sees  an  ass.  We  have  often  made  both  expeiiments.  The  incident  in  the 
battle  of  Sardis  only  proves  that  camels  were  lare  in  Asia  Minor  in  the  si.xth  cen- 
tury before  Christ,  which  is  not  the  case  now. 

§  Matt,  iii.,  4.  ||  Thevenot,  p.  177. 


246  BIBLE   LANDS. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  WILD  BEASTS  OP  BIBLE  LANDS. 

The  description  contained  in  Job  xxxviii.,  89-41 ;  xxxix., 
1-30;  xl.,  15-24;  and  xli.,1-34,  is  an  epitome  of  the  wonders 
of  Natural  History,  as  known  in  the  days  of  that  patriarch. 
The  difficulties  of  interpretation  presented  by  the  poetic  style 
of  these  passages  have  been  greatly  enhanced  by  the  attempt 
to  identify  the  creatures  here  spoken  of  with  such  as  could  be 
found  in  the  country  where  Job  dwelt.  This  is  evidently  a 
mistake,  for  no  one  has  claimed  that  the  peacock,  for  instance, 
was  indigenous  to  that  region  ;  it  could  only  have  been  known 
by  report  through  the  descriptions  of  travelers,  and  by  the 
specimens  brought  from  India*  The  creatures  described  in 
the  book  of  Job,  with  regard  to  the  identification  of  which  there 
has  been  a  difierence  of  opinion,  are  few  in  number,  and  we 
imagin'ethat  the  above-mentioned  principle  will  go  far  toward 
settling  existing  doubts.  What  animal,  for  instance,  but  the 
elephant  can  be  intended  by  behemoth, f  whose  "  nose  pierceth 
through  snares ;"  who  manages  his  powerful  proboscis  and  its 
finger-like  extremity  with  such  skill  as  to  unravel  and  destroy 
any  combination  of  snares  and  nets  that  may  be  set  to  catch 
him ;  who  delights  in  the  water,  and  who  seems  huge  enough 
to  swallow  up  "  a  river  " — "  even  Jordan  " — if  such  a  rendering 
of  the  word  be  insisted  upon;  who  lifts  up  his  tail  like  a  cedar 
when  he  charges  an  enemy?  "He  that  made  him  has  fur- 
nished him  his  weapon,":}:  his  sharp  tusks;  and,  unlike  the  hip- 
popotamus, as  to  fodder,  "  the  mountains  bring  him  forth  food 
where  all  the  beasts  of  the  field  play."  "  He  is,"  moreover, 
"  the  chief  of  the  ivories  (Ilebr.)  of  God,"  by  which  nothing 
can  be  meant  save  that  he  is  the  largest  known  creature  living. 
Nor  is  it  likely  that  the  clei)hant  was  unknown  in  Palestine  in 
Job's  time,  and  that  its  inhabitants  were  ignorant  of  the  valu- 


*  1  Kings  X.,  22.  t  Job  xl.,  l,'>-24.  X  Drake's  Translation. 


WILD   BEASTS.  247 

able  ivory  obtained  from  bis  tusks,  wbile  they  were  acquainted 
witb  tbe  peacock,  wbicb  existed  in  tbe  same  countries  as  tbe 
elepbant.*  Ivory  bas  been  discovered  in  some  of  the  oldest 
remains  of  Mneveb  and  Egypt.  The  elephant  was  well  known 
to  the  Israelites  in  the  days  of  Solomon  ;  for  in  1  Kings  x.,  22 ; 
2  Chron.  ix.,  21,  the  word  translated  ivory  in  our  version  means, 
literally,  elephants'  teeth.  At  a  later  period  the  elephant  became 
common  in  South-western  Asia,  being  employed  in  warfare,  as 
is  still  practiced  in  India.  Darius  and  Antiochus  are  particu- 
larly mentioned  in  history  as  having  many  elephants  in  their 
armies;  and  the  Shah  of  Persia  even  now  keeps  state  ele- 
phants, and  rides  on  a  very  elegant  hoivdar.j;  We  have  already 
spoken  of  the  unicorn,  or  reem  (Ilebr.),:};  in  our  account  of  the 
cattle  of  South-western  Asia. 

As  for  the  leviathan, §  both  this  description  and  a  comparison 
with  Psa.  civ.,  26,  makes  it  evident  that  the  word  was  used 
not  in  a  scientific  but  a  popular  sense,  to  denote  the  large,  scaly 
monsters  that  dwell  in  the  water,  whether  it  be  the  river  or  the 
sea.  It  is  evident  that  the  crocodile  was  then  supposed  to  have 
considerable  affinity  with  the  shark,  and  both  being  called  by 
the  same  name,  most  of  Job's  description  applies  to  the  former, 
while  some  portion  can  refer  only  to  the  latter. |  The  words, 
"maketh  a  path  to  shine  after  him,"  doubtless  refer  to  the 
phosphorescent  light  which  shines  in  all  parts  of  the  Mediter-. 
ranean  whenever  a  large  fish,  or  boat,  or  even  an  oar,  moves 
rapidly  through  the  water,  and  which  is  produced  by  the  small 
gelatinous  animalcula3  which  swarm  in  that  sea.  The  word 
leviathan  has  even  been  applied  to  a  large  sea-serpent,  or 
python,  whether  real  or  imaginary,  on  account  of  the  scales 
which  cover  it,  like  the  crocodile,*|  and  has  also  been  used  with 
reference  to  a  many  -  headed  "dragon"  dwelling  in  the  sea, 
doubtless  imaginary.**  The  ancient  heathen  nations  had  many 
legends  referring  to  this  monster,  and  many  people  inhabiting 
the  Levant  still  believe  in  its  existence. 

The  lion  exists  no  longer  in  South-western  Asia,  except  in 
some  isolated  and  comparatively  inaccessible  districts,  Schwartz 
states  that  he  is  still  occasionally  met  with,  as  of  old,  in  the 

*  Job  xxxix.,  13.  t  Morier,  "  First  Journey,"  p.  210. 

t  Job  xxxix.,  9-12.  §  Job  xli.  ||  job  xli.,  31,  32. 

t  Isa.  xxvii.,  1.  **  Psa.  Ixxiv.,  13,  14. 


248  BIBLE   LANDS. 

desert  between  Palestine  and  Egypt;*  but  he  is  mostly  con- 
fined to  the  vicinity  of  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  between 
Bussorah  and  Bagdad,  where  impenetrable  jungles  and  reedy 
marshes  afford  him  a  protection  against  the  deadly  fire-arms  of 
modern  times.f  Both  the  black-maned  and  the  maneless  va- 
rieties have  been  seen  in  this  region ;  but  the  more  common 
kind  is  what  naturalists  call  the  Asiatic  lion,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  African,  being  somewhat  smaller,  more  compact,  and 
having  a  short,  curly  mane.  There  is  abundant  proof,  however, 
that  the  lion  was  anciently  common,  not  only  in  Palestine,  but 
in  all  the  adjoining  countries:  no  animal  is  more  frequently 
or  spiritedly  represented  in  the  hunting  scenes  of  the  bass-re- 
liefs of  Nineveh  and  Egypt.  The  former  of  these  are  especially 
remarkable  for  their  spirit  and  truthfulness ;  and  it  shows  the 
careful  observation  of  natural  phenomena  by  these 
people  that  they  represented  the  claw  at  the  end  of 
'^■y."  the  lion's  tail,  of  whose  existence  modern  naturalists 
doubted  until  lately.      Sculptured  lions  of  various 

flaw   at   the    ^  ''  ^  •  o     ^ 

Eud  of  the  dates  are  common  among  the  rums  or  the  ancient 
Assyrian  cities  and  temples  of  Asia  Minor,  particularly  at  Eu- 
scuipture.  y^i^  cya^  Angora.  Even  in  Greece  the  figures  of  two 
lions  adorn  the  gate-way  of  the  Cyclopean  wall  of  Mycena3,  the 
city  of  Agamemnon,  who  led  the  Greeks  to  the  siege  of  Troy. 
It  is,  moreover,  an  interesting  fact  that,  in  all  the  languages  spo- 
ken by  the  present  inhabitants  of  Western  Asia,  there  exist  nu- 
merous proverbs  and  popular  expressions  attesting  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  character  and  habits  of  this  animal ;  and 
considering  the  little  intercourse  which  exists  with  neighboring 
nations,  we  are  safe  in  tracing  some  of  these  expressions  at 
least  to  a  time  when  the  lion  was  as  common  as  he  is  repre- 
sented to  have  once  been  both  by  the  Scriptures  and  by  ancient 
historians  generally.  He  is  still  regarded  as  the  emblem  of 
manly  courage  and  physical  strength  \X  and  the  family  name  of 
"Son  of  a  Lion"  has  been  adopted  by  many,  both  Muslims 
and  others,  who  claim,  whether  right  or  wrong,  that  an  ances- 
tor of  theirs  has  performed  some  act  of  unusual  prowess.  We 
learn  from  Johannes  Phocas,  who  traveled  in  Palestine  toward 


*  Isa.  XXX.,  G.  t  Jcr.  xlix.,  lU  ;    Kzck.  xix.,  \\. 

X  Judj,'.  xiv.,  18;   2  Sam.  xvii.,  10. 


WILD   BEASTS. 


249 


Prout  View  of  the  same. 


the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  that  lions  were  still  to  be  found 
in  his  day  in  the  reedy  coverts  that  line  the  Jordan.* 

The  panther  is  called  "  namer  "  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  which 
means  spotted.  His  skin  is  covered  with  dark  spots  beautifully 
arranged  in  regular  circles  upon  a  fawn -colored  and  white 
ground  ;  these  are  alluded  to  in  Jer.  xiii.,  23.  Our  version  calls 
this  animal  a  leopard,  a  word  which  was  coined  only  in  the  4th 
century,  to  distinguish  the  African  from  the  Asiatic  panther. 


Keland,  "Palestine,"!.,  274. 


250  BIBLE   LANDS, 

The  "namer"  of  Palestine  and  South-western  Asia  gener- 
ally, is  a  powerful  animal  but  little  smaller  than  the  Asiatic 
lioness,  and  occupying  the  same  place  in  the  economy  of  nature 
that  the  Bengal  tiger  does  in  India.  The  Arabs  give  him  es- 
sentially the  same  name  as  the  ancient  Hebrews.  They  call 
him  nimr,  making  but  a  slight  change  in  the  vowel  sounds. 

The  panther  seems  to  be  about  as  common  now  as  it  was 
in  ancient  times.  It  was  well  known  to  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans,  who  represented  the  car  of  Bacchus,  one  of  their  di- 
vinities, as  drawn  by  two  panthers.  The  habits  of  this  animal 
bear  much  resemblance  to  those  of  the  lion,  with  this  great  dif- 
ference, however,  that  the  latter  is  not  found  upon  lofty  mount- 
ains, but  frequents  the  coverts  of  the  warm  and  sunny  plains, 
while  the  panther  only  traverses  the  low  grounds  in  the  night 
in  quest  of  prey,  and  spends  the  day  amidst  the  barren  rocks 
and  crags  of  lonely  and  inaccessible  cliffs,  where  he  is  occasion- 
ally spied  by  a  wood-cutter  or  adventurous  hunter  lying  at  full 
length,  and  sunning  himself  on  the  flat  summit  of  some  rocky 
precipice.*  A  friend  of  ours  pointed  out  to  us  not  long  ago  a 
spot  where  he  had  seen  a  panther  stretched  out  unconcernedly, 
on  a  broad  flat  rock  on  the  steep  bank  of  the  river  Damoor, 
in  Southern  Lebanon.  The  "  tiger  tracks "  which  Lynch  re- 
peatedly saw  upon  the  reedy  banks  of  the  Jordan  were  doubt- 
less made  by  panthers;  for  at  night -fall  this  animal  steals 
down  from  his  lair  to  scour  the  valleys  and  the  plains  in  search 
of  prey:  he  has  been  known  to  traverse  in  a  single  night  a 
distance  of  twenty-five  to  thirty  miles.  Like  the  lion,  he  avoids 
an  encounter  with  man,  unless  wounded  by  him,  or  apprehend- 
inc^  an  attack;  but  should  he  chance  to  get  a  taste  of  human 
flesh,  he  is  said  to  seek  and  prefer  it,  as  does  the  lion  and  the 
Bengal  tiger.f  The  panther,  however,  usually  spends  but  a 
few  days  in  the  same  locality.  He  is  greatly  dreaded  by  all 
the  beasts  of  the  field,  which  hide  themselves  at  his  approach, 
and  dare  not  venture  forth  to  feed  at  night,  as  is  their  wont 
We  have  repeatedly  taken  our  stand  on  the  top  of  some  isolated 
rock  or  cliff  on  the  edge  of  a  plain,  whence  we  could  study  the 
wonderfully  varied  sights  and  sounds  of  an  Oriental  summer's 
eve.     The  day  had  been  silent,  the  voice  of  the  birds  even  be- 


♦  Cant,  iv.,  8.  t  2  Kings  xvii.,  25  ;  Jer.  v.,  6  ;  Bruce,  vi.,  143. 


WILD   BEASTS.  251 

ing  hushed  bj  the  heat,  and  the  "cicada"  alone  heard  in  a 
monotonous  concert  from  every  shady  grove ;  even  this  sound 
grew  gradually  silent  as  the  mountain  shadows  lengthened 
across  the  plain,  ^nd  the  sunlight  died  away.  The  rays  of  the 
moon,  however,  were  hardly  perceptible  before  the  song  of  the 
cricket  commenced ;  the  cry  of  a  solitary  jackal  was  heard  from 
the  edge  of  the  wood,  and  was  presently  answered  by  one,  then 
by  another  and  another  of  his  companions,  until  the  grand 
chorus  was  repeated  by  the  mountain  echoes;  the  fox  barked 
close  by,  the  owl  screeched,  and  the  great  owl  in  the  wood  ut- 
tered its  mourning  cry  as  it  watched  for  the  hare  that  dart- 
ed through  the  shadows.*  We  could  hear  the  footsteps,  and 
occasionally  catch  a  glimpse  of  a  whole  troop  of  wild  boars, 
old  and  young,  as  they  came  hastening  down  from  the  woody 
coverts  of  the  mountains  to  wallow  in  the  mire,  and  dig  among 
the  roots  of  the  plain.  Truly  it  seemed  as  though  Nature  her- 
self were  keeping  Ramazan — fast  asleep  all  the  long  day,  and 
waking  up  at  eve  to  spend  the  entire  night  in  work,  revelry, 
and  fun.f  But  how  different  was  the  scene  when  a  panther 
had  come  into  the  neighborhood !  It  seemed  as  if  a  scent  of 
blood  and  carnage  was  pervading  the  atmosphere,  communica- 
ting to  every  creature  telegraphic  notice  of  the  danger  nigh. 
I  have  on  such  an  occasion  again  repaired  to  the  same  post  of 
observation,  the  evening  was  perhaps  more  beautiful ;  the  song 
of  the  cicada  had  died  away,  and  that  of  the  cricket  succeeded 
it,  giving  the  signal  for  all  to  be  up  and  doing;  but,  even  be- 
fore darkness  came  on,  the  horses  and  cattle  in  the  plain  were 
to  be  seen  hastening  home,  and  such  as  had  no  shelter  cluster- 
ing close  together  in  evidently  apprehensive  groups.  No  wild 
boars  hurried  down  the  mountain  to  luxuriate  in  the  marsh; 
no  jackal  or  fox  dared  utter  his  cry ;  not  a  sound  broke  the 
ominous  stillness;  all  seemed  determined  to  fast  that  night  rath- 
er than,  by  stirring,  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  common  foe, 
who,  they  well  knew,  was  stealthily  prowling  about,  "  seeking 
whom  he  might  devour.":}: 

The  panther  crawls  silently  toward  his  prey,§  and,  approach- 
ing it  unperceived,!  leaps  suddenly  upon  its  back,^  and  bury- 


Deut.  xiv.,  16;  Mic.  i.,  8.  t  Psa.  civ.,  10-23.  %  1  Pet.  v.,  8. 

Psa.  X.,  10.  II  Hos.  xiii.,  7.  t  Hab.  i.,  8. 


252  BIBLE   LANDS. 

ing  his  fangs  in  its  throat,  quickly  strangles  his  victim.  This 
mode  of  attacking  his  prey  is  evidently  taught  him  by  nature, 
for  he  begins  to  practice  it  at  a  very  early  age.  We  once 
knew  a  panther's  cub  which  leaped  upon  the  back  of  a  cow  at 
pasture,  when  the  latter,  panic-stricken,  started  with  her  novel 
burden  full  speed  for  home;  the  young  panther  meanwhile 
appeared  to  enjoy  the  race,  and  bravely  held  on  till  brought 
into  the  midst  of  a  village,  where  he  was  easily  captured  by 
the  astonished  rustics. 

As  soon  as  this  animal  has  strangled  his  prey,  he  drinks  its 
blood,  and  then,  satiated,  retires  to  his  nearest  lair.  He  comes 
again  the  next  night,  and  so  also  the  third,  after  which  he 
leaves  the  neighborhood,  and  the  remains  of  his  feast  are  de- 
voured by  wolves,  jackals,  and  other  scavengers.  During  the 
three  days,  however,  that  the  panther  feeds  upon  his  prey,  the 
lynx  alone  dares  venture  near  or  share  it  with  him.  This  lat- 
ter animal  is  of  the  size  of  a  large  cat,  and  of  a  uniform  fawn 
color.  He  is  characterized  by  a  tail  only  six  inches  long,  and 
a  tuft  of  stiff  hair  on  the  point  of  each  ear.  He  usually  lives 
on  birds  and  field-mice,  but  seeks  the  companionship  of  the 
panther  to  so  great  a  degree  that  in  some  regions  of  the  coun- 
try the  presence  of  a  lynx  is  a  sure  sign  that  his  powerful  pa- 
tron is  not  far  off.  This  relation  between  the  two  has  its  ex- 
act parallel  in  that  which  exists  between  the  shark  and  the  lit- 
tle pilot-fish.  The  spotted  lynx,  however,  is  so  abundant  in 
Northern  Asia  Minor,  where  the  panther  is  unknown,  that  his 
beautiful  skin  is  an  article  of  exportation.  He  there  preys 
chiefly  upon  hares,  for  which  he  lies  in  wait  at  night. 

The  shepherds  are  the  chief  sufferers  from  the  depredations 
of  the  panther,  though  he  occasionally  kills  a  stray  horse  or 
cow.*  It  was  thus  that  David  had  to  encounter  both  a  lion 
and  a  bear.f  We  have  known  several  shepherds  who  had 
fought  the  panther  single-handed  with  various  results.  The 
following  came  under  our  personal  observation :  A  panther 
had  killed  a  goat  belonging  to  a  flock,  whose  shepherds,  how- 
ever, determined  not  to  interfere  with  an  enemy  they  deemed 
too  strong  for  them.  But  a  beardless  youth  among  them  de- 
clared he  would  be  avenged  for  the  loss  of  his  favorite  goat. 

♦  Gen.  xxxi.,  39;  Amos  iii.,  12.  t  1  Sam.  xvii.,  34-36. 


WILD   BEASTS.  253 

He  borrowed  an  old  single-barreled  flint  gun,  and,  with  a  load- 
ed pistol  in  his  belt,  lay  in  wait  for  the  enemy  a  few  paces 
from  the  body  of  the  slaughtered  victim.  The  sun  had  hard- 
ly set  when  he  heard  a  slight  noise  among  the  pebbles  on  the 
high  ground  behind  him,  and,  turning  round,  he  saw  to  his 
surprise  a  huge  panther,  crouching  like  a  cat,  and  apparently 
on  the  point  of  springing  upon  him.  The  young  shepherd, 
nothing  daunted,  took  deliberate  aim  at  the  heart  of  his  antag- 
onist, and  fired.  He  had  hai'dly  pulled  the  trigger,  however, 
when  the  panther  leaped,  and  the  lad  barely  saved  himself  by 
as  quickly  falling  forward  on  his  face  to  the  ground.  In  this 
position  he  drew  his  pistol,  and  was  fortunate  enough  to  lodge 
its  ball  in  the  head  of  his  already  wounded  foe.  Overjoyed  at 
his  success,  the  young  man  climbed  to  the  top  of  the  hill  and 
shouted  loudly  to  the  shepherds  in  the  plain  below,  "I  have 
killed  the  panther!"  They  would  not  believe  him,  however, 
but  thought  that  he  was  fooling  them.  He  was  compelled, 
therefore,  to  tie  his  girdle  around  the  panther's  neck,  and  thus  - 
to  drag  it  trailing  along  as  best  he  could  to  the  fold,  when 
the  dogs  all  fled  at  his  approach,  and  the  astonished  shepherds 
gave  full  vent  to  their  joy  and  surprise. 

The  panther  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  beautiful  and 
graceful  spotted  creature,  not  very  much  larger  than  a  cat, 
properly  called  shitah,  and  trained  to  hunt  for  his  masters 
in  Persia  and  Hindoostan.  This  animal  has  probably  never 
existed  in  South-western  Asia,  though  the  skin  is  often  offer- 
ed for  sale  at  Constantinople,  Beirut,  and  Alexandria,  being 
brought  by  peddlers  from  Bagdad  and  Bokhara.  These 
skins  are  highly  prized  by  Muslims,  and  especially  Dervishes, 
as  praying-rugs,  which  they  fancy  render  their  devotions  more 
efficacious.  The  skin  of  the  panther  is  preferred  on  account 
of  its  larger  size,  but  it  can  rarely  be  obtained,  and  costs  from 
ten  to  twenty-five  dollars.  The  skin  of  the  stag,  roebuck,  and 
wild  goat  are  equally  esteemed  for  this  purpose.  The  shitah, 
or  hunting  leopard,  does  not  appear  ever  to  have  existed, 
either  wild  or  domesticated,  in  any  of  the  lands  of  the  Bible ; 
he  is  not  figured  upon  the  monuments  of  Egypt  or  of  Nineveh, 
but  on  both  the  lion  is  represented  as  chained  and  employed 
in  the  chase.  A  wild  cat  is  found  in  Asia,  but  it  is  no  larger 
than  the  domestic  animal,  and  may  either  be  its  original  stock, 
17 


25-1  BIBLE   LANDS. 

or  has  been  derived  from  it.  The  tame  panthers  which  have 
been  seen  by  travelers  in  Palestine  were  doubtless  specimens 
of  the  shitah,  obtained  from  India  or  Persia.* 

In  1847  we  made  the  first  sketch  of  the  then  unknown 
monument  of  the  Kaim  Hiirmiil,  as  it  is  called,  near  the  sources 
of  the  Orontes,  in  Coele-Syria,  wliich  sketch  has  been  published 
in  Thomson's  "  The  Land  and  the  Book,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  364,  365. 
This  monument  consists  of  a  solid  structure  in  the  form  of  a 
square  tower  crowned  with  a  pyramid ;  its  entire  height  is 
about  seventy-five  feet,  and  its  four  faces  contain  life-size  bass- 
relief  representations  of  animals  and  implements  of  the  chase. 
The  only  mention  of  it  made  in  authors  not  modern  is  by  the 
Arab  geographer,  Abulfeda  (a.d.  1320).t  Tliere  is  now  no 
inscription,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  is  a  sepulchral 
monument;  for  it  resembles  the  Tortosa  tombs,  as  well  as 
those  of  Absalom  and  Zechariah  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  one  at 
Suweideh.:}:  A  slab  has  indeed  fallen  from  the  southern  face 
of  the  monument,  which  probably  contained  an  inscription. 

The  wild  animals  figured  on  this  interesting  structure  are 
doubtless  those  most  common  in  the  region  at  the  time  of  its 
erection.  They  are  still  the  most  common  beasts  of  the  chase 
in  the  greater  part  of  Western  Asia,  and  we  shall  make  use 
of  these  sculptures  as  the  text  of  our  further  description. 

1st.  The  gazelle  is  represented  as  pursued  by  a  dog.  "We 
have  seen  this  beautiful  creature  feeding  in  small  companies 
on  the  surrounding  plain  even  to  the  foot  of  this  very  mon- 
ument, and,  when  alarmed,  bounding  away  with  inimitable 
grace  to  the  nearest  hills.  It  is  still  hunted  by  the  Arabs  with 
greyhounds,  which  with  difficulty  overtake  it  on  the  plain,  but 
have  to  give  up  the  chase  as  soon  as  the  game  takes  to  the 
rocks.§  The  word  translated  roe  in  many  Scripture  texts 
properly  signifies  a  gazelle. 

2d.  The  wild  boar  is  attacked  by  two  dogs,  as  is  still  done 
in  the  battues,  which  often  take  place  on  Mount  Lebanon  un- 
der the  leadership  of  the  sheikhs.     The  scene  is  highly  spirited, 

*  Thomson,  "The  Land  and  tlie  Book,"  vol.  ii.,  ])p.  \'A\,  l.">7. 
+  "Tab.  Syr.,"  p.  150. 

X  Porter's  "Damascus,"  ii.,  121.     Similar  llomaii  tombs  were  foinid  by  Bailli 
in  Xorthern  Africa.     See  "Travels,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  114,  110. 
§  1  Cliron.  xii.,  8;  Prov.  vi.,  5;   Isa.  xiii.,  14. 


The  Kaim  Hurmul,  in  Coele-Syria. 


FIGTJBES   ON   TUK  WEST  SIDE. 


FIGURKS   ON   THE   NORTH   SIDE. 


FIGCEEB   ON   THE   SOUTH   SIDE. 


I'llirilKB   ON  Tilt;  EAST   SITIK. 

Carvings  on  the  Kaini  llilriuiil. 


WILD   BEASTS.  267 

and  is  drawn  from  life :  three  spears  are  stuck  in  the  body  of 
the  beast,  and  a  fourth  lies  on  the  ground ;  but  he  fights  to 
the  last  against  the  fierce  hounds  that  beset  him.  These  ap- 
pear to  be  of  the  same  breed  as  is  still  used  in  this  sport,  with 
ears  erect,  and  long  curling  tail.  They  are  the  powerful  short- 
haired  shepherd-dogs  of  the  hilly  regions.  The  Asiatic  wild 
boar  seems  to  be  the  same  in  all  respects  as  that  found  in  Con- 
tinental Europe,  the  young  of  both  having  the  same  longitudi- 
nal stripes  on  the  back.  The  prohibition  of  swine's  flesh  orig- 
inally made  by  Moses  to  the  Jews,*  and  subsequently  adopted 
by  the  religion  of  Islam,  whose  followers  constitute  the  bulk 
of  the  population  of  South-western  Asia  at  the  present  day, 
has  caused  these  animals  greatly  to  increase  in  the  land ;  so 
that  they  often  commit  extensive  ravages,  and  sadly  destroy 
the  crops.  Hence  the  Muslims  are  frequently  compelled  to 
go  out  with  their  guns  at  night,  and  lie  in  wait  for  their  cun- 
ning enemy,  or  to  hunt  for  him  in  the  day-time  with  dogs, 
whether  two  or  three  together,  or  in  general  battues ;  in  Mes- 
opotamia, however,  he  is  hunted  with  a  spear  on  horseback. 
When  successful,  as  their  laws  do  not  permit  them  even  to 
touch  the  "  unclean  beast,"  they  sell  him  for  a  trifle  to  a  Chris- 
tian, or,  failing  to  find  a  customer,  leave  the  carcass  to  be  de- 
voured by  vultures  and  jackals.  There  are  professional  wild- 
boar  hunters ;  but  these  are  always  either  Christians  or  gypsies. 
The  wild  boar  lies  in  a  covert  during  the  day,  whether 
among  the  reeds  which  skirt  a  river  or  swamp,  or  in  the 
densest  thickets  of  the  forest-clad  mountain.  They  come  forth 
to  feed  at  night,  plowing  up  the  ground  with  their  powerful 
tusks  in  quest  of  tender  roots,  bulbs,  and  grubs,  preferring  the 
loose  soil  of  cultivated  fields;  they  eat  acorns  with  avidity, 
also  the  pods  ("husks")  which  fall  from  the  carob-tree,f  and 
greedily  consume  the  standing  crops,  approaching  boldly, 
though  cautiously,  down  to  the  very  threshing-floors.  They 
break  through  the  hedges  of  the  vineyards,  and  devour  and 
trample  down  quantities  of  fruit  in  a  single  night.:}:  Their 
scent  is  extremely  keen,  and  effectually  warns  them  against 
danger.  In  the  winter,  when  the  snow  covers  the  mountain 
tops,  they  select  a  large  evergreen-tree,  whose  branches,  shed- 

*  Lev.  xi.,  7;  Deut.  xiv.,  8.  t  Luke  xv.,  16.  t  Psa.  Ixxx.,  13. 


258  BIBLE   LANDS. 

ding  the  snow,  pile  it  into  a  circular  wall,  and  shelter  them- 
selves during  the  day  within  this  little  natural  fortress;  the 
wood-cutter  sometimes  comes  suddenly  upon  a  whole  family 
of  them  thus  quietly  resting  together.  The  male  is  large,  and 
armed  with  powerful  tusks,  with  which  he  inflicts  severe  in- 
juries when  attacked  or  wounded. 

The  wild  boar  may  be  domesticated  only  when  taken  very 
young.  We  remember  a  specimen  owned  some  years  ago  by 
Mr.  Stevens,  the  British  consul  at  Samsoon,  on  the  Black  Sea, 
which  used  to  accompany  its  master  with  his  dogs  on  shooting 
expeditions,  and  Mr,  Stevens  assured  us  that,  owing  to  its  keen 
scent,  this  sporting  pig  was  generally  the  first  to  find  the  game, 
alive  or  dead ;  he  particularly  prized  it  in  pheasant-shooting. 
The  only  inconvenience  was  that,  not  having  been  taught  to 
fetch,  and  being  extremely  voracious,  it  devoured  the  game 
which  it  caught.  We  ourselves  saw  it  in  full  pursuit  of  a  hare 
in  company  with  the  greyhounds. 

The  wild  boar  continues  to  make  his  lair  in  the  woody  soli- 
tudes of  Tabor,  Carmel,  and  Lebanon,*  and  abounds  in  the 
reedy  marshes  of  the  Upper  Jordan  and  in  the  swamps  below 
Damascus.  And  it  is  interesting  to  note  that,  in  the  sculptured 
monuments  of  ancient  Nineveh,  he  is  represented  as  lurking 
among  the  reeds,  where  he  is  still  found  on  the  banks  of  the 
Tigris  and  the  Euphrates.f 

3d.  The  antlered  stag  and  the  roebuck.  The  former  abounds 
in  all  the  forests  of  Asia  Minor,  particularly  on  Taurus  and 
Anti-taurus,  where  it  is  now  hunted  by  "stalking."  The  lat- 
ter is  still  more  extensively  known,  but  equally  seeks  the  pro 
tection  of  the  forests,  and  frequents  the  edge  of  mountain 
streams.  It  is  sometimes  caught  in  a  snow-drift,  and  is  easily 
tamed  and  kept  as  a  pet  in  the  yard  or  garden,  like  the  gazelle. 
We  have  known  several  of  these  graceful  creatures  thus  domes- 
ticated, and  have  had  occasion  to  notice  their  wonderful  fleet- 
ness,  and  to  witness  some  of  their  extraordinary  feats  of  leaping. 
The  expression  "swift  as  an  elik"  (roe),  is  a  proverb  among 
the  Turks.^ 

There  are  several  species  of  antlered  stags,  the  largest  of 
which,  a  magnificent  animal,  we  have  repeatedly  seen  "leaping 

*  Psa.  Ixxx.,  13.  t  Lnyard,  i.,  109.  J  2  Sam.  ii.,  18. 


WILD   BEASTS.  259 

upon  the  mountains,'^*  or  guarding  the  rear  of  a  small  herd  of 
hinds  and  young  deer.  In  the  summer  they  may  sometimes 
be  descried  early  in  the  morning  feeding  on  the  edge  of  the 
forest,  the  hart  apparently  unconcerned,  but  the  hinds  ever 
watchful  and  timid;  nor  will  they  sit  down  to  take  their  rest 
without  first  selecting  some  high  commanding  position,!  ^^^ 


The  Roebuck  of  Western  Asia.    (2  Siiin.  ii.,  IS.) 


even  then,  while  nodding,  they  frequently  turn  their  eyes  wari- 
ly, or  raise  their  nostrils  in  different  directions,  and  when  they 
discover  a  lurking  enem}^,  bound  lightly  away  with  amazing 
swiftness  and  agility.  It  is  evidently  in  a  similar  position  that 
the  pair  are  represented  on  the  Kai'm  Hurmul,  though  both  are 
bucks;  for  one  is  feeding  while  the  other  sits  and  watches. 
These  animals  assemble  in  vast  numbers  on  the  summit  of  cer- 
tain mountains  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  and  the  natives  call 
these  places  their  tekkehs,  or  meeting-houses.  They  migrate 
thence  in  various  directions,  without  appearing  to  affect  the 
number  of  deer  found  in  any  locality. 

4th.  The  bear  is  represented  in  a  spirited  manner  with  two 
cubs,  one  of  which  is  standing  on  its  hind  feet.  This  animal 
has  always  been  common  in  all  the  mountainous  or  hilly  por- 
tions of  Western  Asia,  but  has  never  existed  in  Egypt,  Arabia, 
or  Southern  Mesopotamia.  We  give  a  copy  of  a  representa- 
tion of  him  taken  from  an  Assyrian  cup,  which  indicates  that 
he  existed  anciently,  as  now,  upon  the  neighboring  mountains 
of  Koordistan.     The  first  historic  mention  of  this  animal  now 

*  Cant,  ii.,  8,  9.  f  2  Sam.  xxii.,  3i. 


260 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Bear  from  an  Assyriau  br 
ii.,  24.) 


Bowl.   <2  KiDgs 


extant  is  found  in  1  Sam.  xvii.,  34-36 ;  and  among  the  m.any 
notices  of  bim  none  is  more  famous  than  his  encounter  with 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon  at  the 
siege  of  Antioch  (a.d.  1098) 
by  the  Crusaders;  nor  did  the 
Bruin  of  the  eleventh  centu- 
ry prove  inferior  to  those  of 
ancient  times,  for  the  brave 
knight  barely  escaped  with  his 
life.* 

We  have  all  read  accounts 
of  fearful  encounters  with  the 
bears  of  Kussia  and  of  the 
Pyrenees.  The  same  animal 
essentially  inhabits  Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  There  are  varieties 
of  color  among  them;  for  some  are  of  a  dark-brown,  almost 
black;  others  yellowish,  with  a  dark  line  of  long  stiff  hair  from 
the  neck  to  the  tail ;  others,  again,  have  a  large  circular  ash- 
colored  spot  on  the  top  of  each  shoulder-blade.  These  varie- 
ties of  color  do  not  seem  to  depend  on  age,  sex,  or  season  of 
the  year ;  for  we  have  seen  two  cubs  taken  from  the  same  lit- 
ter, one  of  which  was  almost  black,  while  the  other  was  marked 
with  the  above-mentioned  white  epaulets. 

The  bear  is  powerful,  keen-scented,  sagacious,  and  cunning. 
He  is  generally  harmless,  and  greatly  terrifies  people  by  the 
cool,  unconcerned  manner  in  which  he  makes  his  nightly  calls 
to  the  choicest  fruit-trees  even  close  to  an  inhabited  dwelling. 
He  often  delays  his  return  to  the  mountains  till  broad  daylight 
has  revealed  his  unwelcome  presence,  and  raised  a  "  hue  and 
cry"  around  him  ;  he  then  makes  a  dignified  retreat,  apparently 
surprised  at  the  commotion  he  has  occasioned.  These  depreda- 
tions of  the  bear  are  very  extensive ;  for  he  not  only  consumes 
a  vast  quantity  of  fruit,  but  breaks  many  branches  of  the  trees 
on  which  he  climbs,  and  roughly  handles  other  people's  proper- 
ty. He  is  also  at  this  season  quite  partial  to  a  hatli^  and  does 
not  hesitate  to  jump  into  the  large  tanks  or  reservoirs  of  water 
to  refresh  himself  after  his  repasts.  We  have  heard  of  a  bear's 
cub,  who,  whether  in  imitation  of  his  mother,  or  led  b}^  his  own 


*  Michaud,  "Croisades,"  iv.,  111. 


WILD   BEASTS.  261 

instincts,  once  leaped  into  a,  tank  whose  water  was  low,  so  that 
when  he  had  drunk  his  fill,  and  performed  his  ablutions,  he 
found  the  wall  so  high  that  he  could  not  get  out  again  ;  he  was 
discovered  there  the  next  morning,  and  soon  dispatched  by  the 
indignant  proprietor. 

As  long  as  the  fruit  season  lasts,  the  bear  is  well-behaved 
and  harmless.  He  hides  on  the  lofty  mountains  during  the 
day,  and  comes  down  at  night  to  the  gardens,  or  orchards  and 
vineyards,  and  skillfully  avoids  the  snares  laid  for  him.  Honey 
is  his  favorite  food,  and  he  will  often  run  considerable  risks  in 
order  to  gratify  his  greediness  for  it.  We  remember  an  adven- 
ture of  Bruin  which  ended  in  his  death.  A  swarm  of  bees  had 
made  their  hive  in  the  cleft  of  a  precipitous  rock.  Bruin  had 
doubtless  scented  the  dainty  morsel  as  he  passed  along  in  his 
nightly  maraudings,  in  quest  of  cherries  and  apricots  in  the 
gardens  below;  he  determined  to  secure  it,  and  must  have 
climbed  to  a  considerable  height,  for  he  was  found  stone  dead 
in  the  early  morning  at  the  bottom  of  the  cliff. 

When  winter  comes,  and  the  snow  covers  the  lofty  mount- 
ains which  he  inhabits,  the  bear  withdraws  to  a  cave,  and  awaits 
the  return  of  spring  in  a  dormant  state.  It  is  during  the  inter- 
val between  the  cessation  of  autumnal  fruits  and  crops,  and  his 
retirement  to  winter-quarters,  that  he  manifests  his  carnivorous 
propensities,  and  becomes  ferocious  and  aggressive  even  to  man. 
He  prowls  about  mountain  villages,  and  fiercely  attacks  the 
flocks  of  goats  and  sheep,  even  in  broad  daylight.  We  re- 
member visiting  a  village  on  the  Anti-taurus  which  the  day 
before  had  suffered  the  depredations  of  a  bear  of  monstrous 
size.  He  had  surprised  a  flock  of  goats,  and  when  attacked 
by  the  shepherds  and  their  dogs  with  a  hue  and  cry  which 
brought  out  every  villager  from  his  hut,  he  had  slowly  retired, 
flinging  stones  at  his  pursuers  with  such  accurate  aim  and  force 
that  severe  wounds  were  inflicted  on  them.  Later  in  the  day 
he  had  gone  boldly  into  the  fold  on  the  edge  of  the  village  and 
carried  off  a  goat,  which  he  dragged  to  a  hillock  near  by  and 
deliberately  devoured,  in  plain  sight  of  the  inhabitants,  who, 
not  possessing  a  single  gun,  dared  not  disturb  the  audacious 
brute.  He  was  pointed  out  to  us  ranging  over  the  hills,  al- 
ready covered  with  a  slight  fall  of  snow ;  and,  watching  with 
our  spy-glass,  we  saw  him  dig  up  the  remains  of  another  goat. 


262  BIBLE    LANDS. 

which  he  had  partly  devoured  and  buried  there.*  We  have 
repeatedly  known  the  bear  at  this  season  to  fall  upon  and  de- 
vour children  who  had  strayed  out  but  a  short  distance  from 
the  mountain  villages;  and  we  particularly  remember  a  Turk- 
ish girl  about  thirteen  years  of  age,  who  thus  lost  her  life  on 
the  Ak-dagh,  near  Amasia.f 

Some  have  supposed  that  the  bear  has  not  the  thirst  for  blood 
which  is  characteristic  of  the  wolf  or  panther.  He  sometimes, 
however,  seems  quite  as  ferocious,  and  has  been  repeatedly- 
known  to  kill  apparently  for  the  pleasure  of  it.  In  a  certain 
mountain  village  the  sheep  were  shut  up  in  one  of  those  stables 
which  are  partly  dug  out  of  the  mountain  side,  and  have  a  room 
in  front  built  of  rough  stones,  with  a  flat  roof  overhead,  and  a 
broad  chimney.  The  door  was  made  fast  at  evening,  and  the 
dogs,  being  released  from  duty,  had  sought  refuge  from  the 
cold  in  their  master's  house.  A  bear  came,  however,  at  dead 
of  night,  and,  descending  by  the  chimney,  strangled  every  one 
of  the  sheep.  After  gorging  himself  with  their  blood,  he  piled 
their  bodies  in  the  wide  fire-place,  and  climbing  thereon  escaped 
unperceived ! 

About  the  end  of  the  year  the  bear  ranges  in  various  direc- 
tions in  search  of  winter -quarters;  these  are  usually  a  cave 
among  the  rocks,  but  he  sometimes  digs  a  hole  and  burrows 
under-ground  on  the  mountain  side.  He  lies  for  a  while  near 
the  mouth,  or  on  the  outside  of  the  entrance,  to  make  sure  that 
no  intruder  will  disturb  his  retirement,  and  there  prepares  a 
bed  of  twigs  and  dried  leaves  (oak  by  preference).  He  always 
lies  facing  the  opening,  and  with  one  of  his  paws  in  his  mouth 
making  a  loud  purring  all  the  time.  The  native  hunters  in- 
sist that  he  is  very  thin  in  flesh  when  he  goes  to  sleep,  but 
very  fat  in  the  spring  when  he  wakes  up.  The  snow  sometimes 
covers  the  opening,  and  completely  hides  the  cave;  but  expe- 
rienced hunters  can  generally  detect  certain  peculiar  small 
openings,  caused  by  his  breathing,  which  indicate  his  presence 
within.  It  is  hard  to  rouse  him  from  his  stupor,  and  a  shot 
has  to  be  fired,  or  stones  thrown  in,  to  start  him.  Should  he 
then  meet  with  a  single  antagonist,  he  does  not  hesitate  to 
attack  him,  and  generally  has  the  best  of  it.     Bears  remain 

*  Dan.  vii.,  5.  t  2  Kings  ii.,  23,  24. 


WILD   BEASTS.  268 

about  a  month  in  their  dens.  The  cubs,  usually  two  in  number, 
are  born  during  this  period,  and  remain  in  the  same  place  a 
couple  of  months,  after  which  they  follow  their  dam  through 
the  rest  of  the  year.  Hence  a  she-bear  with  two  cubs  is  no 
uncommon  sight,  and  the  bass-relief  of  Kaim  Hiirmiil  is  a  faith- 
ful picture  drawn  from  life. 

When  attacked  in  her  den,  the  she-bear  will  not  hesitate  to 
abandon  her  cubs,  and  seek  safety  in  flight ;  hunters  are  then 
tempted  to  carry  oft'  her  young;  but  she  soon  discovers  her 
loss,  and  then  nothing  can  exceed  the  rage  with  which  she  pur- 
sues the  robber.  His  only  safety  is  in  dropping  the  cubs  and 
fleeing,  for  she  will  still  follow  him  after  safely  depositing  them 
in  her  den,  and  indeed  attack  any  man  she  may  then  meet* 
A  she-bear  robbed  of  her  whelps,  or  a  bear  interrupted  while 
making  his  arrangements  for  the  winter,  is  more  dangerous  to 
encounter  than  any  other  wild  beast  in  Western  Asia ;  this  is 
intimated  in  the  Scriptures,f  where  the  lion  and  the  bear  are 
represented  as  equally  to  be  dreaded.  When  rushing  upon  an 
enemy,  his  speed  is  great:  rising  upon  bis  haunches,  he  leaps 
upon  his  foe  with  the  momentum  thus  acquired,  and,  clasping 
him  in  his  deadly  embrace,  bites  at  his  throat  and  tears  his 
bowels  with  the  formidable  claws  of  his  hind  feet.  When  stand- 
ing up,  the  bear  reaches  the  height  of  a  tall  man,  and  the  weight 
of  a  full-grown  specimen  is  rarely  below  four  hundred  pounds, 
about  one-fifth  of  which  consists  of  fat. 

The  narrative  contained  in  2  Kings  ii,,  23-25,  has  sometimes 
been  objected  to  by  persons  who,  we  apprehend,  have  been 
misled  by  a  defective  translation,  or  have  failed  to  attend  to 
the  circumstances  of  the  case.  The  path  of  the  prophet  Elisha 
lay  through  the  district  of  Bethel,  the  stronghold  of  idolatry  in 
Israel, :j:  where,  as  in  Dan,  stood  one  of  the  golden  calves  set  up 
by  Jeroboam.  There  was  a  crowd  of  idle  young  men  on  the 
outskirts  of  the  town,  lawless,  rude,  and  amusing  themselves — 
perhaps  throwing  stones  with  their  slings — for  the  word  trans- 
lated "little  children"  in  our  version  is  the  same  in  Hebrew  as 
that  used  in  1  Kings  xii.,  8,  10,  14,  where  it  is  applied  to  young 
men  of  the  same  age  as  King  Rehoboam — 11.     In  all  the  lan- 


*  2  Sam.  xvii.,  8  ;  Hos.  xiii.,  8.  t  Lam.  iii.,  10  ;  Amos  v.,  19, 

t  1  Kings  xii.,  28-33. 


264  BIBLE    LANDS. 

giiages  of  the  East,  moreover,  the  words  "child"  and  "chil- 
dren "  often  denote  simply  a  social  relation,  and  are  constantly 
applied  to  full-grown  persons,  as  in  the  New  Testament.* 

No  one  who  has  traveled  in  the  East  can  have  failed  to  no- 
tice the  extreme  lawlessness  of  a  certain  class  of  boys  and 
young  men  living  on  the  outskirts  of  a  town,  especially  toward 
a  Jew,  a  Christian,  or  a  European,  who  should  happen  to  be 
passing  by  alone  or  unprotected.  Let  him  go,  for  instance, 
to  the  castle-hill  of  Smyrna;  and  if  it  be  a  holiday,  and  the 
"boys"  (oghlans)  are  out,  he  will  perceive  stones  whizzing 
past  him,  and  will  hear  the  shouts  of  "Frank,"  "hat- wearer," 
"Giaoor,"  rallying  the  rowdies  of  the  vicinity,  and  warning 
him  to  beat  a  hasty  retreat. 

Elisha,  as  he  slowly  ascended  the  path  leading  past  Bethel, 
alone  and  weary,  was  recognized  as  the  servant  of  the  obnox- 
ious Elijah;  he  was  soon  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  bitterly 
hostile  and  lawless  young  men,  presently  increased  to  a  mob 
by  the  accession  of  others  "coming  out  of  the  city."  They 
abused  the  prophet's  person,  pelted  him  with  stones,  knocked 
off  his  turban,  and,  seeing  his  shaved  head,  hooted  after  him, 
saying,  "Go  up,  go  along,  bald  head,"  throwing  stones  after 
him.  In  imminent  danger  of  his  life,  he  stood  at  bay — as  we 
have  done  in  similar  circumstances  —  and  looking  upon  his 
fierce  assailants,  he  invoked  the  help  of  the  God  he  served,  and 
whom  they  had  exchanged  for  a  molten  calf;  and  He  instant- 
ly sent  forth  "two  she -bears  out  of  the  wood"  of  Ephraim, 
which  killed  forty-two  of  them,  and  scattered  the  rest.  This 
was  the  last  blow  that  needed  to  be  struck  at  idolatrj'^  in  Israel 
for  the  re-establishment  of  the  worship  of  the  true  God. 


Jolin  xxi.,  5  ;   1  John  v.,  21. 


THE   SCAVENGERS.  266 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE    SCAVENOEBS. 

No  one  has  spent  any  length  of  time  in  Western  Asia,  or 
visited  any  considerable  portion  of  the  interior  of  the  country, 
without  noticing  the  unusual  number  and  variety  of  animals, 
birds,  and  even  insects,  that  feed  upon  the  refuse  and  ofial,  and 
devour  the  carcasses  of  other  species.  On  the  highway,  the 
ass,  mule,  or  camel,  which  has  fallen  under  its  burden,  and  is 
no  longer  able  to  rise,  is  unloaded  by  its  master,  its  saddle, 
halter,  and  even  its  shoes  are  taken  off,  and  it  is  scarcely  dead 
when  its  skin,  too,  is  hastily  removed,  to  be  sold  to  the  tanner ; 
the  carcass  is  left  where  it  fell ;  and  as  the  traveler  passes  by 
upon  the  narrow  road,  his  horse  is  frightened,  not  more  by  the 
repulsive  scent  and  sight,  than  by  the  eagles,  vultures,  ravens, 
crows,  and  magpies  that  take  wing  on  his  approach,  or  con- 
tinue to  dispute  the  prey  with  hungry  dogs.*  When  night 
comes  on,  however,  the  winged  devourers  withdraw,  and  give 
place  to  sneaking  jackals  and  foxes,  and  to  the  hyenas  and  the 
wolves,  which  now  warily  quit  their  lairs,  and  hasten  to  secure 
a  share  of  the  feast. 

But  these  are  only  the  occasional  repasts  of  the  scavengers, 
whose  habitual  resort  is  the  "  dunghill  " — a  prominent  feature 
of  every  village;  the  large  towns  have  several,  generally  on 
the  outskirts,  but  sometimes  on  the  edge  of  the  public  square, 
or  on  the  site  of  a  ruined  or  burned  building.f  These  dung- 
hills are  formed  by  the  accumulation  of  useless  broken  articles, 
the  sweepings  of  the  houses,  stables,  and  streets,  thrown  there 
by  the  inhabitants,  together  with  all  kinds  of  refuse,  and  the 
carcass  of  every  creature  that  dies  in  the  town.  According 
to  the  Mosaic  law,  the  offal  of  slaughtered  animals  had  to  be 
burned  without  the  camp,  and  this  was  done  at  Jerusalem,  in 
the  valley  of  Hinnom,  or  Ge-hinnon,  called  "Gehenna"  in  the 

*  Matt,  xxiv.,  28.  t  Ezra  vi.,  11 ;  Dan.  ii.,  5, 


266  BIBLE   LANDS. 

New  Testament,  whose  name  came  to  be  applied  to  the  eternal 
abode  of  the  lost.'*  This  custom  is  everywhere  kept  up  by  the 
modern  Jews,  who  render  themselves  very  disagreeable  neigh- 
bors to  other  sectaries  by  the  offensive  fumes  of  such  fires. 

In  every  place,  however,  the  dunghill  is  the  resort  of  a  va- 
riety of  animals  and  birds,  which  strut  about,  regardless  of  the 
presence  of  man,  with  a  boldness  never  shown  elsewhere.  Va- 
rious birds  of  prey  may  be  seen  coming  down  with  a  swoop, 
or  sitting  on  the  roof  of  a  neighboring  house,  gorged  with 
their  foul  repast;  while  it  is  hard  to  say  whether  the  animals 
which  feed  on  the  noisome  heap,  and  take  their  rest  curled  up 
beside  it,  are  mangy  curs  or  jackals.  As  for  the  rats,  they 
glide  about  with  perfect  unconcern. 

These  dunghills  are  a  very  old  institution.  Those  of  ancient 
cities  are  sometimes  discovered  by  digging,  or  are  laid  open 
by  winter  rains,  which  cut  a  trench  through  them,  bringing  to 
light  bones,  shells,  fragments  of  pottery,  lamps,  utensils,  toj's, 
the  household  gods,  and  even  coins  and  valuable  jewels.f  The 
annexed  illustration  will  give  some  idea  of  the  smaller  articles, 
taken  at  a  venture,  which  are  found  in  these  dunghills.  They 
are  mostly  of  ivory  or  bone,  copper,  and  rarely  of  glass — sub- 
stances which  are  little  or  not  at  all  oxidized.  In  our  engrav- 
ing, Nos.  1-10  and  13  are  of  the  former;  11  and  12  of  glass, 
and  14-19  of  copper;  1,  2,  3  are  spindles;  4  is  a  pin,  and  5 
and  6  are  spoons;  7  is  a  tape -needle;  8,  9,  10  are  ear -picks; 
11,  12  beads;  13,  an  ivory  knife -handle,  with  a  lion's  head; 
14,  a  copper  nail;  15,  a  meat -hook;  16-19  are  balance- 
weights,  one  of  which  is  of  lead.  Eleven  of  these  are  very 
nearly  identical  in  form  with  the  modern  articles.  There  are 
often  copper  and  sometimes  silver  coins;  but  the  most  com- 
mon are  articles  in  baked  clay;  not  only  broken  plates,  jars, 
and  lamps,  but  als6  images  of  the  gods. 

Dunghills  are  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Gates  owed 
their  name  to  the  circumstance  of  their  being  situated  near  to 
one  of  the  dunghills,  the  refuse  and  rubbish  of  the  town  being 
carried  through  them.ij:  The  only  class  of  human  beings  that 
did,  and  do  still,  frequent  these  loathsome  places  are  the  wretch- 
edly poor,  or  friendless  beggars,  who  come  here  in  search  of 

*  Matt,  v.,  22.  t  Dan.  iii.,  29.  t  Neh.  iii.,  14 ;  xii.,  31. 


THE   SCAVENGERS. 


267 


I       a        5 


lluusehold  Articles  found  in  an  ancient  Dunghill.    (Ezra  vi.,  11.) 

any  stale  scrap  of  food  or  cast-off  garments  thej  may  chance  to 
find.*  Even  on  the  water,  the  traveler  who  approaches  an 
Oriental  city  can  not  fail  to  notice  the  numerous  gulls,  cormo- 
rants, or  other  sea-birds  which  flutter  about  almost  within 
reach  of  one's  hand,  and  dispute  together  for  every  morsel  of 
food  or  offal  cast  by  the  inhabitants  into  the  sea. 

The  unusual  development  of  the  scavenger  species  in  West- 
ern Asia  is  doubtless  owing  to  several  distinct  causes,  the  chief 
of  which  may  be  found  in  a  beneficent  provision  of  nature, 
which  thus  averts  a  danger  produced  by  the  climate.  We 
must  also  bear  in  mind  that  Western  Asia  and  Northern  Afri- 
ca are  the  portions  of  the  earth  which  have  been  longest  occu- 
pied by  man,  and  possessed  in  turn  by  rival  empires  and  states, 
whose  hostile  armies  were  ever  eno-ao-ed  in  destructive  wars. 


*  1  Sam.  ii.,  8  ;  Lam.  iv.,  5. 


268  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Their  only  breathing- time  —  if  such  may  be  called  the  short 
respite  enjoyed  by  them — was  during  the  Koman  empire ;  but 
throughout  the  entire  Christian  era,  vio- 
lence, bloodshed,  and  wars  of  conquest  and 
rapine  have  been  their  normal  condition; 
and  every  one  knows  that  such  a  state  of 
things  greatly  favors  the  increase  of  the 
scavenger  species,  both  bird  and  beast. 
The  artists  who  adorned  with  sculptures 
Vulture  carrying  off  tbe  ^i^       ^lls  of  the  tcmplcs  and  palaccs  of  the 

Entrails  of  the  Slain.    A  x^  r 

Nineveh  Sculpture,  (isa.  aucicnt  kings  of  Nincvch  appropriately  in- 
^^^^''    '  troduced  vultures  into  their  battle-scenes, 

carrying  off  the  heads  or  entrails,  or  picking  out  the  eyes  of 
the  slain. 

But  there  is  another  and  perhaps  stronger  reason  for  this  in- 
crease, peculiarly  Oriental,  and  illustrative  of  the  character  and 
habits  of  the  people  of  Western  Asia.  Hospitality  has  always 
been  regarded  by  them  as  a  cardinal  virtue,  and  w^e  shall  have 
occasion  farther  on  to  explain  both  its  cause  and  extent;  we 
may  now  simply  mention  that  its  principles  are  applied  to  the 
brute  creation  with  a  degree  of  strictness  and  conscientiousness 
far  surpassing  their  dealings  with  their  fellow-men.  It  is  con- 
sidered a  favorable  omen  when  a  bird  builds  its  nest  upon  the 
roof  of  the  house,  although  that  bird  may  be  the  stork,  which 
has  repeatedly  been  known  to  bring  live  snakes  to  its  young, 
which,  escaping,  glide  down  into  the  house,  to  the  dismay  of 
the  inmates.  A  sportsman  never  fires  at  a  jackal  or  a  wolf, 
unless  caught  in  the  very  act  of  depredation,  and  when  he 
meets  a  hyena  will  only  hoot  and  spit  at  it.  Hence  all  these 
creatures  greatly  multiply.  The  sparrow-hawk  builds  its  nest 
under  the  very  eaves  of  the  farmer's  dwelling,  and  carries  oflf 
the  young  chickens  before  his  eyes;  jackals  burrow  in  the 
sides  of  the  nearest  hills,  and  set  up  their  yelping  chorus  every 
night,  as  they  gather  to  invade  his  vineyard  or  his  crops;  the 
cunning  fox  creeps  about  his  hedges,  eats  his  fruit,  and  destroys 
his  poultry ;  and  the  hyena  disentombs  and  devours  his  dead. 

It  is  not  alwa3''s,  however,  a  losing  game;  this  hospitality  to 
the  brute  creation  often  brings  its  own  reward.  The  natives, 
for  example,  always  allow  the  swallow  to  build  its  nest  about 
their  premises,  in  the  gate- ways,  under  the  balconies,  and  even 


I'HE   SCAVENGERS.  209 

in  the  very  apartments  they  occup3\  A  friend  of  ours,  hav- 
ing purchased  an  extensive  farm,  found  the  principal  building 
studded  in  various  places  with  clusters  of  swallows'  nests,  which 
had  remained  undisturbed  for  a  series  of  years,  and  to  which 
the  birds  returned  each  spring,  as  is  their  wont.  These  nests 
struck  him  as  so  untidy  that  he  had  them  all  removed,  and 
gave  orders  that  no  swallow  should  thenceforward  be  permit- 
ted to  take  such  a  liberty  with  his  premises.  The  very  next 
season,  however,  i\\Q  fii.es  multiplied  to  such  a  degree  as  to  be- 
come quite  intolerable.  They  could  be  compared  only  to 
Egypt's  fourth  plague.*  Every  invention  extant  in  the  civ- 
ilized world  for  getting  rid  of  these  pests  was  tried  in  vain. 
Strings  and  bunches  of  heath  were  hung  from  all  the  ceilings, 
and  the  swarms  collected  on  them  at  night  were  burned  with 
gunpowder ;  but  all  to  no  purpose.  The  only  remaining  al- 
ternative was  then  tried — the  swallows  were  allowed  to  return. 
When  we  visited  the  place  the  following  summer,  scarcely  a 
fly  was  to  be  seen !  We  counted  the  nests,  and,  calculating  the 
number  of  young  reared  in  them  twice  in  the  year,  we  found 
that  eight  thousand  flies  a  day  would  furnish  but  ten  for  every 
bird ! 


Tlie  loDg-Uiiled  Maypiu. 

The  scavenger  birds  need  little  description.  The  chief  of 
them  are  the  eagles,  vultures,  crows,  and  magpies.  They  all 
possess  the  keenest  scent  for  carrion,  and  every  hunter  knows 
that  whenever  he  brings  down  his  game  he  may  expect  the 
scavengers  shortly  to  appear,  though  no  trace  of  them  may  be 


Exod.  viii.,  24. 

18 


!70 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


visible.*  The  eagle  is  frequently  alluded  to  in  Scripture;  for 
he  evidently  was  as  connmon  anciently  as  now,  and  had  the 
same  habits.  He  does  not  hesitate  to  feast  upon  the  dead, 
though  he  mostly  lives  by  hunting.  "We  have  had  repeated 
opportunities  to  watch  him  in  the  pursuit  of  game,  and  partic- 
ularly remember  a  poor  hare  on  the  top  of  Mount  Taurus  so 
paralyzed  with  fear  at  the  sight  of  his  dreaded  foe  descending 
like  a  shot  to  the  earth,  that  the  eagle  walked  slowly  up  to  him, 
and  plunged  his  talons  into  his  sides  without  his  victim  mak- 
ing any  effort  to  escape. 

One  species  of  vulture  is  particularly  interesting,  as  explain- 
ing a  passage  of  Exodus.     It  is  the  rashama,  very  common  in 

Egypt,  where  he  is  called 
"the  Bird  of  Pharaoh,"  and 
well  known  in  some  other 
parts  of  Turkey  under  the 
Turkish  name  of  ^4^-  Baha — 
the  "  white  father."  It  was 
venerated  by  the  ancients  as 
tlie  tj'pe  of  parental  love,  for 
it  was  believed  to  feed  its 
young  with  its  own  flesh. 
They  also  thought  there  ex- 
isted no  male  of  this  bird, 
(Exod.  and  that  the  female  possess- 
ed in  herself  the  perfect 
Some  of  the  early  Christian  writers  ar- 
gue thence  that  Christ  being  born  of  a  virgin  was  not  contrary 
to  the  natural  order  of  things.f  It  is  interesting,  however,  to 
find  that  Moses  made  no  such  blunder  in  natural  history;  for 
rashama  has  in  Hebrew  a  feminine  termination  ;  but  in  Exod. 
xix.,  4,  and  Deut.  xiv.,  13,  he  adopts  a  masculine  termination, 
and  changes  the  word  to  rasham.:}: 

But  the  most  commonly  seen  scavengers  are  the  magpie  and 
the  cinereal  crow,  mostly  black,  but  partly  of  a  dirty  white. 
The  magpie  makes  himself  useful  by  picking  off  the  horse-flies 
from  the  cattle,  sheep,  and  even  the   deer,  and  is  hence  on 


The  Rashama,  or   "Biid  of  Pharaoh.' 
xix.,  4.) 

power  of  reproduction 


*  Matt,  xxiv.,  28.  t  TortuUiaiu 

X  Bruce,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  201-203. 


Valent,'c.  10;  Bazil,  "  Hex.  Horn.,  "8. 


THE    SCAVENGERS. 


271 


The  Crow  of  Western  Asia.     (Piov.  xxx 

terms  of  familiar  friendship  with  them ;  but  he  is  a  shameless 
thief,  prowling  about  the  kitchen  and  back  yard,  and  ready  to 
come  down  from  the  roof,  the  top  of  the  wall,  or  the  adjoining 
tree,  where  he  is  on  the  watch,  as  soon  as  your  back  is  turned. 
The  ravens  which  supplied  with  food  the  prophet  Elijah*  were 
probably  not  the  large  jet-black  birds  of  that  name,  but  the 
much  more  common  cinereal  crows;  it  is  also  the  young  of  the 
latter  which  are  noted  for  being  very  noisy. f  But  there  are 
also  scavenger  animals,  which  characterize  the  countrj^,  and 
are  spoken  of  in  Scripture. 

The  hyena  is  not  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  yet  there  ir 
no  doubt  that  this  animal  was  common  in  ancient  times.  The 
valley  of  Zeboim  evidently 
derived  its  name  from  the  hy- 
enas, which  either  usually  or 
at  certain  seasons  frequented 
its  wild  gorges;  for  it  is  now 
called  by  the  Arabs  "Shuk  ed 
Dubba" — the  ravine  of  the  hy- 
ena. This  loathsome  animal 
will  not  attack  living  crea- 
tures unless  hard  pressed  by 

hunger,  but  feeds  almost  exclusively  upon  carrion,  and  has  it- 
self a  most  offensive,  cadaverous  odor.  It  sometimes  equals  a 
large  dog  in  stature,  but  is  always  low  in  the  hind-quarters,  short 


The  Asiatic  Hyena.    (Zeph.  ii.,  15.) 


1  Kings  xvii.,  6. 


t  Psa.  cxivii.,  9. 


272  BIBLE   LANDS. 

ill  body,  and  compactly  built ;  its  powerful  fore-feet  enable  it  to 
hold  its  prey  firmly  while  tearing  it  with  its  tremendous  jaws. 
As  the  natives  of  Western  Asia,  particularly  the  Muslims,  bury 
their  dead  in  shallow  graves  outside  of  the  towns,  a  fresh  grave 
is  apt  to  attract  the  hyenas  of  the  neighborhood,  which  drag  out 
and  devour  the  body.  They  prowl  about  the  villages  singly 
in  the  dark,  and  utter  a  cry  so  nearly  resembling  that  of  an  in- 
fant in  distress  that  persons  have  frequently  rushed  to  the  res- 
cue, and  have  been  fiercely  attacked,  and  even  devoured.  My 
own  father  had  such  an  adventure  in  his  youth,  but  fortunate- 
ly succeeded  in  wounding  and  driving  away  the  savage  beast. 

It  is  especially  in  seasons  of  warfare,  on  the  battle-field,  and 
in  the  massacre  of  the  inhabitants  of  towns  and  villages,  that 
hyenas  revel  and  feast  upon  the  bodies  of  the  slain.  At  such 
times,  not  only  these  hateful  beasts,  but  four-footed  and  feath- 
ered scavengers  of  every  kind  collect  together  from  great  dis- 
tances,* and  for  a  long  period  infest  the  districts  to  which  they 
were  thus  attracted.  We  find  a  striking  example  of  this  in  the 
Syrian  massacres  of  1860.  The  sect  of  the  Druses,  exasperated 
by  the  boasted  plans  of  the  Maronites,  or  papal  Christians  of 
the  mountains,  that  they  would  soon,  with  the  aid  of  France, 
bring  them  completely  under  their  power,  and  set  on  by  the 
bigoted  Muslim  rulers  of  the  country,  rose  upon  the  Christian 
population  of  every  sect,  and  put  to  death  in  cold  blood  no  less 
than  eleven  thousand  persons,  mostly  men.  Their  bodies,  left 
unburied,  became  the  prey  of  ravenous  birds  and  beasts  of  the 
field,  which  multiplied  in  some  districts  to  such  a  degree  as  to 
make  it  unsafe  for  men  to  go  about  unarmed.  In  the  large 
village  of  Hosbayah,  on  Mount  Ilermon,  where  the  victims  are 
said  to  have  amounted  to  twelve  hundred,  hyenas  have  so 
greatly  multiplied  that  not  long  since  the  inhabitants  dared 
not  leave  their  houses  at  night  for  fear  of  the  hyenas  that 
prowled  in  the  streets,  hiding  by  day  amidst  the  ruins  of  the 
burned  dwcllings.f 

The  wolf  may  be  classed  among  the  scavengers,  for  he  in- 
dulges in  the  eating  of  carrion  whenever  opportunity  offers. 
He  is  chiefly,  however,  known  as  a  fierce  and  voracious  enemy 


*  2  Sam.  xxi.,  !),  10;  Ezek.  xxxix.,  17-20. 
+  Dent,  vii.,  22;  2  Kings  xvii.,  2r>,  2(;. 


THE   SCAVENGERS. 


273 


of  the  shepherd  and  his  flock.  This  animal  is  common  in 
Syria  and  Palestine,  not  only  upon  the  wooded  heights  of  Leb- 
anon and  Carmel,  but  in  Judea  as  well,  where  he  hides  on  the 
rocky  heights  and  in  the  thickets  of  the  plain  by  day,  and 
ranges  over  the  country  by  night  in  search  of  prey. 

Kitto's  "Encyclopaedia"  is  evidently  at  fault  in  claiming 
that  the  true  wolf  is  not  at  present  found  in  the  Holy  Land, 
and  that  the  only  species  now  existing  there  is  not  gregarious, 
and  is  so  small  that  it  can  not  carry  off  a  lamb  or  sheep.  The 
animal  to  which  he  refers  is  probably  the  same  as  is  called  by 
the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  "lyco  chakalos,"  whose  solitary  cry 
we  have  often  heard,  but  have  never  succeeded  in  getting  a 
sight  of  him. 

The  wolf  varies  in  color  with  age.  He  is  usually  tawny, 
with  long  black  hair  thinly  scattered  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
body,  and  so  closely  resembles  the  more  respectable  street-dogs 
of  Turkey  as  easily  to  be  taken  for  them.  The  full-grown 
male  is  more  than  thirty  inches  high,  and  of  a  gray  color,  turn- 
ing nearly  white  with  age,  when  he  looks  exceedingly  like  the 
best  breed  of  shepherd-dogs.  This  animal  is  gregarious,  each 
pack  consisting  of  from  six  to  twelve  individuals — probably 
constituting  one  family,  for  thus  does  the  number  of  a  litter 
vary.  Half  a  dozen  males  sometimes  forage  together,  and  fre- 
quent the  same  lair,  appearing  to  have  no  family  ties.  It  is 
a  singular  fact  that  the  wolf  seems  to  be  the  only  animal  in 
South-western  Asia  that  becomes  spontaneously  rabid.  When 
in  this  state,  he  rushes  fearlessly  at  man  and  beast,  and  will 
even  watch  on  the  road  to  bite  the  passer-by.  A  few  years 
ago  hydrophobia  became  very  prevalent  in  a  certain  district  of 
Asia  Minor ;  so  that  not  only  men  and  dogs  were  affected  by 
it,  but  almost  every  species  of  animal  suffered  in  consequence 
— cattle  and  donkeys  rushing  madly  through  the  fields,  biting 
whatever  came  in  their  way.  The  disease  was  traced  to  some 
wolves,  which  were  known  to  have  rushed  down  the  mountain, 
and  to  have  bitten  shepherds'  dogs,  sheep,  and  cattle. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  ravages  committed  by  wolves 
upon  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,*  and  will  only  add  here  that 
their  attacks  are  made  chiefly  in  the  night,  and  in  dark  and 


John  X.,  12. 


274  BIBLE    LANDS. 

Stormy  weather  ;*  and  that  the  creature  is  powerful  enough  to 
carry  off  a  sheep  after  kilhng  it. 

The  wolf  is  not  satisfied,  however,  with  the  food  thus  ob- 
tained. When  winter  sets  in,  and  snow  covers  the  mountains, 
the  flocks  are  kept  under  shelter,  and  are  either  fed  in  the  sta- 
bles, or  taken  out  only  in  broad  daylight.  Wolves  then  grow 
bold  and  ravenous  with  lack  of  food.  They  even  attack  trav- 
elers upon  the  highway,  not  in  large  packs,  as  in  Kussia  or  in 
the  forests  of  Germany,  still  in  numbers  sufficient  to  overpow- 
er single  foot-passengers  as  they  cross  the  mountains.  We 
have  known  wolves  in  winter  to  enter  a  large  town  in  the 
night,  and,  in  spite  of  the  dogs,  pick  up  whatever  food  they 
could  find  in  the  streets.  We  even  remember  an  instance  of 
a  family  who  were  sitting  at  their  evening  meal,  when  a  wolf 
walked  boldly  into  the  room  and  sought  to  share  their  food. 

At  this  season  of  the  year  the  wolves  upon  all  the  high 
mountains  live  mostly  by  hunting;  for  as  the  sharp  hoofs  of 
the  wild  boar,  the  stag,  and  even  the  lighter  deer  sink  into  the 
snow,  they  are  taken  at  great  disadvantage  by  their  ravenous 
enemies,  who  glide  over  the  frozen  crust  with  ease,  pursue  them 
in  packs,  drive  them  to  some  precipice,  and  force  them  to  leap 
headlong  from  its  brink,  after  which  they  descend  to  the  bot- 
tom and  feast  upon  their  mangled  bodies.  The  stags  and  the 
deer,  when  thus  relentlessly  pressed,  instinctively  feel  that  man 
alone  can  save  them  from  their  foes,  and  make  for  the  nearest 
hamlet.  They  are  not  unfrequently  found  in  the  morning 
within  the  walls  of  the  cattle-yard,  or  stabled  with  the  oxen 
and  sheep.  We  were  once  crossing  a  snow-covered  mountain 
on  foot,  when  we  came  upon  the  recent  tracks  of  a  herd  of 
stags  mingled  with  those  of  numerous  wolves.  Curious  to 
read  in  these  novel  characters  the  story  of  a  wild  episode,  we 
followed  the  tracks  for  some  distance,  and  soon  found  that  one 
of  the  younger  deer  had  evidently  become  separated  from  the 
rest,  and,  thus  singled  out,  had  been  pursued  by  the  whole  re- 
lentless pack.  The  poor  creature  had  then  turned  down  the 
mountain,  and,  after  some  extraordinary  leaps  and  dodges,  had 
succeeded  in  reaching  the  broad  path  of  the  wood -cutters, 
which  led  to  the  village ;  but,  alas!  at  a  distance  of  not  more 

*  Jer.  v.,  6  ;  Hab.  i.,  8  ;  Zeph.  iii.,  3. 


I 
_    ] 


THE   SCAVENGERS.  275 

than  a  hundred  yards  from  the  nearest  houses  we  came  upon 
evident  traces  of  the  closing  struggle.  The  snow  was  tram- 
pled down  over  a  considerable  surface,  and  bunches  of  the 
stag's  hair  were  scattered  in  every  direction,  but  not  even  a 
bone  remained  to  tell  the  tale. 

The  ferocious  and  untamable  character  of  the  wolf  renders 
him  a  fitting  object  of  comparison,  of  which  the  Scripture 
writers  have  not  unfrequently  availed  themselves;*  and  the 
contrast  between  the  wolf  and  the  lamb  is  used  graphically  to 
express  the  difference  between  the  character  of  the  wicked  and 
that  of  the  righteous,  as  well  as  to  portray  the  genuine  effects 
of  the  doctrine  of  Christ.f  The  well-known  fable  of  the  wolf 
that  charged  the  lamb  with  troubling  the  water,  though  stand- 
ing lower  down  the  stream,  and  found  in  this  a  reason  for 
devouring  it,  appears  to  have  an  Oriental  origin.  It  is  well 
known,  and  often  repeated  among  the  people  of  South-western 
Asia. 

The  dog  has  already  been  spoken  of  in  connection  with  the 
flocks  of  goats  and  sheep,  which  he  is  employed  to  protect 
against  their  numerous  enemies.  We  have  also  described  the 
light  and  beautiful  greyhound,  so  frequently  seen  among  the 
nomads,  and  kept  by  wealthy  proprietors  for  hunting  hares 
and  gazelles,  as  the  hawk  is  for  other  game.  These  two  spe- 
cies of  canines,  however,  comprise  but  a  very  small  portion  of 
the  dogs  of  South-western  Asia.  It  is  a  fact,  both  singular  in 
itself,  and  illustrative  of  the  limits  of  the  influence  exerted 
by  those  who  have  ruled  the  human  mind  with  most  despotic 
sway,  that  although  Mohammed  once  doomed  the  entire  canine 
race  to  destruction,  and  subsequently  made  an  exception  in  fa- 
vor of  hunting-dogs  alone,  yet  there  is  no  portion  of  the  world 
in  which  dogs  are  more  numerous,  or  are  treated,  on  the  whole, 
with  more  "personal  consideration,"  than  where  the  Muslim 
religion  prevails. 

The  common  dog  of  Turkey  is  of  every  imaginable  size, 
color,  form,  and  breed,  including  the  rejected  shepherd-dog  and 
homeless  greyhound,  as  well  as  a  race  of  curs  which  seem  to  be 
but  half-domesticated  wolves  and  jackals.     They  have  taken 


*  Gen.  xlix.,  27;  Ezek.  xxii.,  27;  Matt,  vii.,  15  ;  Acts  xx.,  29. 
t  Luke  X.,  3  ;  Isa.  xi.,  6. 


276  BIBLE   LANDS. 

possession  of  the  entire  country  to  devour  its  offal,  and  con- 
sume the  carcass  of  every  dead  creature ;  and  though  their 
operations  are  limited  to  the  city,  village,  or  hamlet,  not  omit- 
ting the  solitary  farm-house  and  flour-mill,  yet  so  keen  is  their 
scent,  that  not  a  mule,  horse,  or  camel  can  perish  upon  the 
highway,  except  in  uninhabited  districts,  without  at  least  half 
a  dozen  of  these  hungry  customers  immediately  appearing  on 
the  ground,  ready  to  commence  operations.^  They  reconcile 
the  population  to  their  homely  and  often  annoying  presence 
by  saving  them  the  trouble  of  removing  their  refuse  and  gar- 
bage beyond  the  street  door,  and  by  practicing  a  system  of  po- 
lice which  gives  public  notice  of  the  movements  of  every  stran- 
ger. Every  street  and  neighborhood  seems  to  be  apportioned 
by  common  consent  to  a  particular  pack  of  curs,  which  enjoys, 
as  a  perquisite,  all  its  refuse  matter,  and  is  expected  to  perform 
the  duty  of  defending  its  inhabitants  against  "all  comers," 
both  by  barking  and  biting.  Within  their  own  domain  they 
feel  perfectly  at  home,  entering  the  houses  and  courts,  or  lying 
down  in  the  middle  of  the  street  with  the  expectation  that 
every  passer-by  will  turn  out  for  them.  But  as  soon  as  they 
go  beyond  their  limits,  they  become  guilty  of  trespass,  and  are 
set  upon  by  all  the  dogs  of  the  adjoining  district.  Should  a 
strange  dog,  however,  pass  through  the  streets,  all  such  limits 
are  forgotten  in  a  general  attack  of  the  entire  canine  popula- 
tion upon  the  daring  intruder.  At  night  their  barking  is  un- 
ceasing, and  they  respond  to  each  other's  cry  as  if  to  show  that 
they  are  on  the  alert.f  Should  a  belated  traveler  enter  the 
town,  his  progress  through  the  streets  can  be  certainly  known 
by  the  furious  barking  that  salutes  him  as  he  proceeds. 

In  all  the  smaller  towns  and  villages,  where  there  is  no  po- 
lice, a  beast  of  burden  dying  in  the  street  is  left  to  be  devoured 
by  the  dogs,  which  is  very  shortly  accomplished ;  elsewhere  it 
is  simply  dragged  to  the  nearest  dunghill.  Sheep  and  goats 
are  often  slaughtered  in  the  street,  and  the  blood  is  licked  up 
by  the  dogs.:}:  Drunken  strangers,  reeling  homeward  late  in 
the  night,  have  been  overpowered  by  them,  and  devoured  be- 
fore morning;!  and  when  the  town  has  been  invaded  by  an 


*  Jer.  XV.,  3.  t  Psa.  lix.,  6. 

t  1  Kings  xxi.,  19  ;  xxii.,  38  ;  Psa.  Ixviii.,  23.  §  2  Kings  ix.,  35,  3G. 


i 


THE   SCAVENGERS. 


277 


enemy,  these  same  hungry  brutes  first  feed  upon  the  dead 
bodies  in  the  street,  and  then  enter  the  very  houses  to  search 
for  more.'^ 

The  people  regard  the  common  street  dog  both  as  a  nuisance 
and  a  necessity.  They  at  times  curse  him,  throw  stones  at  him, 
and  attack  him  with  a  stick  ;f  and  one  can  see  lying  about  a 
butcher's  stall  curs  of  every  size  that  have  been  cruelly  wound- 
ed or  maimed  by  his  axe  or  knife,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
this  very  butcher  finds  it  convenient  to  cast  out  to  them  all 
the  refuse  of  his  shop.  The  housewife,  standing  at  her  door, 
calls  them  to  consume  the  remains  of  the  family  meal  which 
she  scrapes  out  of  her  copper  saucepan.  She  even  encourages 
a  particular  favorite  to  lie  down  beside  the  door,  or  in  a  corner 
of  her  yard.  "Wealthy  Muslims  often  leave,  at  their  death, 
large  sums  of  money  to  be  used  in  the  daily  distribution  of 
food  to  the  dogs,  and  these  may  be  seen  flocking  in  large  num- 
bers from  considerable  distances  at  the  appointed  hour.  Such 
a  legacy  is  doubtless  expected  to  be  put  down  at  the  judgment 
on  the  credit  side  of  the  miscreant's  account,  who  gives  to  the 
dogs  what  he  robbed  from  the  poor.  The  Muslims  make  it,  in 
some  sort,  criminal  to  kill  a  dog,  though  superannuated  or  dis- 
eased, or  to  destroy  a  litter  of  pups  that  have  accidentally  lost 
their  mother;  so  they  are  left  to  die  a  lingering  death  by  hun- 
ger. Some  years  ago,  the  dogs  of  Tophaneh,  at  Constantinople, 
had  become  so  numerous  as  to  be  declared  by  all  an  intolera- 
ble nuisance.  Poison  and  other  remedies  were  proposed,  but 
the  Ulemas  pronounced  them  unlawful.  Finally,  in  accordance 
with  their  advice,  a  vessel  of  considerable  size  was  chartered, 
and  hundreds  of  dogs  were  enticed  on  board.  It  sailed  to  one 
of  the  rocky,  desert  islands  of  the  Marmora,  where  the  unsus- 
pecting canines  were  landed ;  a  feast  was  spread  before  them, 
and  the  ship  departed,  leaving  them  to  their  fate.  It  was 
deemed  no  impropriety  thus  to  abandon  the  poor  brutes  to 
perish  by  hunger,  or  fall  to  devouring  one  another. 

The  foregoing  statements  explain  the  apparent  discrepancy 
which  readers  of  the  Scriptures  can  not  fail  to  have  noticed 
between  the  toleration  and  employment  of  this  animal  by  the 
Hebrews,  and  the  terms  of  contempt  in  which  they  often  speak 


1  Kings  xiv.,  11. 


t  1  Sam.  xvii.,43. 


278  BIBLE    LANDS. 

of  him.  They  used  him  as  a  watch,  and  to  guard  their  flocks,* 
and  at  the  same  time  the  term  "dog"  was  as  much  an  expres- 
sion of  contempt  as  it  now  is  throughout  Western  Asia.f  The 
true  explanation  for  what  appears  to  Occidentals  a  very  unac- 
countable ill-treatment,  as  well  as  an  excessive  toleration  of  this 
useful  animal,  is  to  be  found  in  the  universally  prevalent  idea 
of  uncleanness  produced  by  his  touch.  Even  the  sportsman 
and  the  shepherd,  who  would  not  part  with  his  dog  on  any 
consideration,  never  pets  him,  but  keeps  him  at  a  distance ;  and 
this  feeling  prevails,  not  among  the  devout  or  superstitious 
alone,  but  with  free-thinkers  and  the  irreligious  as  well.:}:  It 
may  perhaps  be  partly  accounted  for  by  his  scavenger  propen- 
sities and  habits ;  but  he  is  also  regarded  as  the  type  of  lewd- 
ness, which  in  the  Armenian  tongue  is  called  shnootune,  from 
shoon,  a  dog.§ 

The  jackal  and  the  fox  were  called  in  Hebrew  by  one  and 
the  same  name,  "shual,''  which  denotes  a  burrowing  animal.| 
This  is  not  strange,  for  the  Scriptures  do  not  contain  a  system 
of  natural  history ;  they  simply  call  things  by  the  names  used 
among  the  people  whom  they  address,  in  order  to  instruct  them 
upon  matters  of  much  greater  importance.  We  have  already 
pointed  out  the  fact  that  the  term  leviathan  is  used  in  a  gener- 
ic sense,  to  denote  several  creatures  which  have  very  little  in 
common.  The  jackal  and  the  fox,  however,  in  many  respects 
resemble  each  other,  so  that  they  are  easily  mistaken  the  one 
for  the  other  by  an  unpracticed  eye.  They  both  burrow  in 
the  ground,  and  their  holes  can  not  be  told  apart.  They  also 
alike  frequent  old  ruins.  We  have  started  up  the  jackal 
amidst  the  fallen  temples  of  Baalbec  and  other  remains  of  an- 
tiquity, and  have  repeatedly  spied  the  fox  running  along  the 
top  of  an  old  wall.^  They  are  the  same  reddish-fawn  color, 
and  do  not  differ  in  size,  but  the  jackal  has  much  longer  legs, 
so  that  he  stands  higher,  while  his  tail  is  but  half  the  size  of 
the  fox's  brush  ;  he  has,  moreover,  nothing  of  Rej'nard's  sleek 
and  sly  appearance.  The  fur  of  the  latter  is  an  important  arti- 
cle of  commerce,  being  used  in  all  parts  of  the  country  for  lin- 
ing winter  garments,  while  the  skin  of  the  jackal  is  worthless. 

*  Isa.  Ivi.,  10;  Job  xxx.,  1.  t  1  Sam.  xxiv.,  14;  2  Kings  viii.,  13. 

X  Lane,  i.,  p.  120.  §  Deut.  xxiii.,  18;  Rev.  xxii.,  15. 

II  Mutt,  viii.,  20.  t  Neh.  iv.,  3;  Lam.  v.,  18. 


THE   SCAVENGERS. 


279 


Again,  the  jackal  is  gregarious,  while  the  fox  is  solitary.  The 
former  seems  to  be  confined  to  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  for  he 
exists  along  the  whole  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  from  Batoora  round 
to  Alexandretta,  and  down  the  coast  of  Palestine  to  Egypt; 
but  we  have  never  met  him  more  than  fifty  miles  from  the 
shore;  this  does  not,  hov/ever,  apply  to  Mesopotamia,  for  he  is 
found  in  considerable  numbers  near  Mossul.  Reynard  also 
abounds  in  the  same  localities,  but  completely  displaces  the 
jackal  farther  inland,  where  he  greatly  abounds. 


Jackal.  Syrian  Fox. 

The  jackal  is  a  dirty  animal,  which  prefers  carrion  to  any 
other  food,  and  often  displays  great  cunning  in  securing  it. 
Between  him  and  the  dogs  there  is  a  standing  feud;  they  are 
too  strong  for  him,  and  to  cope  with  them  he  is  obliged  to  out- 
wit them.  Soon  after  sunset  he  creeps  out  of  his  hole,  and 
utters  a  few  plaintive  yelps,  which  are  answered  by  a  similar 
cry,  and  then  by  another,  in  rapidly  increasing  succession,  un- 
til they  swell  to  one  grand  chorus  of  doleful  sounds.  These 
cries  are  signals  which  bring  them  together  at  some  convenient 
spot,  where  a  consultation  seems  to  be  held  respecting  the  plan 
of  operations  for  the  night.  The  dogs,  meantime,  have  rushed 
in  the  direction  of  the  jackals'  cry,  and  have  set  up  a  loud 
barking  in  opposition,  thus  distinctly  revealing  their  where- 
abouts. They  are  kept  on  the  alert,  and  at  a  distance  from 
the  carrion,  by  the  jackals  setting  up  from  time  to  time  their 
chorus;  these  all  the  while,  each  in  his  turn,  silently  and  slyly 
slip  away,  to  take  a  share  of  the  coveted  feast.  They  play 
the  same  game  in  order  to  get  at  the  grapes,  of  which  they  are 
excessively  fond;  and  vineyards  which  are  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  a  village  require  a  constant  watch  and  guard 


280  BIBLE   LANDS. 

during  the  fruit  season,  or  they  are  completely  devoured  by 
the  jackals.* 

This  animal  is  rarely  shot  by  the  hunter,  but  he  is  sometimes 
caught  in  traps,f  and  is  considered  untamable.  The  Scriptural 
account  of  the  expedient,  by  means  of  which  Samson  inflicted 
such  severe  injury  upon  the  Philistines,  is  generally  supposed 
to  contain  difficulties  which  do  not  seem  to  us  to  exist  in  point 
of  fact.  We  should  bear  in  mind  that  Samson  was  the  chief 
magistrate  of  the  Israelites,  so  that  there  could  be  no  difficulty 
in  the  way  of  his  collecting  a  very  large  number  of  these  ani- 
mals, even  within  a  very  short  time,  if  necessary ;  but  we  need 
not  suppose  that  the  jackals  were  all  let  loose  at  once  in  the 
fields  of  the  Philistines,  nor  in  the  same  part  of  their  territory. 
It  was  probably  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  Samson  and  his  co- 
adjutors to  cause  their  enemies  to  suffer  the  horrors  of  famine 
rather  than  a  petty  revenge,  which  would  affect  only  a  limited 
number.  So  great  an  injury  could  not  have  been  inflicted  on 
their  enemies  had  the  Israelites  fired  their  crops  with  their  own 
hands,  for  the  latter  were  confined  to  the  hill  country  by  their 
more  powerful  enemies;  and  even  had  they  partially  succeed- 
ed, the  damage  done  would  have  been  limited  in  extent.  The 
plan  of  tying  the  tails  of  two  jackals  together  was  certainly  a 
most  effectual  means  of  attaining  the  object,  as  any  one  will 
testify  who  has  ever  seen  the  experiment  tried.  A  single  ani- 
mal carrying  a  fire-brand  would  soon  extinguish  it,  while  two 
would  not  only  be  impeded  in  their  progress,  but  would  find 
no  hole  sufficiently  large  to  admit  them  both  at  once ;  and  so 
would  continue  rushing  wildly  through  the  land,  setting  fire  to 
the  sheaves  of  wheat  and  also  to  that  still  standing,  together 
with  the  vineyards  and  the  olives;  the  Philistines,  moreover, 
would  find  it  impossible  to  seize  the  authors  of  the  terrible 
mischief  These  fire-brands  were  doubtless  pieces  of  the  pitch- 
pine  of  the  country,  which,  once  lighted,  are  put  out  with 
difficulty. 

Some  have  claimed  that  jackals  did  not  exist  in  Bible  times, 
and  are  not  referred  to  in  the  Scriptures;  they  suppose  that 
these  animals  came  from  India,  and  appeared  in  "Western  Asia 
after  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era.     Such  a  state- 

*  Cant,  ii.,  15.  +  Judg.  xv.,  4. 


THE   SCAVENGERS.  281 

ment,  however,  is  not  only  extremely  improbable,  and  without 
a  parallel  in  natural  history,  but  is  quite  incorrect,  at  least  as 
fiir  as  regards  the  Old  Testament;  for  the  word  ayim  (howl- 
ers), improperly  rendered  "  wild  beasts  of  the  islands"  in  Isa. 
xiii.,  22,  and  Jer.  1.,  39,  is  supposed  to  refer  distinctly  to 
troops  of  jackals;  while  skual  and  shualini  are  employed  indis- 
criminately to  indicate  either  jackals  or  foxes.  Aij  or  aoo  is 
an  exact  imitation  of  the  cry  of  the  former. 

The  number  of  these  animals  depends  upon  the  amount  of 
food  afforded  by  the  district  they  frequent;  so  that  the  Pales- 
tine of  to-day  does  not  probably  contain  as  many  of  them  as 
did  the  Palestine  of  the  Hebrew  judges.  We  have  ourselves, 
in  Syria,  listened  to  the  startling  midnight  chorus  of  bands 
of  jackals,  whose  numbers  could  not  have  fallen  far  short  of 
Samson's  instruments  of  revenge.  As  they  are  most  fond  of 
carrion,  however,  they  greatly  increase  in  times  of  war.  Thus 
David,  speaking  of  his  unrighteous  enemies,  says :  "  They  shall 
fall  by  the  sword ;  they  shall  be  a  portion  for  foxes  " — read 
jackals;  for  the  latter  come  in  troops  to  devour  the  dead, 
while  the  solitary  fox  prefers  to  kill  his  own  prey.* 

Jackals  are,  we  believe,  more  numerous  in  their  own  district 
than  are  foxes  where  iliey  most  abound  ;  yet  of  the  numbers 
of  the  latter  some  estimate  may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that, 
in  the  outskirts  of  a  single  town  in  Asia  Minor,  no  less  than 
three  hundred  foxes  were  shot  during  a  single  fortnight,  when 
a  slight  fall  of  snow  covered  the  ground,  and  enabled  the 
sportsmen  to  distinguish  them  in  the  darkness  of  the  night. 

The  fox  is  also  distinctly  alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures,  and 
our  Saviour  evidently  compares  Herod  to  this  animal.f  He 
is  still  considered  to  be  the  type  of  cunning;  and  the  Eastern 
proverbs  and  fables  which  have  Master  Eeynard  for  their 
theme  represent  him  as  characterized  by  the  same  traits  as  do 
those  of  Western  lands. 

Fable  itself,  so  far  as  it  endows  the  brute  creation  with  the 
power  of  speech,  appears  to  have  been  originally  an  Oriental 
conceit,  arising  from  an  idea,  still  prevalent  among  all  classes, 
that  both  animals  and  birds  are  able  to  communicate  their 
ideas  as  intelligibly  as  man.     This  is  seen  in  the  stories  similar 

*  Psa.  Ixiii.,  10.  t  Luke  xiii.,  32. 


282  BIBLE   LANDS. 

to  the  "Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments,"  which  the  people  are 
accustomed  to  recount,  bearing  many  of  them  the  impress  of  a 
high  antiquity,  and  is  also  noticeable  in  the  expressions  they 
habitually  employ  respecting  the  brutes.  But  the  tales  told 
of  the  fox  among  the  people  of  the  East  differ  from  those  cur- 
rent in  Western  lands  in  this  respect,  namely,  that  the  former 
invariably  represent  him  as  finally  outwitted  in  spite  of  all  his 
wiles,  while  the  latter  ever  bring  him  out  successful.  There 
are,  for  instance,  many  stories  of  the  fox  and  the  magpie,  in 
which  the  latter  is  sure  to  get  the  best  of  it.  The  European 
fable  of  the  race  between  the  hare  and  the  tortoise  is  with  Ori- 
entals a  race  between  the  fox  and  the  crab,  in  which  the  latter 
held  on  to  Eeynard's  tail,  and  cried  out  "  tally"  as  soon  as  they 
arrived  at  the  goal,  thus  winning  the  race  by  ten  seconds;  the 
decision  pending  on  the  result  of  this  trial  of  speed,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  sly  proposition  of  Reynard  himself,  was  as  to 
which  of  them  should  have  the  wheat  and  which  the  chaff  of 
the  crop  they  had  raised  in  partnership. 

The  red-legged  partridge  is  considered  a  very  silly  bird,  and 
very  proud  of  her  song.  The  following  may  be  taken  as  a  spec- 
imen of  the  stories  told  at  the  expense  of  Master  Reynard  by 
the  Oriental  farmers,  upon  whom  he  retaliates  by  stealing  their 
chickens:  A  partridge  sat  singing  on  the  top  of  a  rock,  when 
a  fox,  slyly  creeping  up,  feigned  to  be  greatly  charmed  with 
her  song.  When  within  a  few  feet  of  her,  he  exclaimed,  "I 
don't  believe  you  could  sing  so  delightfully  with  your  eyes 
shut."  "  Oh  !  yes,  I  could,"  answered  the  silly  bird  ;  and,  clos- 
ing her  eyes,  she  was  the  next  moment  in  the  fox's  mouth. 
"Well,  you've  got  me  now!"  she  exclaimed;  "but  you  must 
acknowledge  you  do  not  often  feed  on  so  dainty  a  morsel; 
you  should  at  least  give  thanks  to  God  for  it."  The  fox  just 
opened  his  mouth  to  say,  "  Praise  be  to  God,"  when  the  par- 
tridge, uttering  her  well-known  chuckle,  flew  away. 

The  mouse  designates  a  number  of  small  animals  which  do 
not  seem  to  have  been  distinguished  by  specific  names  among 
the  Hebrews,  for  their  word  ^Uikh-har^^  signifies  corn-devourer^ 
and  is  applicable  to  a  variety  of  rodents  inhabiting  both  the 
house  and  the  field.  Wq  shall  notice  several  of  these  animals, 
without  confining  ourselves  to  those  which  may  be  strictly 
considered  as  coming  under   the  designation  of  scavengers. 


THE  SCAVENGERS. 


283 


This  seetns  essential  to  the  completeness  of  our  picture  of  Bi- 
ble lands. 

No  one  can  have  dwelt  long  in  Western  Asia  without  re- 
marking the  important  place  occupied  by  the  house-rats  in  the 
economy  of  nature.  They  are  silent  during  the  day,  and  seem 
to  lie  asleep  in  their  holes;  but  no  sooner  has  the  sun  gone 
down  than  they  come  out  in  search  of  food.  The  dog  carries 
off  the  more  bulky  and  coarse  refuse  of  the  town,  but  the  rats 
eat  every  thing.  They  grow  to  such  a  size,  and  move  about 
in  such  large  numbers,  that  cats  uniformly  avoid  them.  Not 
content  with  the  depredations  they  commit  in  the  cellar,  base- 
ment, and  yard,  they  go  higher,  and,  piercing  every  floor,  ran- 
sack the  house  from  garret  to  cellar ;  they  invade  cupboards 
and  closets,  devour  or  carry  off  whatever  is  left  exposed,  and 
sometimes  attack  the  fingers,  toes,  and  faces  of  little  children 
in  their  beds.  In  districts  where  the  houses  are  built  of  wood, 
time  alone  can  accustom  the  inhabitants  to  endure  the  noise 
they  make  at  night  gnawing  holes  through  the  floors,  running 
up  and  down  in  the  partition- walls,  or  ranging  over  the  gar- 
ret; and  when  the  building  is  large  and  old  the  roof  becomes 
haunted  by  weasels,  which  pursue  the  rats  all  night  long,  add- 
ing to  the  racket  the  piercing  squeals  of  the  combatants,  to  the 
no  small  discomfort  of  any  unaccustomed  guest.  Every  house- 
wife has  her  own  story  to  tell  of  the  depredations  and  feats  of 
these  voracious  and  impudent  scavengers;  and  we  have  often 
been  amazed,  not  only  at  their  incessant  activity  and  voracity, 
but  still  more  at  the  wonderful  ingenuity  they  display  in  ac- 
complishing their  object.  We  have  known  them,  for  instance, 
to  carry  off  unbroken  several  eggs  from  the  top  of  a  shelf  up 
a  high,  straight  wall  to  a  hole  in  the  ceiling  above.  This  was 
accomplished  by  one  of  them  lying  down  on  his  back,  and 
clasping  the  eggs,  each  in  turn,  with  his  four  feet,  when  the 
other  rats,  seizing  him  by  the  tail,  hauled  him  up  the  wall  and 
through  the  hole.  This  is  the  animal  called  by  naturalists 
the  broivn  rat,  which  multiplies  with  such  amazing  rapidity 
that,  were  it  not  for  its  numerous  foes,  a  single  pair  would 
increase  to  nearly  a  thousand  individuals  in  one  year.  This 
animal  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  Persia,  and  to  have 
spread  throughout  Western  Asia,  from  whose  shores  it  swam 
to   the   shipping   bound  to   foreign  parts,  and  thus  invaded 


284  BIBLE    LANDS. 

Europe,  making  its  appearance  in  Paris  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  as  long  as  the  bulk  of  man- 
kind were  massed  in  the  oldest  provinces  of  Asia  this  animal 
was  confined  to  that  continent;  but  when  devastating  wars  had 
diminished  the  number  of  its  inhabitants,  and  Europe  became 
the  favorite  abode  of  men,  the  rat  emigrated  westward,  and 
made  the  capitals  of  civilization  the  centre  of  its  operations. 
There  seems  also  to  have  been  a  similar  emigration  eastward 
into  the  crowded  provinces  of  China. 

The  mouse  is  also  extremely  common  iu  Western  Asia,  and 
the  Mosaic  prohibition  of  its  flesh  continues  to  be  generally  ob- 
served.* We  should  not,  however,  wonder  at  the  necessity  of 
such  a  prohibition,  nor  be  surprised  at  the  statement  contained 
in  Isa.  Ixvi.,  17.  We  have  reason  to  believe  that  those  who 
have  tasted  the  flesh  of  the  mouse  acquire  as  great  a  relish  for 
it,  as  the  Frenchman  does  for  his  frog  diet,  or  the  German  for 
sauerkraut.  We  once  had  a  servant  from  one  of  the  Greek 
islands  who  was  addicted  to  this  habit,  and  could  be  induced 
to  relinquish  it  neither  by  expostulation  nor  by  ridicule.  The 
only  class  in  Turkey  now  who  habitually  eat  the  mouse  are 
the  gypsies,  and  they  make  no  secret  of  it. 

The  only  kind  of  squirrel  known  in  this  country  is  about 
the  size  of  a  common  rat,  and  of  a  reddish-fawn  color,  with  a 
line  of  brown  commencing  between  the  ears  and  running  down 
the  back.  They  are  usually  found  upon  walnut-trees  or  in 
their  vicinity,  and  are  not  generally  eaten.  The  jerboa  is  a 
miniature  kangaroo,  or  a  squirrel  upon  stilts.  It  is  a  beautiful 
little  creature,  closely  resembling  the  common  squirrel  of  the 
country,  but  has  very  long  hind -legs,  that  enable  it  to  take 
great  leaps,  with  the  aid  of  its  long  and  powerful  tail,  which  is 
covered  with  short  hair,  and  terminates  in  a  dehcate  fan-like 
tuft.  Its  ears  are  very  long  and  diaphanous,  and  its  eyes  large. 
It  is  extremely  timid,  and  leaps  away  at  the  slightest  appear- 
ance of  danger.  This  curious  and  interesting  little  animal  ex- 
ists in  Palestine,  Syria,  Asia  Elinor,  and  Northern  Africa.  It 
appears  to  be  nowhere  found  in  large  numbers,  and  is  eaten 
by  the  Arabs  of  the  desert. 

*  Lev.  xi.,  29. 


THE   SCAVENGERS. 


285 


The  short-tailed  field-mouse,  as  he  is  called  by  naturalists, 
abounds  throughout  Western  Asia,  and  must  be  endowed  with 
great  powers  of  increase,  for  he  has  many  enemies.  The  owl 
is  after  him  by  night,  and  by  day  the  hawk,  with  other  birds 
of  prey,  flutters  in  the  sky,  and  comes  down  with  a  swoop,  and 
carries  him  off  to  his  nest,  while  the  indefatigable  little  ferret 
creeps  into  his  hole,  successfully  encountering  him,  and  de- 
stroying his  little  ones;  yet  he  seems  in  nowise  diminished. 
You  see  him  in  all  the  arable  lands,  running  across  the  fields, 
industriously  carrying  oif  the  grain  to  stow  it  away  for  winter, 
chirping  gayly  from  time  to  time,  sitting  up  on  his  haunches 
to  get  a  good  sight  of  you  as  you  approach,  and  then  suddenly 
diving  into  his  hole.  This  animal  is  apt  so  greatly  to  multi- 
ply as  at  times  to  cause  a  sensible  diminution  of  the  crops,  and 
its  ravages  are  more  generally  dreaded  than  those  of  the  mole. 
A  perfectly  trustworthy  friend  has  informed  us  that  in  1863, 
being  on  the  farm  {chijiik)  of  an  acquaintance  in  Western  Asia 
Minor,  he  saw  about  noon  the  depredations  committed  by  an 
immense  number  of  these  mice,  which  passed  over  the  ground 
19 


286 


BIBLE    LANDS, 


like  an  army  of  young  locusts.  Fields  of  standing  corn  and 
barley  disappeared  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time;  and 
as  for  vines  and  mulberry-trees,  they  were  gnawed  at  the  roots 
and  speedily  prostrated.  The  annual  produce  of  a  farm  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  acres,  which  promised  to  be  unusually  large, 
was  thus  utterly  consumed ;  and  the  neighboring  farms  suffer- 
ed equally.  Such,  in  all  probability,  were  the  mice  that  mar- 
red the  land  of  the  Philistines.*  They  had  tried  every  means 
to  check  their  devastations,  but  in  vain.  They  concluded  that 
*'the  hand  of  the  God  of  Israel  was  against  them,"  because  of 
"  the  ark  "  which  they  had  taken ;  and  in  accordance  with  a 
custom  prevalent  among  idolaters,  and  inherited  from  them  by 
the  papists,  they  sought  to  appease  him  with  a  trespass-offering 
of  five  golden  images  of  the  instruments  of  their  scourge,  one 
for  each  of  the  lords,  or  sheikhs,  of  the  states  which  constituted 
their  commonwealth. f 


It  is  either  the  field-mouse  or  the  Persian  rat  which  commit- 
ted such  ravages  in  Palestine  about  the  year  1132  as  are  de- 
scribed by  the  historians  of  the  Crusades.  They  are  said  to 
have  been  so  ravenous  "  as  to  climb  on  the  backs  of  the  cattle 
and  begin  to  eat  their  flesh  !":}: 


*  1  Sam.  vi 
J  Midland, 


Ilistoire  des  Croisades,"  vol.  i.,  p.  337 


+  1  8iim.  vi.,  4. 
note. 


BIEDS   OF    PASSAGE.  287 


CHAPTER  XL 

BIRDS    OF    PASSAGE. 

We  have  often  been  struck  with  the  great  numbers  of  birds, 
particularly  of  the  smaller  species,  which  inhabit  Western  Asia, 
as  compared  with  Europe  and  North  America.  We  have  so 
often  made  this  observation  upon  the  three  continents,  that  it 
seems  to  be  a  fact  settled  beyond  a  doubt.  The  most  natural 
explanation  of  this  circumstance  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  feath- 
ered tribe,  even  those  of  feeblest  wing,  have  an  easy  road  from 
Palestine,  Syria,  and  Mesopotamia,  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and 
over  the  narrow  Red  Sea,  to  their  winter-quarters  in  tropical 
Africa,  while  nature  has  provided  them  with  extraordinary 
means  of  conveyance  from  Asia  Minor  southward  across  the 
Mediterranean,  which  will  presently  be  described. 

But  there  are  many  birds,  even  of  small  size,  whose  strong 
wing  enables  them  to  disregard  distance  and  other  impedi- 
ments in  the  way,  and  this  is  pre-eminently  true  of  the  swal- 
low, which  abounds  in  all  parts  of  Western  Asia.  There  are 
several  species  of  this  bird,  some  of  which  inhabit  the  crags 
and  caves  of  the  mountains,  while  others  frequent  the  banks  of 
streams;  but  we  shall  notice  here  only  the  common  swallow, 
which  chiefly  haunts  the  abodes  of  men.  These  birds  are  free- 
ly admitted  everywhere,  and  not  only  make  their  nests  against 
the  ceilings  of  balconies,  halls,  and  private  apartments,  but  find 
their  way  into  the  grated  windows  of  the  Christian  churches 
and  mosks,  and  rear  their  young  unmolested  in  tombs  and 
houses  of  prayer.*  In  this  passage,  the  words  "  hath  found 
a  nest "  refer  to  the  fact  that  the  swallow  uses  the  same  nest 
year  after  year,  only  repairing  it;  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that 
both  the  swallow  and  the  sparrow  may  still  be  seen  flutter- 
ing and  rearing  their  broods  about  the  so-called  Mosk  of 
Omar  in  Jerusalem,  as  well  as  the  buildings  which  occupy  the 

*  Psa.  Ixxxiv.,  3. 


288 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


site  of  Solomon's  Temple.  In  all  these  haunts  the  cheerful 
twittering  of  the  swallows  may  be  heard,  as  they  occasionally 
stop  to  rest  in  the  midst  of  their  family  cares.  There  is  also  a 
plaintiveness  in  their  chattering  (referred  to  in  Isa.  xxxviii., 
1-1)  like  the  sobbing  of  a  little  child.  They  are  bus}'-  all  sum- 
tnei-  long  rearing  their  two  successive  broods,  flitting  and  dart- 
ing in  all  directions,  collecting  materials  for  their  nests,  or  food 
for  their  progeny. 

Whither  do  they  go  when  they  disappear  in  the  autumn? 
One  species  lies  dormant  in  crags  and  holes  during  the  winter; 
but  nearly  all,  and  particularly  the  kind  just  described,  are  well 
known  to  fly  away  to  milder  climes.  They  return  every  spring 
with  unerring  instinct  to  the  same  nest,  as  we  have  ourselves 
proved  by  tying  a  scarlet  thread  to  the  leg  of  one  of  them.* 
We  were  once  becalmed  in  the  spring  season  on  board  a  sail- 
ing ship  between  the  island  of  Malta  and  the  African  coast. 
Great  numbers  of  swallows  alighted  on  the  vessel,  arriving 


*  Jcr.  viii.,  7. 


BIRDS   OF   PASSAGE.  289 

from  the  south,  and  when  they  left  us,  flew  to  the  north.  They 
seemed  glad  of  rest,  and  some  of  them  fluttered  about  the  deck 
in  the  most  familiar  manner,  even  entering  the  cabin,  probably 
in  quest  of  flies  to  appease  their  hunger.  Some  hawks  and 
wild  pigeons  also  alighted  in  the  rigging,  all  bound  in  the  same 
direction.  We  easily  caught  several  of  these  weary  swallows, 
and  gave  them  their  liberty  again.  A  lad  of  our  company  was 
standing  at  the  stern  of  the  ship  with  a  swallow  upon  his  finger, 
when  a  hawk  darted  down,  swift  as  a  shot,  from  the  mast-head, 
caught  the  bird  off  from  his  hand,  and,  flying  back  to  the  rig- 
ging, began  to  devour  it.  We  boys  on  board  (for  I  was  then 
but  a  lad)  appealed  to  the  sailors  against  this  wanton  cruelty, 
as  we  regarded  it,  and  one  kind-hearted  tar  sprang  into  the  rig- 
ging, crept  cautiously  toward  the  weary  bird,  and  caught  him 
with  his  hand ;  the  swallow's  severed  head  was  in  his  mouth, 
and  the  body  in  his  talons.  A  fellow-sailor  meanwhile  had  in 
like  manner  seized  another  hawk;  and  then,  to  gratify  our 
boyish  sense  of  justice,  they  fastened  the  foot  of  one  hawk  to 
that  of  the  other  with  a  string  only  a  few  inches  in  length,  and 
tossed  them  into  the  air.  Though  in  so  awkward  a  plight,  each 
alternately  rising  or  falling,  yet  they  flew  with  amazing  rapidi- 
ty toward  Africa,  probably  on  account  of  its  being  either  the 
nearest  or  the  most  familiar  shore,  and  were  soon  quite  lost  to 
sight. 

Both  the  sparrow-hawk  and  several  species  of  wild  pigeon 
have  migratory  habits,  and  we  can  easily  conceive  that  they 
can  cross  over  from  Egypt  into  Asia  Minor.  The  incident  re- 
lated above  proves  that  the  swallow  in  like  manner,  and  many 
other  birds  of  similar  powers  of  flight,  need  not  follow  the  cir- 
cuit of  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  are  able  to 
cross  over  its  entire  breadth,  especially  by  taking  advantage  of 
a  favorable  wind.  But  many  birds  are  quite  incapable  of  fly- 
ing over  a  surface  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  head- 
land to  headland  across  the  Mediterranean,  without  alighting, 
and  would  require  many  days,  and  even  weeks,  to  perform  the 
trip  through  Syria  and  Palestine.  Such  are,  for  instance,  the 
ortolans,  the  darnagas,  the  bee-figs  of  various  species,  the  wren, 
the  titmouse,  the  smaller  thrushes  and  finches,  with  a  hundred 
other  diminutive  specimens  of  the  feathered  tribes.  These, 
after  breeding  in  the  spring  and  early  summer,  feed  in  the 


290 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


vineyards  and  olive -yards,  crowd  about  the  terebinth -trees, 
and  pick  up  all  kinds  of  seeds  and  insects  in  the  fields;  and  as 
the  severity  of  the  winter  would  be  fatal  to  them,  not  only  in 
Asia  Minor,  but  even  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  He  who  is  ever 
mindful  of  the  smallest  of  his  creatures  has  provided  them 
with  means  of  transportation  to  a  more  genial  clime.  Many 
of  them,  indeed,  find  their  way  downward  from  Palestine  into 
Arabia  and  Egypt,  but  this  would  be  difl&cult,  if  not  impossi- 
ble, where  lofty  mountains  and  broad  seas  intervene;  and  to 
meet  such  cases  the  crane  has  been  provided.  This  is  a  large 
bird  with  long  neck  and  legs,  whose  body  is  of  a  bluish  slate 
color,  while  the  wings  are  black.  It  is  gregarious,  keeping  to- 
gether in  companies  of  twenty  to  one  hundred  in  number;  it 
feeds  in  swampy  grounds,  away  from  human  habitations,  and 
is  very  shy  and  wary.  A  few  of  these  birds  remain  the  year 
round  in  the  same  locality,  choosing  an  extensive  marsh,  whose 
position  enables  them  to  perceive  the  approach  of  an  enemy. 
Most  of  them,  however,  are  migratory.  In  the  autumn,  nu- 
merous flocks  may  be  seen  coming  from  the  north  with  the 
first  cold  blasts  from  that  quarter,  flying  low,  and  uttering  a 
peculiar  cry  as  if  of  alarm,  as  they  circle  over  the  cultivated 
plains.     Little  birds  of  every  species  may  then  be  seen  flying 

up  to  them,  while  the 
twittering  songs  of 
those  already  comfort- 
ably settled  upon  their 
backs  may  be  distinct- 
ly heard.  On  their  re- 
turn in  the  spring,  they 
fly  high,  apparen tly 
considering  that  their 
little  passengers  can 
easily  find  their  way 
down  to  the  earth. 

The    cranes    do    not 

lly  in  a  single  straight 

I  line,  like  wild  geese  or 

\    ducks,    but    in    forked 

lines,    and    the    leader 

may    occnsionally    be 


BIRDS   OF   PASSAGE. 


291 


seen  falling  back  to  the  rear,  his  place  being  taken  by  the  next 
bird  in  the  line.  When  they  first  rise  in  the  air  from  their 
camping-ground,  they  fly  about  in  the  greatest  confusion,  like 
a  caravan  of  camels  or  mules  preparing  for  a  start;  but  they 
soon  fall  into  line,  and  proceed  more  regularly  than  a  caravan 
which  threads  its  way  across  the  desert.  The  crane  was  knowm 
to  the  Hebrews,  and  the  regularity  of  its  migrations  had  at- 
tracted their  notice,  though  their  country  lay  in  the  pathway 
of  but  a  small  number  of  these  birds.* 

Most  species  of  the  birds  of  passage  may  be  able  to  perform 
their  own  migrations  ;f  and  we  shall  now  proceed  to  mention 
the  chief" of  those  referred  to  in  the  Scriptures  or  particularly 
characteristic  of  the  country. 

The  sparrow  is  generally  supposed  to  be  stationary,  though 
its  diminished  numbers  in  the  winter  would  lead  to  the  in- 
ference that  it  is  partially  migratory.  There  can  be  no  truer 
picture  than  the  Psalmist's  description  of  the  sparrows  "on  the 
house-tops,:|:  whose  edge  is  ever  their  favorite  station.  There 
they  sit,  or  hop  about  and  chirp,  sharpen  their  little  bills,  or 
carry  on  their  little  quarrels ;  and  when  the  coast  is  clear  in 
the  yard  below  down  they  fly  in  a  body,  to  pick  up  any  crumbs 
or  scraps  of  food  they  may  chance  to  find.  We  often  thought 
in  childhood  that  the  solitary  sparrow,  so  frequently  seen  in 
winter  alone  on  the  house-top,  must  feel  very  sad,  bereft  as  he 
seemed  to  be  of  its  garrulous  and  merry  companions ;  others 
have  made  the  same  observation,  and  the  Psalmist's  words 
cited  above  are  of  a  similar  tenor,  for,  despite  the  suggestions 
of  some  commentators,  the  statement  is  applicable  to  no  other 
bird  in  Palestine. 

Sparrows,  as  well  as  swallows,  are  allowed  to  build  their 
nests  about  the  house;  and  being  stronger  than  the  swallow, 
often  take  forcible  possession  of  its  nest,  ruthlessly  casting  out 
its  unhatched  eggs.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  crops  begin  to 
ripen  in  the  fields,  they  leave  the  habitations  of  men,  and  seek 
more  abundant  food  among  the  standing  grain.     They  hover, 


*  Jer.  viii.,  7. 

t  In  the  islands  of  South-eastern  Asia,  "  we  learn  that  an  arm  of  the  sea,  twenty- 
five  miles  wide,  serves  to  limit  the  r.-.nge  even  of  birds  of  considerable  powers  of 
flight." — Wallace,  "  Malay  Archipelago,"  p,  324. 

i  Fsa.  cij,,  7. 


292  BIBLE    LANDS, 

like  little  clouds,  over  the  fields  of  wheat,  barley,  millet,  and 
sesame-seed,  and  settle  down  moi'e  especially  on  the  trees  and 
bushes  which  adjoin  the  threshing-floors.  About  sunset  hun- 
dreds of  them  collect  in  the  dense  old  cypress-trees,  and  it  takes 
them  some  time  to  settle  their  disputes  about  their  roosts  and 
sleeping-quarters.  The  farmers  reclcon  the  sparrow  as  one  of 
the  chiet  enemies  of  their  crops,  and  it  not  un  frequently  hap- 
pens that  these  voracious  little  thieves  leave  barely  enough  tc 
pay  the  government  taxes. 

Sparrows  are  caught  for  the  market,  mostly  by  children, 
either  by  means  of  little  cages  whose  doors  close  with  a  spring, 
or  with  twigs  besmeared  with  bird-lime  placed  among  the 
branches  of  trees.  They  are  sold  at  the  smallest  price  fetched 
by  any  game.*  A  comparison  of  these  two  passages  recalls 
the  custom,  still  universal  in  the  East,  of  throwing  in  some- 
thing extra  in  consideration  of  a  larger  purchase.  It  is  also 
interesting  to  note  that  the  sparrow  was  the  smallest  living 
creature  offered  in  sacrifice  under  the  Mosaic  dispensation.  It 
was  the  cleansed  leper  who,  having  been  separated  from  his 
people  as  unclean,  and  thus  usually  reduced  to  great  penury, 
was  allowed  to  bring  an  offering  of  so  little  value.f 

The  quail  does  not  appear  much  larger  than  the  sparrow, 
but  its  body  is  fuller  and  rounder.     It  closely  resembles  the 
partridge  in  its  general  form  and  shape,  and 
its  flesh  is  highly  esteemed.     These  birds 
are  migratory,  and  move  in  immense  num- 
bers, often  amounting  to  several  thousands. 
>  They  begin  to  leave  Africa  in  the  early 
.  spring,  and  breed  on  the  elevated  plains 
of  Asia  Minor,  Koordistan,  European  Tur- 
The  unentai  (iuaii.  (P.a.  ^ey,  and  Southcm  Russia.     Their  peculiar 
cv.,4n.)  whistle  may  be  heard  all  summer  long, 

in  the  midst  of  the  sown  wheat  or  barley,  and  so  actively 
do  they  lead  about  their  little  broods  that  their  enemies  can 
rarely  seize  them.  In  the  autumn,  about  the  1st  of  Septem- 
ber, they  begin  to  migrate  southward.  They  arc  tlien  very 
numerous,  and  rise  like  a  cloud  from  the  fields,  jnirsuing  their 
flight  only  in  the  night  with  a  favorable  wind,  and  alighting 

*  Matt.  X.,  29 ;  Luke  xii.,  6.  t  Lev.  xiv.,  4. 


BIRDS   OF   PASSAGE. 


293 


from  time  to  time  for  rest  and  food.  They  may  occasionally 
be  seen  after  sunset,  and  before  it  is  quite  dark,  passing  as  a 
cloud  in  the  sky.  When  crossing  over  any  considerable  ex- 
panse of  water,  they  always  make  for  a  particular  headland, 
unless  driven  to  some  other  point  by  a  change  of  wind ;  for 
their  wings  and  tails  being  very  short,  quails  can  simply  keep 
before  the  breeze.  They  are  also  guided  by  certain  landmarks 
in  their  progress  overland.  The  people  light  fires  by  night  on 
the  summit  of  the  passes  in  the  mountains  over  which  they  are 
known  to  fly,  so  that  the  biixls,  attracted  by  the  light,  descend 
and  fall  into  their  hands.  But  they  are  most  easily  captured 
when  they  first  alight  upon  the  shore  after  crossing  the  Black 
Sea  or  the  Mediterranean.  They  are  then  sought  for  in  the 
night  with  lanterns  held  near  the  ground,  and  the  weary  birds, 
running  toward  the  light,  are  easily  caught  with  the  hand  and 
thrust  into  bags.  Indeed  the  immense  numbers  annually  cap- 
tured in  a  variety  of  ways,  or  shot  for  food,  can  not  fall  far  short 
of  those  of  the  herrings  caught  in  the  Northern  seas.  But  few 
of  these  birds  probably  pass  directly  over  from  Asia  Minor  to 
Africa;  many  stop  on  their  way  at  the  islands  of  Rhodes  and 
Cyprus,  and  still  larger  numbers  pass  over  Syria  and  Palestine, 
and  cross  the  Red  Sea,  to  winter  in  Upper  Egypt  and  Nubia. 

The  quails  which  came  up  and  covered  the  camp  of  the  Is- 
raelites, while  pitched  in  the  desert  of  Sin,  with  high  mount- 
ains on  the  east  and  north,  doubtless  came  over  the  Red  Sea 
from  the  south,  following  their  spring  migration,  and  alighting 
to  rest  upon  the  shore,  before  attemping  to  pass  over  the 
mountains,  in  their  progress  toward  the  north.*  One  year  and 
seven  days  later  the  Israelites  were  again  fed  with  quails ;  but 
no  reader  of  the  Bible  account  can  avoid  the  conviction  that 
there  was  something  unusual  and  extraordinary  in  this  in- 
stance which  did  not  characterize  the  former.f  The  tents  of 
Israel  did  not  now  lie  on  the  sea-shore,  where  the  quails  stop 
in  large  numbers  before  taking  their  nightly  flight  over  the 
mountains;  they  were  pitched  to  the  east  of  Sinai,  near  the 
upper  end  of  a  valley  where  their  camping-ground  is  still  mark- 
ed by  the  fountain  and  palm-trees  of  el  Huderah  (Hazeroth). 
Had  the  Israelites  been   encamped  upon  any  of  the  regular 


Exod.  xvi.,  13. 


t  Numb.  xi. 


294  BIBLE    LANDS. 

routes  of  the  quails,  Moses  and  many  of  bis  people  could  not 
have  failed  to  be  aware  of  the  fact,  which  was  not  the  case.* 
The  chief  agent  employed  in  bringing  about  an  anomaly  in  the 
present  case,  in  the  flight  of  these  birds,  is  distinctly  stated  to 
have  been  a  powerful  wind,  called  in  Psa.  Ixxviii.,  26,  "an 
east  wind  and  a  south  wind."  It  was  a  "khamasin"t  of  ex- 
traordinary violence  that  prevented  their  passing  over  the  high 
mountains  of  the  peninsula,  in  their  progress  northward,  and 
compelled  them  to  fly  low,  on  its  eastern  side,  over  the  plain 
of  the  Muzeiny  as  far  as  A'in  el  Huderah,  where  their  farther 
progress  was  arrested  by  the  closing  in  of  the  valley,  and  by 
the  wind  which,  striking  the  spurs  of  the  Jebl  et  Tih,  became 
an  "east  wind.":}:  They  here  fluttered  no  higher  than  two 
cubits  from  the  ground  over  the  space  of  a  day's  journey  in 
length  and  breadth,  and  were  caught  in  vast  numbers  by  the 
Israelites.  The  expression  "  two  cubits  high  upon  the  face  of 
the  earth  "  does  not,  in  our  view,  imply  that  the  birds  were 
heaped  upon  the  ground  to  the  height  of  three  feet,  for  then 
the  words,  "he  that  gathered  least,  gathered  ten  homers," 
would  be  quite  inadequate  to  convey  an  idea  of  their  numbers. 
The  disease  consequent  upon  these  events  was  perhaps  the  ef- 
fect of  decomposition  by  the  sirocco  of  thousands  of  these  birds 
that  could  not  be  collected,  and  died  from  lack  of  food  and 
water  within  the  space  in  which  they  were  confined  in  such 
vast  numbers;  or  their  flesh  may  have  become  poisonous  by 
their  feeding  upon  certain  plants  still  existing  in  Upper  Egypt, 
from  whence  they  came,  which  produce  such  an  effect. 

Lynch  repeatedly  found  quails§  on  the  shore  and  floating 
upon  the  water  of  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  last  days  of  April ; 
and  he  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  extraordinary  work- 
ings of  the  sirocco,  or  "khamasin,"  among  the  surrounding 
mountains. 


*  Numb,  xi.,  21,  22. 

t  This  is  tlie  name  of  the  south-west  wind  wiiicli  blows  more  or  less  during  the 
fifty  days  (as  its  name  indicates)  from  the  time  of  the  Oriental  Easter  to  the  Day 
of  Pentecost— during  which  period  occurred  the  two  great  flights  of  quails  spoken 
of  iTi  tiie  text— a  twelvemonth  apart.— Lane,  "  Modern  Egyptians,''  vol.  ii,,  p.  '2'2'2. 

t  Robinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  I'lL 

§  lie  took  these  quails  for  young  birds,  doubtless  because  he  was  only  acquaint- 
ed with  the  American  species,  whidi  is  larger.  As  the  Eastern  quail  is  born  in 
July,  it  has  obtained  its  full  growth  in  the  month  of  April. 


^"^^\ 


BIRDS   OF   PASSAGE.  297 

Since  writing  the  foregoing  suggestions  respecting  the  mirac- 
ulous fall  of  quails  in  the  second  year  of  the  Israelites'  sojourn 
in  the  wilderness,  we  have  seen  a  drawing  of  the  A'ih  Huderah 
(Hazeroth)in  Palmer's  "Desert  of  the  Exodus,"  page  214,  which 
so  aptly  explains  our  idea  of  the  matter  that  we  here  repro- 
duce it,  together  with  the  following  quotation  from  that  valu- 
able work:  "Through  a  deep  and  rugged  gorge,  with  almost 
perpendicular  sides,  we  looked  down  upon  a  wady  bed  that 
winds  along  between  fantastic  sandstone  rocks,  now  rising  in 
the  semblance  of  mighty  walls  or  terraced  palaces,  now  jutting 
out  in  pointed  ridges — rocky  promontories  on  a  sandy  sea.  In 
the  midst,  beneath  a  lofty  cliff,  nestles  the  dark  green  palm- 
grove  of  Hazeroth.*  The  fountain  itself  issues  from  the  rock 
behind  the  grove."  The  author  makes  no  reference  to  the 
quails,  which  renders  his  testimony  all  the  more  valuable. 

One  of  the  most  common  birds  of  passage  which  mark  the 
seasons  by  their  regular  migrations,  is  the  turtle-dove,  re- 
peatedly referred  to  in  the  Scriptures.f  That  it  was  common 
among  the  Hebrews,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  poorer 
classes  were  permitted  to  offer,  instead  of  a  lamb,  "two  turtle- 
doves or  two  young  pigeons,"  such  as  they  were  "  able  to  get.":}: 

The  dove  includes  two  classes  of  birds,  the  pigeon  and  the 
turtle  -  dove.  The  former  are  always  blue,  with  touches  of 
white,  or  black  and  silvery,  or  even  golden  hues,  according  to 
the  species.§  There  is  the  wood-pigeon,  twice  the  size  of  the 
common;  the  rock -pigeon,  which  builds  its  nest  in  natural 
caves,!  and  in  old  dried-up  wells  and  cisterns,  and  the  half- 
tamed  pigeon,  which  breeds  in  vast  numbers  in  the  "dove- 
cotes" erected  on  purpose  for  it  in  many  of  the  towns  and  vil- 
lages of  Egypt,  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Persia.^  This  is  the  orig- 
inal stock  from  which  has  been  derived  a  great  variety  of  tame 
pigeons  of  every  hue,  and  differing  in  other  respects.  Some 
of  these  have  been  brought  from  the  East  to  Europe  where  they 


*  The  vale  and  fountain  of  Hazeroth  may  have  been  and  may  still  be  an  occa- 
sional "camp"  of  the  quails,  when  they  go  up  the  Gulf  of  Akaba.  Stanley  says 
that  when  he  was  there,  "the  sky  was  literally  darkened  by  the  flight  of  innumer- 
able birds  three  feet  high,  with  black  and  white  wings  "  (storks  ?) ' '  which  he  had  seen 
in  like  numbers  at  the  first  cataract  of  the  Nile." — "  Sinai  and  Palestine,"  p.  82, 

t  Cant,  ii.,-12;  Jer.  viii.,  7.  X  Lev.  xii.,  8;  xiv.,  22. 

§  Psa,  Ixviii.,  13.  ||  Jer.  xlviii.,  28.  1  Isa.  Ix.,  8- 


298  BIBLE    LANDS. 

jire  well  known  and  highly  prized ;  as,  for  instance,  the  car- 
rier-pigeon of  Tarsus,  the  robber-pigeon,  the  tumbler,  etc  * 

The  turtle-doves,  too,  are  various,  though  less  easily  distin- 
guished by  their  form  and  color.  There  is  the  palm -dove, 
which  does  not  migrate  like  the  rest,  but  builds  its  nest,  often 
in  large  numbers,  on  the  palm-trees,  and  was  the  variety  doubt- 
less accessible  to  the  Israelites,  during  their  wanderings  in  the 
wilderness.  There  is  also  another  species,  sometimes  called 
the  ring-dove,  from  the  line  of  black  and  white  encircling 
its  throat;  it  does  not  migrate,  but  frequents  unmolested  the 
liouses  of  the  Muslims,  and  makes  the  shady  cypress  groves 
of  the  Turkish  cemeteries  resound  with  its  plaintive  cooing.f 


A  Pair  of  Turtle-doves.    (Luke  ii.,  24.) 

Its  note  resembles  the  pronunciation  of  the  Greek  words,  Asko 
oKTh)  (eighteen);  hence  its  name  "thekokhtoora,"  which  is  as- 
sociated with  the  following  legend:  A  woman  sent  her  daugh- 
ter-in-law to  the  public  oven  with  a  number  of  loaves  to  be 
baked.  When  the  daughter  returned  with  the  baking,  her 
mother-in-law  insisted  that  one  loaf  was  missing,  and  fell  to 
beating  her  most  unmercifully.  Some  kind  genius  in  pity  in- 
terfered, and  changed  the  persecuted  daughter  into  a  turtle- 
dove. She,  still  burdened  with  the  memory  of  her  former 
trials,  continues  to  reiterate,  "There  were  but  eighteen^ 

The  more  common  species  of  turtle-doves,  however,  come 
up  from  the  South  in  the  early  spring,  and  gradually  fill  the 
whole  land,  not  only  of  Palestine  and  Syria,  but  the  whole 
peninsula  of  Asia-  Minor.  Their  mournful  cooing  may  be 
heard,  throughout  the  summer,  in  all  the  valleys  and  plains, 
particularly  in  the  heat  of  the  daj',  when  large  numbers  of  them 

*  Michaud,  "  Histoiie  des  Cioisades,"  vol.  i.,  p.  197.  t  Ezek.  vii.,  16. 


BIRDS   OF   PASSAGE.  299 

seek  the  refreshing  shade  of  the  trees,  or  early  in  the  morning, 
and  at  night,  when  they  resort  to  the  rocks  at  the  foot  of  the 
hills  *  They  come  down  into  every  field  of  standing  grain, 
and  flutter  about  the  threshing-floors;  they  start  from  every 
spring  and  water-course,f  the  silvery  rustle  of  their  wings,  and 
the  clear  line  of  white  and  black  upon  their  tails,  as  they  pass 
overhead,  distinguishing  them  from  every  other  bird.  They 
consume  the  crops,  and  yet  are  general  favorites;  and  few 
sportsmen  shoot  them,  though  their  flesh  is  not  unsavory. 
Large  numbers,  however,  are  caught  upon  the  islands  of  the 
Archipelago  during  their  autumnal  migrations,  and  are  pickled 
in  vinegar  and  spices. 

The  words  in  Matt,  x.,  16,  "harmless  as  doves,"  and  the  pas- 
sage in  Matt,  iii.,  16,  where  the  Holy  Ghost  is  represented  as 
"descending  like  a  dove,"  are  not  to  be  understood  as  refer- 
ring to  the  turtle-dove,  but  to  the  pigeon,  which  is  the  meaning 
of  the  original ;  the  latter  is  not  only  equally  harmless  and 
peaceful,  but  is  also  easily  tamed,  which  is  not  the  case  with 
the  other. 

The  nightingale  and  blackbird  {Merula)  are  the  chief  song 
birds  of  Western  Asia.  The  former,  which  is  a  small  variety 
of  thrush,  reddish-brown  in  color,  is  migratory,  and  from  early 
spring  until  the  month  of  June  its  melodious  warblings  may 
be  heard  issuing  from  the  thick  shade  of  trees  and  shrubs  by. 
the  river  banks,  and  from  the  gardens  and  wooded  glens;  for 
this  delightful  songster,  which  is  rarely  successfully  caged,  feeds 
upon  the  little  worms  and  insects  which  abound  by  the  shady 
water-courses,  and  often  builds  its  nest  in  the  rose-bushes  of 
the  garden,  sure  of  immunity  in  return  for  its  welcome  music.:}: 
It  is  especially  in  bright  moonlight  nights  that  the  notes  of 
these  captivating  singers  are  clearest  and  loudest,  and  they 
seem  to  vie  with  each  other  until  the  air  vibrates  with  the  liq- 
uid melody.  We  have  often  not  only  been  kept  awake  by 
them  for  hours,  but  have  felt  constrained  to  go  forth  the  better 
to  enjoy  the  harmonious  contest.  The  imitative  name  "bul- 
bul"  is  applied  in  the  East  to  all  small  birds  of  song,  though 
primarily  and  par  excellence  to  the  nightingale.  We  have  heard 
it  given  to  the  beautiful  variegated  little  titmouse,  whose  curi- 


Isa.  xxxviii.,  14 ;  lix.,  11.  f  Cant,  v.,  12.  %  Psa.  civ.,  10,  12. 


300 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


The  Titmouse  and  its  Nest. 

flight;  the  little  blue-jay,  which 


ously  constructed  nest  may 
often  be  seen  hanging  at  the 
ends  of  the  long  willow- 
branches,  swinging  in  the 
wind  over  the  water  of  the 
streams. 

The  blackbird  does  not 
migrate.  Its  clearest  and 
most  cheerful  note  is  heard 
at  sunset  of  a  cloudless  day, 
when,  perched  on  the  top- 
most bough  of  a  tall  tree,  or 
the  summit  of  an  isolated 
rock,  it  pours  forth  its  far-re- 
sounding song. 

To  the  foregoing  list  might 
be  added  several  birds  of  pas- 
sage, which  are  familiarly 
known  to  the  people:  the 
oriole— the  male  of  a  bright 
yellow,  with  jet-black  wnngs, 
and  the  female  of  a  pale  green 
—  send  forth  their  cheerful 
whistle  as  they  flutter  about 
the  vineyards  and  the  tere- 
binth-trees, on  their  way  to 
the  high  valleys  among  the 
mountains,  where  they  build 
their  nests  in  the  walnut 
groves;  the  bee-bird  (>S'im?s) 
of  variegated  plumage,  green, 
red,  and  yellow,  whose  note 
is  heard  high  up  in  the  sky, 
quite  out  of  sight,  and  which, 
descending  like  an  arrow, 
passes  close  by  in  its  fitful 
sits  demurely  upon  the  top  of 


a  grain  stack,  whence  it  flies  noisily  away ;  and  the  hoopoe,  with 
its  tall  crest  of  red  feathers  tipped  with  black,  which  bows  its 
head  every  time  it  utters  its  incessant  "coo-cook."     All  these, 


BIRDS   OF   PASSAGE. 


301 


The  Easteru  Oriole. 


and  many  other  interesting  birds  we 
might  name,  are  and  have  ever  been 
regular  visitors  of  the  lands  of  the  Bi- 
ble, and  are  familiarly  known  to  all 
classes  of  the  people,  and  equally  ad- 
mired and  loved  by  all. 

The  red-legged,  or  rock,  partridge 
might  well  be  classed  among  the  war- 
blers. It  is,  indeed,  a  larger  bird  than 
generally  goes  by  that  name ;  but  it  is 
kept  in  a  cage  simply  for  its  song.  In  many  villages  of  the 
island  of  Scio,  many  of  these 
birds  are  yearly  caught  and  ex- 
ported to  Constantinople,  Smyr- 
na, and  other  cities.*  In  West- 
ern Asia  the  only  birds  kept  in 
cages  for  their  song  are  the 
blackbird  and  the  partridge, 
with  the  rare  exception  of  a 
goldfinch.  The  gray,  or  Euro- 
pean, partridge  is  onlj^  found  in 
the  plains  of  Asia  Minor;  but 
the  rock  partridge  is  very  com- 
mon throughout  the  land  in  a  wild  state.  It  is  referred  to  in 
1  Sam.  xxvi.,  20,  and  Jer.  xvii.,  11.  The  last  of  these  passages 
alludes  to  the  habit  of  this  bird  of  building  its  nest  upon  the 
ground,  in  the  grass,  or  under  the  hedge  of  a  mountain  vine- 
yard, so  exposed  that  the  foxes,  rats,  or  boys  often  carry  away 
the  eggs,  an  event  by  which  the  poor  bird  is  greatly  distressed. 
Were  it  not  for  this,  however,  and  for  its  many  enemies,  this 
bird  would  so  increase  as  to  become  a  nuisance.     As  it  is,  the 


The  Hoopoe. 


*  We  heai-  no  more  of  the  famous  tame  partridges  of  Scio,  especially  those  of 
the  villages  of  Ellata  and  Vassa,  which  "spend  the  day  in  the  fields,  and  come 
home  at  night  to  the  village :  they  follow  the  little  boys  to  whom  they  belong, 
just  like  dogs,  and  fly  from  the  village  several  times  a  day  to  search  for  their  mas- 
ters, each  of  whom  keeps  a  whistle  to  call  his  own,  and  leads  them  out  to  feed  ; 
and  they  come  whenever  they  hear  the  call."  (Van  Briiyn,  p.  IGS ;  Thevenot, 
p.  100.)  Too  many  travelers  state  the  fact  to  doubt  it  in  the  main.  "We  our- 
selves have  long  had  a  tame  partridge  running  about  in  the  house,  which  allowed 
the  children  to  dress  it  up,  and  even  to  harness  it  to  a  little  cart ;  but  we  never 
tried  the  experiment  of  taking  it  into  the  fields. 

20 


802 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


'Ihe  Hock  Pditiidge      (1  b  iin  xwi  ,  20  1 


crops  are,  in  some  dis- 
tricts, materially  dimin- 
ished by  them,  and  the 
farmers  implore  the 
sportsmen  to  come  to 
their  aid.  We  ourselves 
have  seen  several  hun- 
dred at  once,  feeding  like 
chickens  in  the  fields,  de- 
vouring the  newly-sown 
wheat. 

But  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting birds  of  West- 
ern Asia  is  the  common 
stork,  which  stands  three 
feet  from  the  ground,  is  of  a  pure  white,  with  jet-black  wings, 
and  with  slender  legs,  and 
long  bill  of  a  bright  red.  This 
bird,  especially  the  black  va- 
riety, still  makes  the  strong, 
spreading  branches  of  the  fir- 
tree  her  house ;'^  but  the  Mus- 
lim notions  of  hospitality  to 
bird  and  beast  have  encour- 
aged her  to  build  her  broad, 
flat  nest  upon  the  roofs  of 
houses  and  mosks,  annually 
augmenting  its  height,  un- 
til it  resembles  a  little  tower. 
The  domes  of  village  mosks 
are  not  unfrequently  adorned 
with  seven  or  eight  of  these 
unique  appendages.  Next  to 
the  swamp,  the  newly  plow- 
ed field  is  the  best  harvest- 
ground  of  the  stork.  The 
plowmen  may  be  seen  ac- 
companied by  several  of  these  birds  stalking  along  close  upon 


The  Stork  iiud  its  Nest.    iJer.  viii.,  T.) 


*P 


BIRDS  OF   PASSAGE.  303 

his  heels,  intent  upon  picking  up  the  grubs  and  worms  uncov- 
ered by  the  plowshare.  They  also  render  themselves  very 
useful  in  destroying  reptiles,  locusts,  and  other  insects,  which 
they  devour  with  great  avidity.  These  birds  utter  no  cry, 
but  have  a  curious  way  of  standing  upon  their  nests,  spread- 
ing their  wings  wide,  and  throwing  back  their  heads  so  as  to 
touch  their  backs,  while  they  rapidly  strike  together  the  two 
mandibles  of  their  great  bills,  thus  producing  a  loud  clatter 
not  unlike  the  sound  of  castanets;  they  frequently  do  this, 
both  by  day  and  night,  during  all  the  time  they  are  rearing 
their  two  annual  broods,  and  we  have  often,  when  spending  a 
night  in  a  Turkish  village,  been  long  kept  awake,  though 
weary  with  travel,  by  this  incessant  noise.  In  Isa.  xxxviii., 
14,  the  word  "  crane  "  refers  to  the  stork,  and  the  sound  above 
described  is  not  inaptly  rendered  "chatter."  By  a  reference 
to  the  tahlil^  or  peculiar  cry  of  the  Arab  women,  described  far- 
ther on,  this  will  be  still  better  understood. 

The  stork  has  always  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  parental 
affection.  We  knew  one  of  these  birds  whose  young  brood, 
happening  to  fall  from  the  nest  on  the  top  of  a  tree,  had  been 
instantly  killed  by  the  village  boys ;  she  refused  to  forsake  her 
desolate  post,  remaining  till  the  cold  came  on,  and  was  frozen 
to  death  by  the  winter  blasts.  In  the  autumn,  when  the  time 
of  their  migrations  arrives — for  they  winter  in  Egypt* — these 
birds  may  be  seen  flying  up  in  great  numbers,  and  describing 
large  circles  in  the  air.  This  is  the  signal  that  the  day  of  de- 
parture has  come,  and  the  storks  of  the  entire  region  obey  the 
summons,  speedily  soaring  upward  to  join  their  companions. 
So  strong  is  this  instinct  that  we  remember  a  stork  with  bro- 
ken wing,  which  had  been  the  pet  of  a  family,  making  a  vio- 
lent effort  to  join  the  company  as  they  passed  overhead,  and 
losing  its  life  in  the  attempt. 

We  once  came  upon  a  flock  of  these  aerial  pilgrims,  as  they 
were  traveling  toward  their  winter-quarters;  they  had  alight- 
ed in  a  great  plain,  traversed  by  a  broad  river  with  extensive 
marshes  upon  its  banks,  where  the  storks  were  having  a  mer- 
ry meal  of  frogs  and  smaller  fry.  We  stood  upon  a  high 
mound  and,  overlooking  the  speckled  plain,  counted  the  birds 


*  Maurice,  Appendix,  p.  119. 


304  BIBLE    LANDS. 

composing  a  single  patch,  and,  using  this  as  a  standard  of  com- 
parison, we  estimated  the  whole  number  at  between  twenty- 
five  and  thirty  thousand.  In  1847  a  gentleman  residing  in 
Beirut,  Syria,  informed  us  that  during  the  preceding  autumn 
a  stork,  accidentally  injured,  was  captured  in  his  garden,  when 
a  valuable  jewel  was  found  fastened  on  its  leg,  with  a  name 
and  address  upon  it.  He  wrote  a  letter  to  the  address  in  Ger- 
many, thereon  inscribed,  and  received  a  reply  to  the  effect  that 
the  bird  had  been  taken  from  its  nest  when  young,  and  in  spite 
of  the  most  lavish  attentions  from  a  nobleman's  child,  had  flown 
away  in  the  autumn,  carrying  oft"  the  jewel  with  which  the  lit- 
tle girl  had  adorned  it. 

The  black  stork  also  abounds  in  Palestine,  principally  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Jordan,  and  in  the  marsh  of  Lake  Hooleh.  This 
variety  is  distinguished  from  the  other  chiefly  by  its  shyness 
and  its  fear  of  man.  It  uniformly  builds  its  nest  upon  tall 
trees. 

There  are  several  other  large  birds  that  might  be  mentioned, 
which  are  met  with  in  the  lands  of  the  Bible;  such  as  the 
white,  the  blue,  and  the  brown  heron,  the  bittern,  etc.*  The 
pelican  is  a  migratory  bird,  which  appears  in  Western  Asia 
only  in  the  winter,  spending  the  summer  in  the  north  of  Rus- 
sia. He  is  perfectly  white,  and  resembles  the  swaii  at  a  dis- 
tance, with  the  exception  of  his  long  bill,  and  a  large  pouch 
underneath,  which  answers  the  purpose  of  a  net  or  bag  for  the 
fish  he  catches.  These  birds  may  often  be  seen  sailing  majes- 
tically in  a  line,  like  so  many  ships  of  war,  on  a  river,  or  lake, 
or  even  out  in  the  open  sea.f 

The  ostrich  was  well  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  countries 
bordering  upon  the  desert.:};  It  is  still  found  in  the  desert  of 
Sinai. §  Muslims  are  fond  of  suspending  its  emptied  eggs  from 
the  ceilings  of  their  sacred  edifices,  as  a  sort  of  talisman. 

Geese  and  ducks,  both  wild  and  domestic,  abound  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  and  the  swan,  both  white  and  gray,  comes 


*  Isn.  xiv.,  23. 

t  li'a.  xxxiv.,  11 ;  "  cormorant  "  here  is  pelican  in  the  margin  ;  see  also  Psa. 
'ii.,  G,  where  "wilderness,"  as  nsual,  means  tracts  of  uncultivated  land,  destitute 
of  habitations.  At  the  approach  of  man  these  unwieldy  birds  rise  slowly  into  the 
air,  considerably  disturbing  the  surface  of  the  water  by  the  flapping  of  their  wings. 

I  Job  xxxix.,  13;  Lam.  iv.,  3.  §  Tlieveuot,  p.  164. 


BIRDS   OF   PASSAGE.  305 

uown  in  the  winter  upon  the  inland  lakes.  In  1  Kings  iv.,  23, 
the  words  "fatted  fowl"  probably  refer  to  tame  geese.  We 
need  hardly  add  that  the  common  domestic  fowls  are  abun- 
dant in  all  parts  of  the  country,  for  they  probably  originated 
in  Asia,  and  were  thence  conveyed  to  more  western  lands. '^ 
Chickens  continue  to  be  artificially  hatched  in  Egypt,  as  in  the 
time  of  Herodotus,  in  ovens  built  under-ground,  which  contain 
six  thousand  eggs  at  a  time.f 

It  is  well  known  that  the  turkey,  though  now  found  wild  in 
Circassia,  was  introduced  into  Europe  from  North  America, 
about  the  year  1530,  and  has  spread  thence  through  the  rest 
of  the  world. 


*  Neh.  v.,  18  ;  Matt,  xxiii.,  37 ;  Maik  xiii.,  35.  I"  Thevenot,  p.  144. 


306  BIBLE   LANDS. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

REPTILES  AND  INSECTS  OF  BIBLE  LANDS. 

We  shall  speak  of  only  a  few  of  these,  on  account  of  their 
being  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  or  as  peculiarly  character- 
istic of  the  country. 

Serpents  are  common  in  all  parts  of  the  land,  as  may,  from 
frequent  allusions,  be  inferred  to  have  been  the  case  in  ancient 
times.  Most  of  them  are  harmless,  yet  they  are  generally  dis- 
liked and  killed  wherever  met,  by  the  followers  of  every  relig- 
ious system,  with  the  exception  of  the  Yezidies,  of  whose  pe- 
culiar ideas  upon  this  subject  we  shall  speak  in  another  place. 

When  killed,  a  serpent  is  usually  hung  up  on  the  branch  of 
a  tree  or  a  bush,  across  a  low  wall  or  a  large  stone,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  possibility  of  startling  any  one,  who,  suddenly  seeing 
it  lying  in  the  path,  might  suppose  it  to  be  alive.  This  indi- 
cates a  general  dread  of  the  snake,  probably  occasioned  by  the 
fact  that  a  few  species  are  highly  venomous,  and  by  the  sly 
and  gliding  movement  of  the  creature. 

There  are,  however,  persons  who  capture  and  train  serpents, 
even  of  the  venomous  sort,  for  exhibition.  This  is  chiefly  done 
in  Egypt  and  India,  where  some  men  do  nothing  else  but  go 
about  and  show  their  snakes,  not  merely  in  a  torpid  state,  but 
even  dancing  to  the  music  of  a  flute ;  they  even  irritate  the 
venomous  reptile  to  the  extent  of  biting,  in  order  to  demon- 
strate that  they  are  proof  against  its  poison.  Some  have  ex- 
plained these  feats  by  supposing  that  the  fangs  have  been  re- 
moved, which  does  not,  however,  appear  to  be  the  case.  At 
Bombay,  in  India,  the  celebration  of  the  "  Feast  of  the  Snakes" 
presents  the  extraordinary  spectacle  of  some  three  hundred 
"charmers,"  each  bearing  a  basket  with  about  twenty  cobras, 
gathered  in  a  Hindoo  temple,  where  the  creatures  are  fed  with 
buffalo's  milk,  furnished  by  the  superstitious  people.  The 
men  handle  them  with  perfect  unconcern.  Two  or  three  thou- 
sand cobras  arc  thus  fed  through  the  day;  the  next  morning 


REPTILES   AND   INSECTS.  307 

the  charmers  carry  away  their  serpents,  and  let  them  go  into 
the  jungle.  This  festival  occurs  in  July,  when  these  reptiles 
are  most  venomous.*'  A  new  suggestion  upon  this  mysterious 
subject  is  contained  in  Cunningham's  "  Two  Years  in  New 
South  Wales."  "There  is,"  he  says,  "in  the  colony  a  person 
called  the  snahe  7nan,  who  is  rarely  without  some  of  the  most 
dangerous  snakes  coiled  in  his  bosom  or  his  hat:  he  destroys 
their  inclination  to  bite  by  shutting  several  together  in  a  bag" 

There  are  few  serpents  in  Western  Asia  larger  than  six  feet 
in  length,  and  even  these  are  rare.  We  have  heard  a  man  re- 
late his  encounter  with  a  monster  whose  head  he  claimed  to  be 
as  large  as  that  of  a  young  dog,  and  which,  pursuing  him  as  he 
fled,  felled  him  senseless  to  the  ground  with  a  single  stroke  of 
its  tail.  The  story,  however,  lacked  confirmation,  and  we  con- 
sidered it  either  an  invention  or  an  exaggeration,  resulting  from 
fright  or  some  personal  motive.  The  characteristic  tales  in  the 
style  of  the  "Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments,"  with  which  peo- 
ple of  all  classes  are  wont  to  beguile  their  winter  evenings,  fre- 
quently make  mention  of  land  and  sea  serpents  of  stupendous 
length,  and  even  furnished  with  powerful  wings;  and  it  is  in- 
teresting to  find  that  the  ancients  indulged  in  the  same  fancies, 
though  there  was  as  little  foundation  for  them  then  as  there  is 
now.  Such  were  doubtless  the  dragon  and  the  griffin  of  the 
Greeks,  as  well  as  the  sphinx  of  the  Egyptians,  and  the  various 
winged  monsters  of  the  Assyrians. 

An  Arabic  proverb  says :  "  Near  the  serpent  spread  thy  bed ; 
near  the  scorpion  venture  not ;"  and  it  is  a  fact  fully  corrobo- 
rated by  experience,  that  the  serpent  never  bites  without  real  or 
supposed  provocation.  A  young  man  once  applied  to  me  for 
medicine  on  account  of  a  violent  attack  of  fever  and  ague, 
brought  on  by  a  singular  incident.  Being  asleep  on  the  ground 
in  a  vineyard,  he  was  suddenly  awakened  by  feeling  the  cold, 
clammy  touch  of  a  large  snake  gliding  over  his  bare  limbs. 
Though  almost  stupefied  with  terror,  he  had  presence  of  mind 
enough  to  remain  perfectly  motionless  till  the  creature,  passing 
along  the  whole  length  of  his  body,  and  over  his  neck  and  face, 
finally  glided  harmlessly  away. 

The  serpent  has  not  the  reputation  of  being  "cunning"  or 

*  L.  Rousselet,  "  Tour  du  Monde,  1870-71,"  p.  215. 


I 


308  BIBLE    LANDS. 

"  wise,"  nor  are  such  characteristics  suggested  or  sustained  by 
any  facts  known  in  Western  Asia,  Nevertheless,  its  subtilt}' 
has  passed  into  a  proverb,  doubtless  by  reason  of  the  Mosaic 
account  of  the  fall  of  our  first  parents  ;*  and  this  is  now  as  gen- 
erally current  among  both  Christians  and  Muslims  as  it  was 
among  the  Hebrews  in  the  days  of  our  Lord.f 

Yenomous  serpents  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  but 
their  poison  is  deadly,  and  prompt  in  its  action.  Most  of  them 
belong  to  the  general  class  of  vipers,  which  includes  both  the 
asp  and  the  adder.:}:  The  "  fiery  serpent "  which  destroyed  so 
many  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  and  was  the  occasion 
of  a  most  impressive  lesson  respecting  salvation  through  faith 
in  a  crucified  Saviour,  is  supposed  to  be  the  cerastes,  or  the 
"  ndia  hajy  "  of  the  Arabs,  whose  bite  is  deadly,  and  occasions  a 
burning  sensation.  Both  these  species  are  only  found  in  the 
desert,  and  must,  by  some  casual  circumstance,  have  occurred  in 
large  numbers  in  the  camping-ground  of  the  Israelites.  The 
"  fiery  flying  serpent,"  mentioned  in  Isa.  xxx.,  6,  is  probably  a 
popular  conception,  adopted  by  the  prophet,  or  a  strong  expres- 
sion, indicative  of  the  aggressive  character  of  the  two  species 
above  mentioned;  for  the  only  leaping  serpents  found  in  the 
wilderness  are  the  "  tliiareh^''  which  derive  their  name  from 
their  habit  of  springing  from  branch  to  branch  of  the  date-trees 
in  which  they  live ;  but  these  are  not  venomous.  The  asp,  or 
small  adder,§  is  never  seen  among  the  snakes  of  the  serpent- 
charmer.  |  The  common  species  is  about  four  inches  in  length, 
and  no  thicker  than  a  piece  of  stout  wire.  It  lurks  under 
stones,  and  even  in  the  sand  of  the  desert,  whence  it  assails  its 
prey,  and  thus  it  happens  that,  being  disturbed  by  the  foot  of 
man  or  beast,  it  suddenly  and  fatally  "  bites  his  heel."^  Ic 
also  hides  in  the  cracks  and  crevices  of  old  walls,  and  is  so 
strong  in  proportion  to  its  size  that,  when  irritated,  it  stands 
erect  upon  the  lower  part  of  its  body,  and  is  one  of  the  few 
serpents  that  manifest  an  aggressive  disposition. 

The  following  incident  was  related  to  us  by  a  gentleman 
whose  testimony  is  perfectly  reliable;  it  occurred  in  the  South 

*  Gen.  iii.,  1.  t  Matt,  x.,  16. 

\  Job  XX.,  16;  Isa.  lix.,  .'> ;  Acts  xxviii.,  3. 

§  Dent,  xxxii.,  33;  Job  xx.,  14;  Psa.  xci.,  13;   L-sa.  xi.,  8. 

II  Psa.  Iviii.,  4,  .5.  t  Gen.  iii.,  15  ;   xlix.,  17. 


REPTILES   AND   INSECTS.  809 

of  France,  where  the  asp  is  often  found.  He  was  visiting  a 
classmate  residing  upon  a  beautiful  estate,  and  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  his  sister,  a  charming  young  person,  the  wife  of 
an  officer,  and  who  added  to  her  own  personal  attractions  and 
refinement  the  interest  which  attaches  to  a  young  mother  of  a 
beautiful  babe.  One  morning  the  three  went  out  for  a  walk 
in  the  park,  and  the  lady,  complaining  of  weariness,  sat  down 
at  the  foot  of  a  tree,  saying  she  would  rest  there  till  the  gentle- 
men's return.  They  were  gone  but  a  short  time,  when  they 
retraced  their  steps,  and  approaching  the  lady,  saw  her  head 
leaning  against  a  tree,  her  eyes  closed  as  if  in  sleep.  As  they 
drew  nearer,  however,  to  their  horror  they  saw  her  color 
changed  to  a  livid  green.  Her  brother  rushed  to  her  side,  and 
at  the  noise  an  adder  sprang  out  of  her  bosom  and  escaped.- 
It  had  been  attracted  by  the  scent  of  milk,  as  all  serpents  are. 
She  probably  made  a  motion  in  her  sleep  and  was  bitten,  when 
almost  instant  and  unconscious  death  ensued.  It  is  well  known 
that  Cleopatra  chose  the  asp  as  the  means  of  producing  the 
easiest  kind  of  death,  this  heartless  queen  having  previous- 
ly experimented  upon  her  slaves  with  poisonous  snakes  and 
other  reptiles. 

The  scorpion  varies  in  length  from  one  to  three  inches,  and 
resembles  a  dark-colored  crab,  with  the  addition  of  a  long  tail, 
having  a  sharp  hook  or  fang  at  the  extremity,  with  a  vesicle 
full  of  liquid  poison,  which  is  forcibly  ejected  through  a  mi- 
nute opening  into  the  wound  made  by  the  sting.  This  crea- 
ture grasps  its  prey  with  its  claws  and,  bringing  its  long  tail 
over  its  head,  strikes  and  kills  it.*  Scorpions  are  found  in 
all  parts  of  Western  Asia,  but  are  harmless  in  the  colder  and 
more  northern  regions.  They  are  numerous  in  Palestine,  where 
their  sting  occasions  much  suffering;  and  there  are  as  many 
as  five  distinct  varieties  of  them  in  the  desert  of  Sinai.f  In 
Northern  Africa  they  are  sometimes  of  so  great  a  size  that 
their  sting  is  mortal  to  man. 

Scorpions  feed  upon  insects,  and  hide  themselves  in  holes 
under  the  stones,  or  in  a  bank  by  the  roadside,  lying  in  wait 
for  their  prey  near  the  opening.  The  Arab  children  are  ac- 
quainted with  their  haunts,  and  putting  a  bit  of  wax  on  the 


*  Rev.  ix.,  6,  10.  t  Deut.  viii.,  15. 


310  BIBLE   LANDS. 

end  of  a  straw,  insert  it  in  the  scorpion's  hole;  the  irritated 
creature  rushes  forward  and  seizes  it  with  its  claws,  which 
sticking  fast  to  the  wax,  it  is  easily  drawn  forth  and  dispatch- 
ed. Three  children  at  Beirut,  whose  father  had  been  stung  in 
the  night  by  one  of  these  reptiles,  intent  upon  avenging  him, 
set  out  upon  a  scorpion  hunt  along  the  banks  of  a  narrow  lane, 
shaded  by  a  cactus  hedge,  among  the  mulberry-gardens.  Arm- 
ed with  their  waxed  broom-straws,  they  captured  and  destroy- 
ed no  less  than  one  hundred  and  eleven  scorpions  in  about  an 
hour's  time  !  But  the  secret  habits  of  these  creatures  seem  to 
indicate  that  they  are  more  numerous  than  even  the  incident 
above  cited  would  imply,  and  that  they  occupy  a  more  im- 
portant place  in  the  economy  of  nature  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed. Colonel  Maceroni  has  related  the  following  incident, 
which  occurred  in  the  Oampagna  of  Rome,  and  is,  doubtless, 
equally  applicable  to  every  mosquito -infested  locality  in  the 
Holy  Land.  He  was  spending  a  few  days  at  a  country  lodge, 
where  the  rooms  were  formed  by  slight  partitions,  with  a  ceil- 
ing of  loose  boards.  His  companions  complained  of  being 
greatly  annoyed  by  the  mosquitoes,  from  which  he  was  him- 
self quite  free.  As  he  lay  one  afternoon  taking  his  siesta,  he 
noticed  that  the  ceiling  was  covered  with  mosquitoes,  which 
were  disappearing  ever  and  anon,  being  caught  up  by  a  small 
black  object,  which  occasionally  darted  down  from  the  cracks. 
His  curiosity  being  aroused,  he  arose,  and  standing  upon  a 
chair,  examined  the  upper  surface  of  the  ceiling.  What  was 
his  surprise  to  find  it  covered  with  scorpions  busily  engaged  in 
fishing  up  the  mosquitoes  from  beneath ;  he  thus  discovered 
the  cause  of  his  immunity  from  mosquito  bites.  This  incident 
suggests  the  fact  that  the  scorpion  contributes  to  the  comfort 
of  man  by  the  destruction  of  a  variety  of  annoying  insects, 
while  the  instances  are  comparatively  rare  in  which  its  sting 
causes  him  to  suffer;  and  even  against  this  sting  there  is  a 
means  of  protection,  to  which  Orientals  sometimes  successful- 
ly resort,  the  knowledge  of  which  has,  perhaps,  been  handed 
down  from  remote  antiquity.  We  once  knew  a  poor  widow 
whose  children  worked  in  a  field  so  infested  with  scorpions 
as  to  be  avoided  by  the  villagers  generally ;  even  she  herself 
dared  not  venture  into  it,  while  her  children  fearlessly  handled 
the  scorpions,  even  provoking  them  to  use  their  stings,  without 


REPTILES   AND   INSECTS.  311 

seeming  to  suffer  the  least  inconvenience.  "When  questioned 
as  to  the  cause  of  this  extraordinary  immunity,  she  stated  that, 
having  bottled  in  spirits  a  number  of  scorpions'  tails,  she  had 
administered  a  draught  of  the  same  to  each  of  her  children 
when  a  few  days  old.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  in  rural 
districts  some  midwives  are  in  the  habit  of  administering  to 
young  infants  potions  containing  the  poison  of  serpents  or  oth- 
er reptiles,  and  those  who  have  been  thus  inoculated  are  con- 
sidered proof  against  injury  from  their  bites.  It  does  not  seem 
improbable  that  the  experiments  tried  by  Mithridates  and  oth- 
er sovereigns  of  the  East  with  various  poisons  may  have  led 
to  discoveries  which  local  traditions  keep  afloat  among  the  peo- 
ple, for  the  art  of  poisoning  is  still  practiced  in  all  parts  of  the 
country. 

The  language  used  by  the  young  king  Rehoboam  to  his  com- 
plaining subjects,*  "  My  father  chastised  you  with  whips,  but 
I  will  chastise  you  with  scorpions,"  does  not,  it  seems  to  us, 
refer,  as  some  appear  to  think,  to  a  peculiar  kind  of  scourge 
bearing  the  name  of  scorpion  on  account  of  its  shape,  or  the 
pain  it  inflicted.  The  expression  must  necessarily  have  been 
employed  in  a  metaphorical  sense,  and  the  comparison  seems 
to  be  between  the  slight  suffering  inflicted  by  striking  with  a 
common  whip  and  the  intense  pain  produced  by  the  sting  of 
the  scorpion.  Our  Saviour's  words,  "And  if  he  shall  ask  an 
egg,  will  he  offer  him  a  scorpion  ?"f  appears  to  be  a  proverbial 
expression  used  in  his  day,  similar  to  the  Greek  proverb,  "a 
scorpion  for  a  fish  ;"  for  we  can  not  admit  the  necessity  of  sup- 
posing, as  has  been  done  by  some  commentators,  the  existence 
of  a  scorpion  closely  resembling  an  egg,  both  in  color  and 
shape,  any  more  than  a  similar  resemblance  between  a  fish  and 
a  serpent,  or  between  bread  and  a  stone,  in  the  preceding  verse. 

The  frequent  references  to  the  scorpion  in  the  Scriptures  in- 
dicate that  it  was  as  common  in  ancient  times  as  at  present. 
The  "ascent  (or  pass)  of  Akrabbim  (or  the  scorpions)"  may  be 
cited  as  an  instance.:}: 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  small  lizards  in  Western  Asia, 
most  of  them  of  a  dark  color,  but  some  variegated,  and  one 
species  of  a  bright  orange.     They  are  graceful  in  form  and 

*  1  Kings  xii.,  14.  t  Luke  xi,,  12.  t  Numb,  xxxiv.,  4. 


312  BIBLE   LANDS. 

movement,  and  perfectly  innocuous.  The  species  to  which 
the  Scriptures  probably  refer^  is  the  only  one  in  the  country 
of  any  considerable  size,  being  about  as  large  as  the  common 
rat,  and  of  a  bright  green  color.  He  seems  to  be  venomous, 
for  it  is  said  that  his  bite  has  sometimes  proved  fatal  to  dogs. 
The  chameleon,  referred  to  in  the  same  passage,  is  about  half 
as  large;  it  is  a  species  of  tree  lizard,  extremely  homely  and 
uncouth,  presenting  the  appearance  of  an  animal  formed  of 
bones  alone,  with  a  thin  skin  covering  them.  The  five  toes 
of  its  feet  are  united,  so  as  to  form  but  two,  resembling  a  thumb 
and  fore-finger.  It  uses  its  bony  tail  as  a  prehensile  instru- 
ment, by  twisting  it  round  a  branch.     Its  protruding  eyeballs 


The  Chameleon  and  its  Tongue.    (Lev.  ii 


are  covered  with  a  thin  skin,  having  a  small  opening  in  the 
centre  in  front  of  the  pupils ;  this  moves  to  and  fro,  as  the  vis- 
ion is  attracted  to  different  objects,  and  the  two  eyes,  being 
usually  turned  in  independent  directions,  give  the  creature  a 
most  singular  appearance.  Its  motions  are  slow  to  an  ex- 
treme, and  as  it  creeps  along  its  entire  body  gradually  as- 
sumes the  color  of  the  branch  or  leaves  of  the  tree  on  which 
it  rests,  becoming  gray,  green,  yellow,  reddish-purple,  or  black, 
as  the  case  may  be,  and  thus  rendering  it  invisible  alike  to 
its  enemies  and  to  its  prey.  When  a  fly  or  any  other  insect 
comes  within  the  chameleon's  reach,  he  turns  toward  it  one  of 
his  goggle-eyes,  and  suddenly  and  unerringly  darts  out  upon  it 


*  Lev.  xi.,  30. 


EEPTILES   AND   INSECTS.  313 

his  long  and  slender  tongue,  whose  extremity  is  furnished  with 
a  glutinous  matter,  and  which  can  be  protruded  to  a  distance 
of  twice  the  animal's  length,  being  formed  on  the  principle  of 
the  spy-glass.  So  sudden  and  rapid  is  the  act  of  thus  seizing 
and  dispatching  his  prey,  that  the  ancients  believed  this  crea- 
ture lived  on  air.  The  reader  can  not  fail  to  notice,  in  perus- 
ing this  account,  that  the  chameleon  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able instances  to  be  met  with  in  animated  nature  of  the  adapta- 
tion of  means  to  an  end  by  the  all-wise  Creator.  The  chame- 
leon, in  common  with  the  other  lizards,  is  never  eaten.* 

The  locust  is  an  insect  to  which  a  painful  interest  attaches, 
on  account  of  its  having  been  one  of  the  severest  scourges  with 
which  Divine  Providence  has,  from  time  immemorial,  visited 
the  human  race  in  the  countries  longest  inhabited  by  man.f 
This  creature  is  spoken 
of  in  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures under  a  variety  of 
names,  and  in  our  version 
as  the  "locust,"  the  "grass- 
hopper,"    the     "beetle,":}:  The  Asiatic  Locust.    (Pea.  cix.,  23.) 

and  the  "green-worm  "  (margin,  Amos  vii.,  1).  But  it  is  now 
agreed  by  commentators  that  these  different  names  designate 
either  the  same  species,  or  very  slight  and  unimportant  varie- 
ties, or  again  different  stages  of  development  of  the  locust. 

These  insects  are  found  at  all  times,  and  in  every  part  of 
Western  Asia,  in  Arabia,  and  in  Northern  Africa.  The  full- 
grown  locusts  are  from  two  to  three  inches  in  length,  and  dif- 
ferent from  the  common  grasshopper  in  their  regularly  elon- 
gated bodies,  their  reddish  color,  and  the  length  of  their  wings, 
which  enable  them  to  rise  to  a  considerable  height  above  the 
ground,  and  to  pass  over  a  distance  of  several  miles  by  sailing 
before  the  wind. 

These  insects  do  not  ordinarily  so  abound  anywhere  as  to 
be  troublesome,  or  to  commit  extensive  ravages.  It  is  only 
occasionally  that  favorable  circumstances  produce  a  great  in- 
crease in  their  numbers,  and  render  them  a  scourge  to  the  lands 
they  inhabit,  or  those  to  which  they  migrate.  They  lay  their 
eggs  in  the  autumn  in  holes  and  cracks  of  the  earth,  and  should 

*  Lev.  xi.,  30.  t  2  Chron.  vii.,  13.  J  Lev.  xi.,  22. 


314  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  winter  be  dry  and  warm,  and  their  numerous  enemies  un- 
successful in  devouring  them,  they  are  hatched  in  the  spring, 
and  cover  the  earth  with  a  black,  moving  mass  of  larvae  which 
do  far  more  injury  than  the  full-grown  lo- 
custs. It  is  in  this  state,  with  their  wings 
yet  unformed,  that  they  are  correctly  pic- 
tured on  a  Babylonian  gem  of  w^hich  our  il- 
lustration is  a  copy.  They  rapidly  attain  the 
Locusts.  From  a  Baby-  size  of  the  common  grasshopper,  and  pro- 
ceed in  one  and  the  same  direction,  first 
crawling,  and  at  a  later  period  leaping  as  they  go,  devouring 
every  green  thing  that  lies  in  their  path.*  They  advance  more 
slowly  than  a  devouring  fire,  but  the  ravages  they  commit  are 
scarcely  inferior  or  less  to  be  dreaded.f  Fields  of  standing 
wheat  and  barley,  vineyards,  mulberry  orchards,  and  groves  of 
olive,  fig,  and  other  trees  are  in  a  few  hours  deprived  of  every 
green  blade  and  leaf,  the  very  bark  being  often  destroyed. 
Their  voracity  is  such,  that  in  the  neighborhood  of  Broosa,  in 
the  year  1856,  an  infant  having  been  left  asleep  in  its  cradle 
under  some  shady  trees  was  found  not  long  after  partly  de- 
voured by  the  locusts !  The  ground  over  which  their  devas- 
tating hordes  have  passed  at  once  assumes  an  appearance  of 
sterility  and  dearth. ;{:  Well  did  the  Romans  call  them  "  the 
burners  of  the  land,"  which  is  the  literal  meaning  of  our  word 
locust.  On  they  move,  covering  the  ground  so  completely 
as  to  hide  it  from  sight,§  and  in  such  numbers  that  it  often 
takes  three  or  four  days  for  the  mighty  host  to  pass  by.  When 
seen  at  a  distance,  this  swarm  of  advancing  locusts  resembles  a 
cloud  of  dust  or  sand,  reaching  a  few  feet  above  the  ground, 
as  the  myriads  of  insects  leap  forward.!  The  only  thing  that 
momentarily  arrests  their  progress  is  a  sudden  change  of  weath- 
er, for  the  cold  benumbs  them  while  it  lasts.  They  also  keep 
quiet  at  night,  swarming  like  bees  on  the  bushes  and  hedges 
until  the  morning  sun  warms  and  revives  them,  and  enables 
them  to  proceed  on  their  devastating  march. T  They  "  have  no 
king"  nor  leader,  yet  they  falter  not,  but  press  on,  in  serried 
ranks,  urged  in  the  same  direction  by  an  irresistible  impulse, 

*  Exod.  X.,  1.').  t  Joel  ii.,  .S. 

X  l^eiit.  xxviii.,  ,38;  Psa.  Ixxviii.,  40 ;  Joel  i.,  7.  §  Exod.  x.,  ."). 

I)  Usslier,  p.  110.  %  Nahnm  iii.,  17. 


REPTILES   AND   INSECTS.  315 

and  turn  neither  to  the  right  hand  nor  to  the  left  for  any  sort 
of  obstacle.*  When  a  wall  or  a  house  lies  in  their  way,  they 
climb  straight  up,  going  over  the  roof  to  the  other  side,  and 
blindly  rush  in  at  the  open  doors  and  windows.f  When  they 
come  to  water,  be  it  a  mere  puddle  or  a  river,  a  lake  or  the 
open  sea,  they  never  attempt  to  go  round  it,  but  unhesitatingly 
leap  in  and  are  drowned,  and  their  dead  bodies  floating  on  the 
surface  form  a  bridge  for  their  companions  to  pass  over.  The 
scourge  thus  often  comes  to  an  end,  but  it  as  often  happens 
that  the  decomposition  of  millions  of  insects  produces  pestilence 
and  death.:};  History  records  a  remarkable  instance  which  oc- 
curred in  the  year  125  before  the  Christian  era.  The  insects 
were  driven  by  the  wind  into  the  sea,  in  such  vast  numbers 
that  their  bodies,  being  driven  back  by  the  tide  upon  the  land, 
caused  a  stench  which  produced  a  fearful  plague,  whereby 
eighty  thousand  persons  perished  in  Libya,  Cyrene,  and  Egypt.§ 
The  locust,  however,  soon  acquires  its  wings,  and  proceeds 
on  its  way  by  flight,  whenever  a  strong  breeze  favors  its  prog- 
ress. Our  attention  has  often  been  attracted  by  the  sudden 
darkening  of  the  sun  in  a  summer  sky,  accompanied  by  the 
peculiar  noise  which  a  swarm  of  locusts  always  makes  moving 
through  the  air,  and,  glancing  upward,  we  have  seen  them 
passing  like  a  cloud  at  a  height  of  two  or  three  hundred  feet.|| 
Some  of  them  are  constantly  dropping  to  the  earth,  and,  after 
resting  a  while,  are  driven  by  a  common  impulse  to  rise  again 
and  proceed  with  the  wind,  so  that  besides  the  principal  cloud, 
single  locusts  or  a  few  together  may  be  seen  in  almost  every 
part  of  the  sky.  During  a  great  flight  they  sometimes  drop 
so  thickly  upon  the  ground  that  it  is  impossible  to  step  with- 
out treading  upon  some  of  them,  and  the  poor  villagers,  in  con- 
sternation, busy  themselves  kindling  fires,  whose  smoke  serves 
to  prevent  the  locusts  from  alighting  upon  their  fields,  or- 
chards, or  vineyards.  The  people  of  Syria  believe  noise  to  be 
as  effectual  in  driving  away  locusts  as  in  attracting  a  swarm 
of  bees ;  hence,  upon  the  appearance  of  a  flight  of  these  dread- 
ed insects,  the  inhabitants  of  the  villages,  men,  women,  and 
children,  rush  out,  armed  with  any  tin  or  copper  pans  or  ket- 


*  Prov.  XXX.,  27.  t  Exod.  x.,  6 ;  Joel  ii.,  9.  %  Joel  ii.,  20. 

§  See  authorities  quoted  by  Piideaux,  vol.  iii.,  p.  417.  I|  Joel  ii.,  10. 


316  BIBLE    LAXDS. 

ties  or  rattles  they  can  lay  hold  of,  and  strive,  by  their  deaf- 
ening shouts  and  din,  to  scare  the  unwelcome  visitors  away. 
The  flying  locust,  however,  is  not  so  much  feared  as  its  larvae, 
which  advance  only  by  creeping  and  jumping;  for,  however 
numerous  they  may  be,  they  are  sure  to  disappear  with  the 
first  wind,  from  whatever  quarter  it  may  come ;  and  when  this 
happens  to  blow  in  the  direction  of  the  sea,  they  are  soon  drop- 
ped upon  its  billows,  till  there  remains  "not  a  locust  in  all  the 
coasts."* 

The  foregoing  statements  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  the 
plague  of  the  locusts  was  brought  by  Moses  upon  the  land  of 
Egypt,  and  subsequentl}^  withdrawn.  They  doubtless  flew  with 
a  north-east  wind  over  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  were  driven 
back  by  a  cool  north-west  wind,  which  caused  them  to  perish 
in  the  Red  Sea;f  for  we  must  bear  in  mind  that,  though  most 
of  the  flights  of  locusts  are  from  Arabia,  or  Central  Africa 
northward,  yet  one  species,  called  migraton'a,  from  its  extended 
wanderings,  is  supposed  to  originate  in  the  plains  of  Tartary, 
and  spreads  thence  to  Persia,  Arabia,  Western  Asia,  and  even 
to  the  Mauritius.  This  species  has  also  visited  Europe,  and 
found  its  way,  in  1748,  to  the  British  Isles. 

The  locusts  have  numerous  enemies.  The  approach  of  a 
flight  of  these  insects  is  the  signal  for  the  storks,  crows,  spar- 
row-hawks, magpies,  starlings,  and  many  other  birds,  to  gather 
together  for  a  feast.  But  their  greatest  enemy  is  the  rose-col- 
ored starling,  a  beautiful 
creature — its  body  a  del- 
icate pink,  with  jet-black 
wings  and  tail  —  which 
goes  in  flocks,  and  whose 
appearance  is  a  sure  sign 

The  rose-colored  Starling.  xi     i    t  i.  i.    r 

that  locusts  are  not  far 
away.  The  usefulness  of  this  bird  is  so  fully  recognized  that 
stringent  laws  exist  forbidding  its  destruction.  Man  also,  who 
suffers  most  from  the  depredations  of  the  locusts,  is  one  of  their 
active  foes.  It  is  a  popular  belief  in  Western  Asia  that,  where 
a  great  flight  of  these  insects  invades  a  district,  they  continue 
in  it  for  seven  successive  years.     This  belief  may  have  had 

*  Exod.  X.,  19.  t  Exod.  x.,  13-19. 


I 


REPTILES   AND   INSECTS.  319 

some  foundation,  in  fact,  during  the  long  ages  when  Moham- 
medan fatalism  prevented  the  use  of  means  to  ward  off  the  ef- 
fects of  any  natural  calamity.  No  hope  of  deliverance  from 
locusts  was  then  entertained  unless  ^'•kismeV  (the  Fates)  should 
vouchsafe  to  them  an  exceptionallj^  cold  or  rainy  winter.  But 
more  rational  ideas  have  crept  in  from  Europe  during  the  last 
half  century,  and  the  government  now  spends  considerable 
sums  in  encouraging  the  people  to  collect  and  destroy  the  eggs 
of  this  insect.  This  has  sensibly  diminished  the  extent,  and 
shortened  the  duration  of  their  inroads.  The  full-grown  insect, 
moreover,  is  extensively  eaten  by  the  poorer  classes  through- 
out Africa,  Arabia,  and  Persia,  particularly  by  the  Bedawin  of 
the  desert.  When  the  locusts  come  down  upon  the  face  of  the 
earth,  crowds  of  people  go  forth,  and  collect  vast  numbers  of 
them  in  bags,  even  loading  horses  and  cattle  with  the  booty. 
They  are  roasted  and  eaten  as  butter  upon  loaves  of  bread, 
resembling  shrimps  in  taste,  or  they  are  boiled  in  water  with  a 
little  salt,  dried  in  the  sun,  and,  being  deprived  of  their  wings 
and  legs,  are  packed  in  bags  for  use.  They  are  beaten  to  a 
powder,  which  is  mixed  with  flour  and  water,  made  into  little 
cakes,  and  used  as  a  substitute  for  bread  when  flour  is  scarce. 
Dried  locusts  are  generally  exposed  for  sale  in  the  markets  of 
Medina,  Bagdad,  and  even  Damascus. 

The  statement  that  John  the  Baptist's  food,  while  in  the 
wilderness,  chiefly  consisted  of  "locusts  and  wild  honey,"* 
would  best  describe  the  habitual  ftire  of  those  who  at  the  pres- 
ent day  lead  a  life  of  isolation  and  poverty  in  the  same  region ; 
and  we  know  that  the  Mosaic  law  allowed  the  Hebrews  to  eat 
the  locust.f 

The'frequent  description  of  Palestine  as  a  land  "flowing  with 
milk  and  honey,"  points  out  the  fact  that  the  honey-bee,  and,  as 
a  concomitant,  wild  flowers  too,  abounded  in  it  anciently  as  at 
the  present  day.  The  flowers  are  so  various  in  Western  Asia, 
that  the  honey  of  different  districts  assumes  very  marked  pecul- 
iarities. The  honey  of  Kirk-Aghaj,  near  Pergamus,  in  Asia 
Minor,  chiefly  made  of  the  flower  of  the  cotton-plant,  it  is  said, 
so  closely  resembles  butter  in  appearance,  that  it  can  only  be 
detected  by  the  taste.     The  honey  of  Mount  Hymettus  is  dark 

*  Matt,  iii.,  4.  t  Lev.  xi.,  22. 


320  BIBLE   LANDS. 

and  disagreeable  to  persons  unused  to  it;  the  Athenians  prefer 
it  to  every  other.     It  is  made  of  the  flowers  of  aromatic  plants. 

Pococke  relates  that  when  the  Egyptians  on  the  Upper  Nile 
find  that  their  bees  obtain  no  more  honey  around  their  villages, 
they  take  their  hives  on  boats  and  sail  down  the  river,  stop- 
ping at  every  green  spot  to  let  the  bees  collect  honej'-  from  the 
flowers  on  the  shore ;  so  that  by  the  time  they  reach  Cairo, 
which  is  their  market,  their  hives  are  full  of  honey.*  In  some 
parts  of  Asia  Minor,  the  hives  which  are  kept  in  the  villages 
are  transported  at  a  certain  season  of  the  year  to  the  slopes  and 
high  plains  of  the  mountains,  where  the  bees  feed  upon  the 
blossoms  of  the  pine  and  of  mountain  plants.  Orientals  are 
very  fond  of  honey,  and  usually  eat  it  in  the  comb.  Wax  is 
used  to  make  tapers  and  candles,  which  are  chiefly  burned  in 
the  performance  of  religious  rites. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  insects  to  be  met  with  in  "West- 
ern Asia,  unknown  indeed  to  the  ancients,  but  decking  the  mod- 
erns in  glossy  garments,  and  creating  an  industry  which  sup- 
ports thousands  of  people  upon  the  slopes  of  Mount  Lebanon, 
and  hundreds  of  thousands  in  other  portions  of  the  lands  of  the 
Bible,  is  the  silk-worm.  Its  produce  appears  to  have  been  un- 
known in  the  West  until  the  conquests  of  Alexander.  At  a 
later  period  silk  was  made  in  Persia;  but  the  silk- worm  was 
not  introduced  in  Western  Asia  until  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Justinian,  i.  e.,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixth  century.  Silk  was 
at  one  time  so  great  a  luxury  in  Eome,  that  it  was  sold  for  an 
equal  weight  of  gold.f  'There  are  few  persons  now  who  do 
not  wear  more  or  less  silk.  The  cultivation  of  the  mulberry- 
tree,  the  cutting  of  its  branches  and  leaves,  the  gradual  growth 
of  the  worm,  the  formation  of  the  cocoon,  the  issuing  forth  of 
the  butterfly,  and  the  laying  of  the  tiny  eggs,  are  episodes  in 
the  process  of  silk-making  which  we  have  often  watched  with 
intensest  interest.  We  allude  to  this  because  it  is  an  impor- 
tant item  in  the  life  of  the  modern  population  of  Bible  lands, 
silk-worms  being  reared  from  Persia  to  the  ^gean  and  almost 
to  the  Red  Sea.  Much  of  the  silk  thus  obtained  is  consumed 
at  home ;  but  large  quantities  go  to  Europe,  the  value  of  the 
article  compensating  the  heavy  cost  and  insecurity  of  transpor- 


*  Pococke,  vol.  i.,  p.  210.  t  Prldeaux,  vol.  iv.,  p.  302,  note. 


EEPTILES   AND   INSECTS. 


321 


tation.  We  give  a  sketch  of  the  various  episodes  in  the  life  of 
the  silk-worm,  for  the  gratification  of  such  of  our  readers  as 
may  not  be  familiar  with  them. 


Silk-worm,  Cocoon,  Larva,  Butterfly,  aud  Eggs. 

The  caterpillar  is  at  the  present  day  a  great  scourge  in  the 
lands  of  the  Bible.  There  are  several  species,  and  their  rav- 
ages are  mostly  confined  to  fruit -bearing  shrubs  and  trees. 
They  are  doubtless  referred  to  in  Joel  i.,  4,  and  ii.,  25,  and  in 
Amos  iv.,  9,  where  the  Hebrew  word  is  translated  "  palmer- 
worm"  and  "canker-worm"  in  our  version. 

No  injury  appears  to  be  done  to  either  plant  or  tree  by  the 
cicada  (not  a  gryllus,  but  of  the  order  Homoptera),  an  insect  which 
looks  like  a  common  fly  magnified  to  one  and  a  half  inches  in 
length.*  It  spends  the  entire  day  in  singing,  as  is  inimitably 
told  by  La  Fontaine,  in  his  fable  entitled  "  La  Cigale  and  la 
Fourmie,"  and  spends  the  winter  buried  in  the  earth.  She  is  as 
great  a  favorite  with  the  moderns  as  she  was  with  the  ancients, 
with  Homer,  Anacreon,  Virgil,  and  the  Athenians;  yet  her  song 
is  monotonous  in  the  extreme.  She  is  a  social  creature,  for  she 
is  not  only  gregarious,  but  ever  resorts  to  the  neighborhood  of 
human  dwellings.  No  conception  of  the  country  can  be  com- 
plete and  perfect  which  does  not  throw  in  the  element  of  the 
cicada's  unceasing  song  by  day,  and  of  the  innumerable  crickets 

*  A  small  species  of  cicada  occurs  in  North  America,  called  a  locust,  while  the 
locust  of  the  Bible,  which  has  this  year  (1874)  committed  so  terrible  ravages  at 
the  "West,  is  there  called  a  grasshopper. 


322  BIBLE   LANDS. 

by  night,  varied  here  and  there  by  the  hooting  of  the  mournful 
owl  or  the  duke,  or  the  chatter  of  the  screech-owl. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  fact  that  many  varieties  of 
shell-fish  are  eaten  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Of 
the  land  shells,  one  alone  is  used  as  an  article  of  food ;  it  is  the 
common  helix,  or  snail,  whose  shell  is  an  inch  and  a  half  to  two 
inches  in  diameter.  It  is  eaten,  however,  only  by  the  poorer 
classes,  excepting  during  the  long  fasts  of  the  Christian  sects  pre- 
ceding Christmas  and  Easter,  when  snails  are  gathered  in  large 
numbers,  in  the  gardens  and  among  the  bushes  on  the  hill- 
sides ;  and  they  are  exposed  for  sale  in  the  markets.  They  are 
thrown  into  boiling  water,  and,  when  cooked,  resemble  clams 
in  taste  and  consistency.  They  were,  in  all  probability,  sim- 
ilarly eaten  by  the  poor  Hebrews ;  for  the  word  "  snail,"  in  the 
list  of  animals  forbidden  as  food  by  the  Mosaic  law,*  seems  to 
be  an  incorrect  rendering,  and  refers  to  some  kind  of  lizard. 
It  is  thought  by  some  commentators  that  David's  comparison 
of  the  wicked  to  the  melting  of  a  snailf  indicates  a  belief  that 
this  animal  melted  away,  like  snow  or  ice ;  it  seems  to  us,  how- 
ever, that  it  rather  refers  to  the  well-known  habits  of  the  snail, 
which  boldly  comes  forth  from  its  shell,  blind  to  all  danger, 
and  runs  out  its  feelers  to  their  utmost  length,  but  quickly 
withdraws  them  at  the  slightest  touch,  and  rapidly  and  coward- 
ly retreats  within  its  fortress.  The  snail,  moreover,  is  so  frail 
that  it  may  be  crushed  by  its  most  insignificant  enem}^  and 
aptly  illustrates  the  utter  impotency  of  the  proudest  and  might- 
iest of  the  wicked  under  the  government  of  Jehovah. 

The  fly  is  repeatedly  spoken  of  in  Scripture  as  a  divine 
scourge;  not  only  with  reference  to  one  of  the  plagues  at  the 
time  of  Israel's  exodus,;}:  but  also  at  other  and  subsequent 
periods.§  It  continues  so  to  be  at  the  present  day.  The  in- 
sect to  which  we  refer  is  the  common  horse-fly,  which  greatly 
multiplies  in  all  the  low  grounds  formed  of  rich  and  well-wa- 
tered alluvial  soil,  as  soon  as  the  spring  rains  have  fallen  and 
the  warm  weather  begins.  The  shepherds  and  herdsmen  and 
all  the  nomads  are  then  compelled  to  drive  their  flocks  to  the 
mountains  and  elevated  plateaus,  to  save  them  from  being  tor- 
mented by  these  insects.     Wild  animals  set  the  example,  and 

•  Lev.  xi.,  30.         t  Psa.  Iviii.,  8.         {  Exod.  viii.,  21-24.         §  Isa.  vii.,  18. 


REPTILES   AND   INSECTS.  823 

regularly  migrate  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  grounds,  and 
even  seek  the  deepest  shades  of  the  forest.  Nor  is  it  an  un- 
common sight  to  see  a  long-tailed  magpie  or  a  jackdaw  coolly 
seated  upon  the  back  of  a  sheep  or  a  deer,  picking  off  a  good 
meal  of  flies  from  the  evidently  grateful  sufferer. 

But  the  fly  which  chiefly  constituted  the  plague  of  Egypt* 
may  have  been  the  destructive  fly  called  tsaltsalya  in  Abyssinia,f 
and  tsetse  in  South  Africa,:}:  which  kills  cattle  and  horses,  and 
even  attacks  men.  It  is  confined  to  the  low  rich  lands  formed 
of  black  mould,  where  it  usually  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
rainy  season.  Hence  Goshen,  which  was  not  overflown  by  the 
Nile,  but  contained  pasturage,  was  distinguished  from  the  rest 
of  Egypt  first  of  all  in  the  plague  of  the  flies.§ 

In  the  present  chapter  we  have  not  attempted  any  thing  like 
a  complete  list  of  the  insects  and  creeping  things  which  abound 
in  Western  Asia.  We  are  not  writing  either  the  natural  history 
or  the  entomology  of  those  interesting  lands;  our  object  is  sim- 
ply to  place  before  the  reader's  mind  a  complete  picture  of  the 
principal  surroundings  of  the  present  inhabitants  of  those  coun- 
tries, and  of  the  influence  they  exert  upon  their  character  and 
manners.  We  shall  presently  visit  their  homes,  and  picture  to 
our  readers  men,  women,  and  children  just  as  they  are — ana- 
lyze their  every -day  life,  mingle  in  their  joys  and  sorrows. 
We  may  then  again  have  occasion  to  refer  to  objects  in  nature, 
now  delineated,  and  sometimes  to  touch  upon  other  objects  of 
secondary  importance,  not  previously  mentioned,  but  required 
to  make  the  picture  complete,  and  point  out,  as  far  as  we  are 
able,  wherein  they  agree,  and  in  what  respects  they  differ  from 
those  of  Bible  times. 

We  have  now  placed  before  our  readers  a  description  of  the 
physical  features  and  natural  productions  of  the  lands  of  the 
Bible,  directing  our  attention  chiefly,  but  by  no  means  exclu- 
sively, to  that  most  interesting  portion  of  our  globe  which  was 
the  scene  of  the  principal  events  recorded  in  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  and  particularly  pointing  their  influence  upon 
the  manners,  the  customs,  and  the  life  and  character  of  the  in- 

*  Psa.  Ixxviii.,  45 ;  cv.,  31.  t  Bruce,  vol.  vi.,  p.  234. 

t  Livingstone,  p.  G12. 

§  Exod.  viii.,  22.  The  plague  of  the  common  fly  is  described  by  Denham  and 
Ciapperton,  vol.  i.,  p.  421. 


324  BIBLE    LANDS. 

habitants.  In  perusing  this  account,  it  is  impossible  not  to 
be  struclv  with  the  slightness  of  the  changes  that  have  taken 
place  in  those  countries  from  the  earliest  historic  period  down 
to  the  present  time.  True,  the  cities  are  all  in  ruins;  scarcely 
one  stone  is  left  standing  upon  another  of  all  the  "  pleasant 
habitations"  of  these  goodly  lands;  the  country  has  been 
wasted,  and  its  fertility  impaired  ;  the  forests  have  been  burned 
or  cut  down,  and  some  of  the  most  fruitful  regions  have  be- 
come desolate.  Yet  all  the  principal  features  remain  unalter- 
ed ;  the  contour  of  the  mountains  and  the  hills,  the  very  rocks, 
plains,  and  valleys,  and  the  raeanderings  of  the  streams,  are 
still  the  same.  But  changes  there  are,  consisting  chiefly  in  the 
relative  proportions  of  the  products  of  the  soil.  We  have  al- 
ready pointed  out  some  of  these  changes,  and  as  the  subject 
has  an  important  bearing  on  our  final  deductions,  we  sum  them 
up  in  the  following  brief  epitome :  The  cedar  has  almost  disap- 
peared from  "the  goodly  Lebanon,"  and  the  cypress  shoots  up 
tall  and  tapering  from  many  a  spot  on  the  plain  below ;  the 
palm-tree  has  ceased  to  be  the  appropriate  emblem  of  the  land 
of  Phoenicia;  and  the  mulberry,  almost  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients, is  now  extensively  cultivated  for  the  production  of  silk, 
but  as  it  requires  irrigation,  it  is  mostly  confined  to  the  slopes 
of  the  mountains  and  the  banks  of  the  streams.  The  people 
were  anciently  clad  in  woolen  and  linen ;  the  former  is  still 
used,  but  for  the  latter  cheap  cotton  fabrics  and  costly  silks 
have  been  substituted.* 

The  consequence  is  that  the  body  is  covered  more  than 
formerly,  and  "  anointing  with  oil "  has  ceased  to  be  practiced. 
The  fruits  of  the  earth  are  unchanged,  but  rice  was  intro- 
duced by  the  caliphs,  and  is  extensively  produced ;  it  is  now  an 
important  article  of  food.  Tobacco  is  widely  cultivated,  and 
its  use  has  become  so  universal  that  it  is  hard  to  conceive  of 

*  It  seems  impossible  now  to  ascertain  with  any  degree  of  certainty  at  what  pe- 
riod cotton  was  introduced  into  Western  Asia.  Many  authors  of  weight  claim 
that  it  was  known  to  tlie  ancient  Egyptians  ;  but  the  most  careful  examination  of 
the  wrappings  of  the  mummies  has  failed  to  reveal  the  jjresence  of  cotton.  The 
earliest  distinct  reference  to  the  plant  is  found  in  the  writings  of  I'liny,  who  lived 
in  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  of  our  era.  Our  word  cotton  is,  however, 
evidently  Arabic,  and  the  plant  is  thought  to  have  existed  in  Arabia  from  time 
immemorial.  References  to  the  use  of  cotton  as  a  material  for  garments,  even  to 
the  starching  of  it,  are  fotmd  in  ancient  Indian  books,  called  the  "  Institutes  of 
Manu,"  dating  as  far  back  as  800  u.c. — Wilson,  "  Rig-veda,"  vol.  viii.,  p.  105. 


i 


REPTILES   AND   INSECTS.  325 

the  fact  that  but  a  few  centuries  ago  this  weed  was  quite  un- 
known. Coffee,  also,  has  become  an  indispensable  commodity, 
though  there  is  no  trace  of  its  having  been  employed  by  the 
ancients.  The  use  of  these  two  narcotics  can  not  fail  to  have 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  temper  and  character 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Bible  lands. 

Some  of  the  wild  animals  have  disappeared,  for  the  lion's 
roar  is  no  longer  heard  in  the  mountains  of  Judea;  the  wild 
ass  has  withdrawn  to  the  Eastern  desert,  and  the  ostrich  is 
now  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  African  wastes.  Some  of 
the  useful  domestic  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  have  increased 
in  numbers  but  deteriorated  in  quality,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the 
insecurity  of  life  and  property.  Cattle  are  smaller  and  weaker, 
for  they  are  farther  removed  from  the  terrible  "  reem  "  which 
constituted  the  original  stock,  and  has  almost  perished  from 
the  face  of  the  earth.  The  buffalo,  however,  has  been  intro- 
duced from  India,  and  is  extensively  employed  in  work  to 
which  the  now  diminished  cattle  are  no  longer  equal.  But  the 
horse,  being  more  than  ever  the  dependence  and  right  arm  of 
man,  has  probably  improved,  especially  in  the  Arabian  breeds. 
The  common  kinds  have  doubtless  become  more  common,  and 
perhaps  the  mule  and  the  ass  as  well. 

While,  however,  we  bear  in  mind  the  slight  changes  just 
pointed  out,  we  are  more  and  more  strongly  impressed  with 
the  remarkable  resemblance  still  existing  between  the  Bible 
lands  of  ancient  times  and  those  of  the  present  day. 

We  again  remind  our  readers  that  our  description  thus  far 
has  had  for  its  object  not  so  much  a  correct  delineation  of  the 
land  and  its  products,  as  a  description  of  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms which  are  connected  with  their  cultivation  and  uses.  It 
will  be  conceded  that  this  class  of  customs  was  least  likely  to 
be  altered  by  the  political  changes  which  have  ensued  in  the 
course  of  ages.  We  have,  therefore,  in  this  first  portion  of  our 
work,  confined  ourselves  to  the  description  of  these  manners 
and  customs,  the  better  to  prepare  the  reader  for  the  study  of 
those  which  are  more  liable  to  vary,  and  which,  indeed,  we  shall 
find  very  considerably  modified. 


f 


t 


PART  II. 

CUSTOMS  WHICH  HAVE  A  HISTORICAL  ORIGIN. 


I 


INTRODUCTORY  TO  PART  11. 


In  the  former  part  of  this  work  we  have  endeavored  to  de- 
Hneate  the  physical  peculiarities  of  the  lauds  of  the  Bible,  aud 
more  particularly  of  Palestine,  as  far  as  they  affect  the  charac- 
ter and  life  of  their  inhabitants ;  and,  without  going  into  a  scien- 
tific investigation  of  their  botany  and  natural  history,  we  have 
given  such  an  account  of  their  productions  as  will  enable  the 
reader  to  form  a  correct  idea  of  the  diet  and  clothing  of  the  in- 
habitants, and  of  the  manner  of  cultivating  the  soil  and  ob- 
taining the  means  of  subsistence.  Whatever  political  changes 
occur  in  a  country,  and  even  when  the  population  is  destroyed 
or  transported,  and  its  place  is  occupied  by  a  foreign  race,  the 
customs  and  practices  relating  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  and 
to  other  natural  sources  of  wealth  are  apt  to  be  adopted,  with- 
out change  or  modification,  by  the  new  proprietors  of  the  land. 
This  has  been  more  particularly  the  case  when  the  conquerors 
were  possessed  of  a  civilization  inferior  to  that  attained  by  the 
conquered,  or  when  the  lands  from  which  they  came  differed 
materially  in  their  climate  and  productions  from  those  of  which 
they  have  taken  possession.  When  the  Israelites  conquered 
the  land  of  Canaan,  they  killed  every  man,  woman,  and  child 
of  the  cities  they  subdued;*  the  property  remained  uninjured, 
and  thus  the  victors  entered  at  once  into  possession  of  houses 
furnished  and  stored,  cultivated  fields,  vineyards,  and  orchards 
in  full  bearing,  and  the  very  tools  and  implements  of  husband- 
ry ready  to  their  hands,  while  the  pastures  were  filled  with 
bleating  flocks  and  herds  of  cattle.f  They  slid  at  once  into 
the  places  of  the  former  inhabitants,  and  being  acquainted  with 
the  husbandry  of  Egypt,  from  whence  they  had  come,  they, 
with  the  help  of  the  Gibeonites,  perhaps,  and  others  of  their 
enemies  whom  they  had  spared,  speedily  became  proficients  in 
the  cultivation  of  their  new  possessions.:}:    This  is,  perhaps,  the 

*  Deut.  XX.,  10-16.  t  Deut.  vi.,  10, 11.  t  Josh,  ix.,  17,  18,  21. 


830  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Strongest  case  which  has  occurred  in  the  entire  history  of  those 
oft -conquered  regions.  In  other  instances  the  barbarians, 
whether  Arabs  or  Tartars,  who  have  taken  possession  of  the 
land,  after  destroying  a  portion  of  the  population,  selected  for 
their  own  use  whatever  suited  their  fancy,  reduced  the  con- 
quered to  a  state  of  semi-serfdom,  and  gradually  learned  from 
them  the  art  of  acquiring  the  natural  products  of  the  soil. 

Thus  f;xr,  therefore,  our  task  has  been  an  easy  one.  We 
shall  now  enter  upon  inquiries  of  a  far  more  difficult  nature, 
and  demanding  greater  care  and  discrimination.  It  by  no 
means  follows  that  a  new  people  supplanting  the  old,  adopt,  as 
a  matter  of  course,  all  their  manners  and  habits,  even  when  the 
former  are  barbarians  and  the  latter  highly  civilized.  The 
conqueror  must  necessarily  retain  many  of  the  old  notions  and 
usages  of  the  land  of  his  fathers,  and  these  may  differ  so  great- 
ly from  those  of  the  land  of  his  adoption  as  gradually  to  ob- 
literate the  latter.  Hence  the  difficulty  of  our  task.  The  lands 
we  are  studying  have  for  more  than  two  thousand  years  been 
subject  to  greater  political  changes  than  any  other  portion  of 
the  globe.  New  nations,  sometimes  unknown  before  to  his- 
tory, have  rushed  in  with  an  irresistible  impetus,  and,  break- 
ing down  every  barrier,  have  settled  and  mingled  with  the  old 
populations,  making  a  new  compound,  both  physical  and  moral ; 
new  religions  have  supplanted  the  old,  relentlessly  persecuting 
their  followers  even  unto  death.  In  this  mingling  together  of 
the  broken  strata  of  human  society,  how  shall  we  be  able  to  fix 
the  exact  period  to  which  belong  all  the  fossil  remains  we  dis- 
cover, and  make  up  the  complete  form  and  delineation  of  Jew- 
ish society,  manners,  and  customs?  The  task  seems  a  difficult 
one;  but  by  confining  ourselves  to  single  objects  of  inquiry, 
we  shall  doubtless  simplify  it,  and  clear,  in  a  measure  at  least, 
the  path  our  successors  may  pursue  after  us. 

We  propose,  in  the  first  place,  to  pass  in  review  the  diffi?rent 
tribes  and  peoples  which  now  occupy  the  lands  of  the  Bible, 
and  afterward  to  point  out  whatever  in  their  manners  and  cus- 
toms appears  to  have  been  derived  from,  or  at  least  bears  the 
closest  resemblance  to,  those  which  were  prevalent  among  the 
Hebrews  while  the  sacred  record  was  penned. 

In  order  to  facilitate  this  inquiry,  we  now  call  the  reader's 
attention  to  our  ethnological  map  of  the  lands  of  the  Bible, 


INTRODUCTORY   TO    PART   11.  331 

whose  study  is  of  equal  importance  with  that  of  the  physical 
map  at  the  commencement  of  this  work. 

AVe  must  premise,  however,  that  this  chart  is  only  an  ap- 
proximation to  the  truth,  the  different  nations  which  occupy 
the  country  being  often  so  mixed  together  that  a  perfect  map 
would  need  to  be  large  enough  to  show  the  smallest  village  as 
well  as  the  different  quarters  of  the  cities.  Few  towns  are  oc- 
cupied by  one  nation  alone ;  some  contain  half  a  dozen ;  yet 
though  thus  mingled,  they  no  more  coalesce  than  oil  and  water. 
They  live  in  their  own  particular  streets  in  the  cities,  and  in 
separate  villages  in  the  country.  Each  preserves  unchanged 
the  manners,  customs,  dress,  religion,  and  often  even  the  lan- 
guage and  literature  of  its  ancestors.  In  marking  the  limits 
of  these  different  nations  upon  our  map,  we  have  sacrificed  mi- 
nuteness of  detail  to  general  correctness.  We  have  indicated 
but  few  of  the  cities,  and  have  assigned  the  various  districts  in 
accordance  with  the  rural  population,  which  generally  decides 
that  of  the  cities.  The  reader  must  bear  in  mind,  however, 
that  the  Turks  usually  crowd  into  the  largest  towns,  though 
by  no  means  inclined  to  commercial  pursuits.  A  district  of 
country  is  often  occupied  by  two  or  more  distinct  races  pro- 
miscuously scattered,  though  in  separate  villages.  This  could 
be  represented  only  upon  a  very  large  map,  and  we  have  con- 
tented ourselves  with  indicating  the  presence  of  each  of  these 
races  by  applying  its  representative  color  to  a  portion  of  the 
district.  Our  enumeration  of  the  races  marked  upon  the  map 
begins  with  those  which  lie  about  the  circumference  and  far- 
thest from  the  centre. 

1.  The  north-west  corner  of  the  map  is  occupied  by  Euro- 
pean Turkey.  The  races  now  dwelling  there,  and  to  which 
reference  is  made  in  the  Scriptures,  are  the  Macedonians*  and 
the  Greeks.f  Several  of  Paul's  epistles  were  addressed  to 
churches  gathered  from  among  these  people. 

2.  The  north-east  corner  of  the  map,  comprising  the  north- 
ern slopes  of  the  Caucasus  and  the  steppes  bordering  on  the 
Caspian  Sea,  are  mostly  occupied  by  the  Tartar  race,  with 
whom  we  have  included  some  petty  tribes  of  doubtful  origin. 


*  Dan.  viii.,  21 ;  Acts  xvi.,  11-40  ;  xviii.,  5 
t  Acts  xviii.,  1-18. 


332  BIBLE   LANDS. 

The  same  race  is  also  marked  as  occupying  the  Crimea,  and 
the  northern  portions  of  Persia. 

3.  The  south-east  portion  of  the  map  is  occupied  by  the 
subjects  of  the  Shah  of  Persia,  who,  though  of  various  origin, 
have  been  included  under  one  head,  and  are  represented  on 
the  map  by  one  uniform  color.  There  is  probably  more  amal- 
gamation there  than  in  Turkey ;  still  the  distinction  between 
the  real  Persians  and  the  Turkmens,  the  Loor,  the  Yezidies, 
the  Koords,  the  Nestorians,  the  Armenians,  and  the  Jews, 
which  compose  the  population  of  Persia,  is  nevertheless  clear 
and  well  defined. 

4.  The  southern  part  of  the  map,  toward  the  centre,  is  the 
home  of  the  Arab  race.  The  portion  of  their  country  here 
represented  is  mostly  a  desert,  capable  of  supporting  the  flocks 
and  herds  of  that  hardy  people,  but  not  susceptible  of  cultiva- 
tion. Nomadic  in  their  habits,  these  tribes  move  north  every 
spring,  and  south  every  autumn  with  the  sun,  owing  to  the 
scarcity  of  water.  The  borders  of  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Meso- 
potamia are  occupied  by  settled  Arabs,  probably  descendants 
mostly  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  those  countries,  who  have 
adopted  the  language  and  manners  of  the  Bedawy,  with  whom 
they  have  also  intermarried. 

5.  The  south-west  corner  of  the  map  is  occupied  by  descend- 
ants of  the  ancient  Numidians  and  others  of  Northern  Africa, 
who  have  become  amalgamated  with  their  Saracen  conquerors 
by  the  adoption  of  their  faith. 

6.  Between  these  last  two  countries  lies  the  valley  of  the 
Nile,  the  fertile  Egypt.  It  was  anciently  inhabited  by  the 
Coptic  race  {Coof  of  the  Scriptures,  and  our  Egypt).  These 
have  coalesced  with  their  Arab  invaders,  and  constitute  the 
modern  Fellahin.  A  portion,  indeed,  of  the  Copts  have  pre- 
served their  nationality  by  refusing  to  give  up  the  Christian 
faith,  but  they  number  no  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  souls.* 

7.  The  gypsies,  whom  we  have  put  down  in  Egypt,  near 
Constantinople,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  are 
few  in  number,  and  strikingly  resemble  in  character,  occupa- 
tion, and  physiognomy  their  brethren  in  all  other  parts  of  the 


*  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  27. 


INTRODUCTORY   TO    PART   II.  333 

world.  In  Asia  Minor  they  profess  Cliristianity  in  connection 
with  the  Armenian  Church.  Elsewhere  they  are  Muslims, 
though  often  of  inimical  sects.* 

8.  The  greater  part  of  Palestine,  and  of  the  strip  of  land 
which  lies  between  Mount  Lebanon  and  the  sea,  is  occupied  by 
a  mixed  race,  probably  the  remains  of  the  ancient  Phoenicians, 
Philistines,  Hebrews,  and  others,  who  were  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, or  Islam,  but  never  amalgamated  with  the  Arabs. 

9:  The  country  back  of  Sidon,  and  the  region  to  the  north 
of  Tripoli  as  far  as  Antioch,  as  well  as  a  part  of  Coelo-Syria,  are 
occupied  by  three  tribes  called  Me-ta-wileh,  Noosa'iryeh,  and 
Ismailyeh,  numbering  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
souls.  The  first  are  Muslims  of  the  Sheite  sect,  or  Fatimites, 
as  were  the  Egyptians  before  the  conquest  by  Sultan  Selim, 
and  as  the  Persians  now  are.  The  two  latter  appear  to  be 
remnants  of  the  original  Phoenicians ;  they  have  dialects  of 
their  own,  and  hold  fast  to  their  heathenism,  refusing  to  accept 
either  Christianity  or  Islam,  but  they  avoid  persecution  by  a 
hypocritical  profession  of  the  latter. 

10.  The  Syrian  race  extends  from  the  "goodly  Lebanon," 
and  through  a  part  of  Mesopotamia,  to  the  mountains  of  Koor- 
distan.  These  people  belong  chiefly  to  the  old  Jacobite  Syrian 
Church,  but  many  have  submitted  to  Rome,  those  particularly 
who  inhabit  Mount  Lebanon,  and  are  called  Maronites.  The 
southern  part  of  this  mountain  is  occupied  by  Druses,  an  Arab 
tribe,  who  hold  to  a  semi-Muslim  system  of  religion,  and  a  part 
of  whom  inhabit  the  neighboring  district  of  Hauran,  on  the 
edge  of  the  desert. 

11.  The  Chaldeans,  often  called  Nestorians,  are  such  of  the 
aborigines  of  Mesopotamia,  Assyria,  and  Chaldea  as  did  not 
exchange  their  Christianity  for  the  faith  of  Islam.  They  now 
live  in  the  mountains  of  Koordistan  as  far  east  as  the  Lake 
of  Ooroomia,  also  in  Assyria  and  Mesopotamia,  and  westward 
as  far  as  Diarbekir.  They  number  about  eighty  thousand 
souls.  To  the  same  race  probably  belong  the  Yezidies,  who 
did  not  forsake  the  fire  worship  of  their  ancestors  for  either 
Christianity  or  Islam,  toward  the  latter  of  which  they  entertain 
a  bitter  hatred,  on  account  of  its  merciless  persecutions. 


*  Ker  Porter,  vol.  ii.,  p. 

22 


331  BIBLE   LANDS. 

12.  The  Armenians  occupy  the  highest  part  of  the  great 
plateau  of  Western  Asia.  The  plain  of  Van  is  mostly  in  their 
possession,  and  they  have  several  monasteries  built  upon  its  isl- 
ands. They  extend  northward  beyond  Mount  Ararat,  -whose 
name  anciently  was  that  of  their  entire  countrj'^,  as  Eden  was 
of  one  of  its  provinces,*  At  Echmiadzin,  near  the  Aras,  is  the 
seat  of  the  Catholicos,  or  head  of  the  Armenian  Church.  This 
people  spread  thence  westward  into  Pontus,  and  southward 
as  far  as  Sis,  in  Cilicia,  the  last  seat  of  their  monarchy,  extend- 
ing over  Mount  Amanus  and  to  the  slopes  of  Mount  Cassius. 
They  are  also  found  along  the  southern  shore  of  tlie  Black 
Sea,  inhabiting  in  great  numbers  Constantinople  and  its  en- 
virons; they  have  penetrated  far  into  European  Turkey,  and, 
following  the  shores  of  the  Propontis  and  the  ^gean,  extend 
to  the  south  of  Smyrna.  They  are  a  very  enterprising  and  in- 
telligent people,  and  may  be  met  with  in  all  parts  of  Turkey 
and  Egypt,  and  even  in  India,  as  well  as  in  Europe  and  the  Brit- 
ish Isles.     They  amount,  probably,  to  about  four  millions  in  all. 

13.  The  Koords,  whose  numbers  it  is  impossible  to  estimate 
with  any  degree  of  certainty,  are  the  immediate  neighbors  of 
the  Chaldeans  and  the  Armenians,  the  latter  of  whom  are  in- 
troducing their  own  alphabet  into  their  hitherto  unwritten  lan- 
guages. They  are  partially  nomadic,  having  also  permanent 
habitations,  and  have  long  been  celebrated  as  highway  robbers, 
being  expert  in  every  manly  exercise.  They  are  heathen,  but 
profess  Islam,  have  distinct  tribes,  and  speak  different  dialects. 
They  are  spread  over  the  most  rugged  parts  of  Koordistan,  and 
extend  westward  to  the  centre  of  the  peninsula,  and  southward 
to  the  fastnesses  of  Taurus  and  Amanus. 

14.  The  Anatolians  are  the  remains  of  the  various  aborig- 
inal natives  who  once  possessed  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  became  one  people  by  their  common  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity. When  the  Muslims  brought  in  a  new  faith  they  re- 
fused to  adopt  it,  and  arc  still  members  of  the  so-called  Greek 
Church.  They  are,  however,  generally  ignorant  of  the  Greek 
language,  and  speak  only  Turkish.  Dispersed  in  considerable 
numbers  throughout  the  country,  they  chiefly  abound  in  the 
western  half  of  the  peninsula. 

*  Gen.  viii.,4:  .Tcr.  li..  27. 


INTRODUCTORY   TO   PART  II.  335 

15.  The  Greek  race  are  mostly  confined  to  the  neighborhood 
of  the  sea  and  to  the  islands.  They  are  the  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Greek  colonies.  They  cling  to  the  language  and  to  the 
ideas  of  Western  civilization.  In  some  places  they  have  amal- 
gamated with  the  Anatolians,  but  there  is  generally  little  sym- 
pathy between  them.  The  race,  however,  is  not  homogeneous; 
the  people  of  Tinos,  Scio,  and  Mitylene  have  marked  differ- 
ences of  character,  and  those  of  Hydra,  Naxos,  etc.,  are  of  Al- 
banian origin,  and  do  not  even  speak  Greek. 

16.  The  Georgians  occupy  a  district  north  of  the  Aras, 
whose  capital  is  Tiflis.  They  are  mostly  Christians,  and  have 
a  language  of  their  own.     Directly  north  of  them  are, 

17.  The  Lesghies,  who,  with  several  smaller  tribes,  such  as  the 
Iron,  the  Kisty,  and  the  Misjijy,  occupy  the  eastern  half  of  the 
Caucasian  chain  and  the  slopes  on  the  north  of  it  called  Dagh- 
estan,  or  the  hill  region.  Each  of  these  little  tribes,  and  others 
we  have  not  mentioned,  appear  to  be  the  remains  of  distinct 
nations,  which  here  sought  a  refuge  from  annihilation  ;  for  they 
all  speak  diiferent  languages.* 

18.  The  Circassians  occupy  the  western  half  of  the  Cauca- 
sus, with  its  slopes,  to  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Kooban.  They 
are  divided  into  many  tribes,  either  Muslim  or  heathen,  and 
have  been  much  reduced  in  numbers  by  incessant  wars  with 
Russia  and  by  a  large  emigration  into  Asia  Minor.  They  once 
occupied  the  Crimea,  but  were  driven  out  by  the  Tartars. 
They  have  long  furnished  the  chief  supply  of  white  slaves  to 
the  Osmanli  empire. 

19.  The  Laz,  Mingrelians,  and  Gurelians  are  distinct  tribes, 
inhabiting  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  speak- 
ing different  languages.     They  are  mostly  Muslims  or  heathen. 

20.  The  nomadic  Turkmens,  unlike  the  rest  of  their  country- 
men, have  preserved  their  ancestral  mode  of  life  and  traditions. 
They  wander  about  with  their  flocks  and  herds,  and  seem  to 
be  heathen  who  make  an  insincere  profession  of  Islam.  Hence, 
like  all  unorthodox  sectaries,  they  are  called  Kuzul  Bash  (Red- 
heads) by  the  true  Muslims,  but  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of  the 
latter  in  the  eye  of  the  law.  Their  range  in  the  peninsula  ex- 
tends from  Alexandretta  to  the  western  coast,  and  eastward 

*  This  great  variety  of  dialects  may,  however,  be  the  effect  of  isolation. 


336  BIBLE    LANDS. 

nearly  to  the  Persian  frontier  in  Armenia.  They  are  also 
found  on  the  island  of  Cyprus. 

21.  The  Osmanlis,  commonly  called  Turks,  are  a  people  form- 
ed of  the  mixture  and  amalgamation,  through  a  common  pro- 
fession of  the  faith  of  Islam,  of  all  the  races  which  have,  from 
remotest  ages  to  the  present  time,  settled  in  the  peninsula  of 
Asia  Minor. 

The  following  list  will  give  an  idea  of  the  principal  nations 
that  have  contributed  to  the  formation  of  this  compound ;  but 
it  does  not  include  the  names  of  the  earliest  aborigines,  many 
of  which  are  lost  in  the  mist  of  prehistoric  times.  The  list 
includes  the  Greeks,  Assyrians,  Egyptians,  Persians,  Macedoni- 
ans, Romans,  Gauls,  Parthians,  Saracens,  Tartars,  Turkmens, 
Bulgarians,  Albanians,  Crusaders,  Genoese,  Venetians,  Euro- 
pean renegades,  Circassians,  Georgians,  and  Armenians,  as  well 
us  Africans  of  every  shade  and  nation.  The  Osmanli  race  is 
found,  properly  speaking,  only  on  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor; 
but  w^e  have  extended  it  to  Upper  Mesopotamia  and  Assyria, 
where  the  preponderance  of  Arab  blood  does  not  probably  ex- 
tend across  the  Tigris.  Osmanlis  are,  however,  found  all  over 
the  empire  in  connection  with  government  business. 

Though  the  foregoing  apportionment  of  the  map  contains  but 
twenty-one  specifications,  yet  it  is  evident  from  our  statement 
that  the  distinct  tribes  now  occupjnng  the  lands  of  the  Bible 
far  exceed  that  number.  We  have,  indeed,  named  no  less  than 
thirty-five  of  these  tribes,  mostly  speaking  different  languages 
or  dialects,  professing  a  different  faith,  holding  to  distinct  his- 
torical traditions,  practicing  different  customs,  and  even  wear- 
ing a  distinguishing  garb.  Yet  they  all  possess  the  character- 
istics which  are  peculiar  to  Oriental  people.  They  offer  a  vast 
field  for  investigation  and  study,  requiring  withal  great  discrim- 
ination in  the  selection  of  what  is  truly  relevant  to  our  purpose. 


I 


ETHNOLOGY.  337 


CHAPTER  I. 

ON  THE  ETHNOLOGY   OF  THE  LANDS  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

In  entering  upon  the  second  part  of  our  inquiry  into  the 
manners  and  customs  now  prevalent  in  Bible  lands,  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  ancient  Israelites,  several  interesting 
and  important  preliminary  questions  present  themselves  to  the 
mind,  the  solution  of  which  appears  to  have  a  strong  bearing 
upon  our  object.  Who  are  the  present  inhabitants  of  those 
lands?  Are  they  new  races  imported  from  other  climes,  and, 
if  so,  what  was  their  former  history  and  civilization,  and  to 
what  degree  have  their  character  and  usages  been  modified  by 
the  land  of  their  adoption — or  are  the  present  inhabitants  of 
Western  Asia  merely  the  descendants  of  the  ancients  who  oc- 
cupied the  same  regions ;  and  if  this  be  the  case,  how  far  has 
the  character  of  their  posterity  been  affected  and  changed  by 
historical  events  or  by  physical  and  moral  causes — and  again, 
what  has  become  of  the  nations  whose  ancient  fame  stands  re- 
corded in  the  writings  of  the  inspired  prophets  and  on  the 
pages  of  classical  literature? 

These  are  all  interesting  and  important  questions,  and  re- 
quire some  investigation  on  our  part.  We  shall  now,  there- 
fore, inquire,  m  the  first  place.,  what  has  become  of  the  Hebrews? 
Has  not  their  proverbial  tenacity  led  them  to  preserve  their 
ancient  usages  unimpaired  in  all  the  lands  whither  they  have 
been  dispersed,  and  does  not  our  inquiry  into  these  usages 
thus  become  greatly  simplified?  Why  need  we  study  the 
customs  of  the  strangers  who  have  taken  possession  of  their 
goodly  land  when  we  have  the  Hebrews  themselves  to  interro- 
gate? Leaving  aside  the  question  of  the  fate  of  the  ten  tribes 
which  composed  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  our  inquiries  are  nar- 
rowed down  to  Judah  and  Benjamin — theJeivs  ('IowSa,'IouSoio(), 
properly  so  called.  And  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  both 
the  character  and  the  manners  of  the  ancient  people  of  God 
have  undergone  many  important  changes  through  the  loss  of 


338  BIBLE   LANDS. 

their  national  independence  and  the  need  of  adapting  them- 
selves to  their  greatly  altered  circumstances,  scattered,  as  they 
have  been,  among  popuhxtions  bitterly  hostile  both  to  their  re- 
ligion and  to  their  persons.  It  is,  moreover,  well  known  that 
the  voluminous  Talmud,  which  is  the  basis  and  rule  of  all  their 
present  customs,  was  not  written  until  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  by  Titus,  and  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews ;  it  was  be- 
gun at  the  close  of  the  second  centurj'-  of  the  Christian  era,  and 
was  not  finished  until  the  sixth  or  seventh.  This  work  pro- 
fesses to  contain  the  traditions  of  the  elders  respecting  the  right 
interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  well  as  oral  precepts 
never  before  committed  to  writing.*  Our  Saviour  declared  re- 
specting those  traditions,  when  as  yet  they  must  have  been  less 
objectionable  than  afterward,  that  they  made  "  the  word  of  God 
of  none  effect  ;"f  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  principal  ob- 
ject of  the  Talmudists  was  so  to  pervert  the  Old  Testament  as 
to  destroy  the  force  of  its  argument  for  Christianity,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  Jews  from  abandoning  the  religion  of  their  fathers. 
It  may  truly  be  said  that  the  Talmud  has,  among  modern 
Jews,  wholly  supplanted  the  Old  Testament.  It  should,  more- 
over, be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Talmud  was  written  when 
the  nation  had  already  been  dispersed  for  a  considerable  time 
among  strangers,  and  the  very  customs  which  are  the  object  of 
our  inquiries  had  already  undergone  important  modifications 
among  them.  There  is  a  striking  fact  which  illustrates  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Talmud  in  destroying  or  modifying  the  old  prac- 
tices of  Judaism ;  it  is  the  existence  of  the  sect  of  the  Karaites, 
who  reject  the  Talmud  and  all  traditionary  teachings,  and 
receive  the  Old  Testament  alone,  without  note  or  comment. 
Their  religious  practices  and  customs  materially  differ  from 
those  of  other  Jews;  but  their  numbers  are  small,  and  con- 
fined to  a  few  districts  of  Poland,  Gallicia,  and  Crim  Tartary, 
owing  chiefly  to  the  bitter  persecutions  they  endure  from  the 
rest  of  their  nation.:}: 

The  very  tongue  spoken  by  the  Jews  has  been  exchanged 
for  those  of  the  nations  among  whom  they  dwell.  The  knowl- 
edge of  the  Hebrew  is  now  wholly  confined  to  the  learned,  and 

*  For  a  full  account  of  the  Mishna,  or  the  Jerusalem  and  Babylonish  Talmuds, 
nee  Prideaux,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  04,  9.".,  99,  100. 

t  Mark  vii.,  13.  |  Spencer,  "Circassia,"vol.  i.,  p.  373. 


ETHNOLOGY.  339 

it  is,  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  term,  one  of  the  dead  languages. 
Long  centuries  of  oppression  have  changed  the  character  of 
this  people,  once  celebrated  in  the  arts  of  war,  and  noted  for 
their  personal  courage,  and  have  made  them  cowardly  and  de- 
ceitful. Their  physical  appearance  has  greatly  changed,  for 
they  have  lived  in  various  climes,  everywhere  despised,  hated, 
and  persecuted,  bearing  a  mark  worse  than  that  of  Cain  upon 
their  foreheads.  It  is  to  climate,  mode  of  life,  and  moral  influ- 
ences that  are  to  be  attributed  the  chief  differences  in  the  phys- 
ical constitution  and  lineaments  of  men.  The  vigorous  and 
muscular  frame  of  the  mountaineer  of  Palestine,  whose  time 
was  spent  in  healthful  agricultural  pursuits,  and  whose  stalwart 
arm  was  feared  alike  by  all  his  neighbors,  has  become  en- 
feebled in  the  petty  broker'^  or  retailer's  shop,  or  in  the  un- 
wholesome atmosphere  of  damp  cellars  and  narrow  alleys. 
The  open  and  courageous  countenance  of  the  ancient  Hebrew 
has  given  place  to  the  cringing  look  and  furtive  glhuce  of  the 
modern  Jew.  So  strongly  have  these  influences  acted  upon 
the  race  tliat  the  peculiar  features  recognizable  in  them  all, 
whatever  be  the  places  of  their  dispersion,  are  just  such  as 
must  have  resulted  from  their  extraordinary  sufferings  and 
trials.  Yet  local  influences  have  also  acted  upon  them  ;  for  it 
does  not  require  much  practice  to  distinguish  from  each  other 
the  German,  Polish,  Italian,  and  Spanish  Jews;  while  those 
of  this  people  who  have  long  been  settled  in  Hindoostan  have 
become  as  dark  as  the  Hindoos  themselves. 

In  the  accompanying  illustration  we  give  our  readers  the 
portraits  of  two  Jewish  gentlemen,  belonging  to  two  distinct 
branches  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  into  which  it  divided  nearly 
twenty-four  hundred  years  ago.  The  right-hand  figure  is  that 
of  a  descendant  of  the  Babylonian  Jews,  who  failed  to  avail 
themselves  of  Cyrus's  decree,  and  have  remained  to  this  day  in 
the  land  of  their  captivity.  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  a 
remarkable  resemblance  to  the  other  figure,  not  only  in  the 
general  cast  of  the  countenance,  but  even  in  the  features  and 
expression  ;  but  his  hair  is  black,  and  his  complexion  dark. 
The  left-hand  portrait  is  that  of  a  Jew,  whose  ancestors,  after 
the  Roman  conquest  of  Judea,  settled  in  Spain,  and  were 
driven  out  thence  during  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
in  the  fifteenth  century.     They  sought  refuge  in  the  countries 


840 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


bordering  upon  the  Mediterranean  which  were  in  the  hands  of 
Muslim  nations,  and  have  remained  there  ever  since.  They 
have  brown  or  red  hair,  and  a  light  complexion.  The  original 
of  our  picture  had  a  red  beard. 


Modern  Orieutal  Jews:  left,  Asia  Minor;  riglit,  Persia. 

It  is  not,  therefore,  to  the  remnant  of  God's  ancient  people 
that  we  can  look  for  a  correct  notion  of  the  ancient  Hebrew, 
his  character,  or  manners.  On  many  points,  indeed,  connected 
with  their  religious  practices,  the  Jewish  traditions  and  the 
Talmud  itself  throw  much  valuable  light,  of  which  Biblical 
scholars  have  ever  been  prompt  to  avail  themselves.  This  has 
been  the  more  easily  done,  that  large  numbers  of  this  interest- 
ing people,  and  indeed  the  most  learned  of  them,  reside  in 
countries  where  they  are  easily  accessible  to  the  Christian 
scholar.  But  history  furnishes  us  with  an  instance  of  the  ease 
with  which  an  entire  people  may  lose  all  their  peculiar  charac- 
teristics, their  religion,  and  their  national  traditions,  and  be- 
come completely  amalgamated  and  lost  among  races  of  a  total- 
ly different  origin ;  for  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel  are  no  more 
heard  of  in  the  annals  of  mankind  after  their  removal  from 
Palestine  into  Assyria.  In  vain  have  they  been  sought  for  by 
the  historian,  the  Christian,  and  the  man  of  science;  they  have 
not  perished,  but  their  name  has  ceased  to  be  spoken  among 
men ;  and  though  the  tribes  of  Jiidnh  and  Benjamin  have  not 
met  with  a  similar  fate,  yet  they  differ  little  from  the  people 
among  whom  they  are  scattered,  except  in  their  enfeebled  ap- 


ETHNOLOGY.  341 

pearance,  their  religious  practices,  and  their  marrying  only 
among  themselves. 

The  foregoing  statements,  therefore,  clearly  show'  that  the 
light  we  can  obtain  from  the  modern  Jews  is  insufficient  to  an- 
swer our  inquiries,  and  we  are  thus  compelled  to  seek  other 
means  for  the  gratification  of  a  laudable  curiosity. 

Since  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Israelites  have  so  far 
departed  from  the  type  of  their  ancestors  as  to  ofter  but  little 
aid  to  our  imaginations  in  forming  a  correct  idea  of  the  He- 
brew of  Joshua's  or  David's  time,  may  there  not  be  remnants 
of  the  vanquished  nations  of  Canaan  still  dwelling  in  the  land, 
and  retaining  something  of  the  physical  characters,  the  dialect, 
or  the  manners  of  their  ancestors?  Where  are  the  Hittites, 
the  Hivites,  the  Jebusites  ?  What  has  become  of  the  Idumeans, 
the  Moabites,  and  the  Ammonites?  Are  the  Philistines,  the 
Syrians,  and  the  Sidonians  utterly  destroyed?  This  is  not 
probable.  Some  of  their  descendants  are,  not  unlikely,  dwelling 
at  this  moment  upon  the  same  spots  where  lived  their  earliest 
ancestry.  They  cultivate  the  same  fields  and  engage  in  the 
same  occupations.  They  were  subdued  by  the  Israelites;  then, 
later,  accepted  Christianity,  and  finally  became  Muslims,  amal- 
gamated with  the  Saracens,  and  thus  lost  everj'-  thing  dis- 
tinctive. 

The  nearest  kin  to  the  ancient  Hebrews  were  the  Arameans 
and  the  Arabs,  the  former  better  known  as  the  Syrians,  the 
Assyrians,  and  the  Chaldeans,  and  dwelling  on  the  north  and 
north-east  of  Palestine ;  while  the  latter,  who  are  the  children 
of  Ishmael,  and  sometimes  called  Saracens,  occupied  the  penin- 
sula of  Arabia.  These  two  nations  offer  so  much  promise  of 
assistance  in  our  inquiries,  both  as  blood-relations  to  the  Jews, 
and  on  account  of  their  dwelling  in  a  very  similar  climate,  that 
we  must  give  them  a  moment's  attention. 

The  name  Aramean  is  generally  applied  to  all  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  country  which  extends  from  the  eastern  boundary 
of  Assyria  to  the  Mediterranean,  exclusive  of  Asia  Minor  prop- 
er and  Palestine.  They  took  their  name  from  Aram,  the  son 
of  Shem,  though  many  of  them  were  descendants  of  his  broth- 
ers, called  respectively  Elam,  Asshur,  Arphaxad,  and  Lud,*  so 

*  Gen.  X.,  22. 


342  BIBLE    LANDS. 

that  Abraham,  though  a  descendant  of  Arphaxad,  was  reckon- 
ed an  Aramean. 

Mesopotamia,  or  the  country  lying  between  the  two  rivers, 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  is  called  Aram-naharaim  (or 
Aram  of  the  rivers),  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  Gen.  xxiv.,  10, 
and  Padan-aram*  signifies  the  cultivated  or  arable  land  of 
Aram.  On  the  other  hand,  the  son  of  Nahor,  Abraham's 
brother,  is  called  "Bethuel  the  Syrian"  in  the  passage  last 
quoted ;  yet  the  land  where  he  dwelt  is  called  Padan-aram. 
In  2  Sam.  viii.,  5,  the  words  rendered  in  our  version  '■^Syrians 
of  Damascus ,"  sigmfy  literally  the  Damascene  Arameans,  indi- 
cating that  even  the  most  southern  portion  of  Syria,  wherein 
lies  the  city  of  Damascus,  was  called  Aram  in  David's  time. 

The  passages  to  which  we  have  referred  above  clearly  show 
that,  according  to  the  Scriptures,  Abraham  and  the  Hebrews 
were  of  pure  Aramean  stock,  while  the  descendants  of  Ish- 
mael  and  Esau  were  of  mixed  blood,  having  intermarried  with 
the  descendants  of  Ham.  The  Arameans  were,  therefore, 
nearest  of  kin  to  the  Hebrews,  and  we  might  expect  some  re- 
semblance between  the  two,  both  with  regard  to  their  physical 
characteristics  and  with  respect  to  their  intellectual  traits  and 
peculiar  genius.  We  must,  however,  bear  in  mind  that  a  pow- 
erful influence  was  exerted  upon  the  character  of  both  by  their 
political  institutions  and  by  their  religious  faith  and  practice. 
Assyria  was  one  of  the  first  great  empires  established  in  the 
world.  Its  flat  and  fertile  plains  placed  its  population  at  the 
mercy  of  the  king's  standing  army,  with  its  chariots  and  cav- 
alry. The  oldest  monuments  of  ancient  Nineveh  which  have 
revealed  their  contents  to  the  modern  archaeologist  date  back 
to  more  than  two  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Tiie 
Assyrian  empire,  therefore,  must  have  already  been  extensive, 
and  possessed  of  power,  wealth,  and  a  high  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion when  Abraham  was  warned  of  God  to  leave  his  native 
land,  go  to  the  southward,  and  become  the  father  of  a  new 
people.f  The  artists  who  have  portrayed  upon  the  alabaster 
slabs  of  the  oldest  palace  or  temple  of  the  Nimrood  mound, 
near  Mossul,  discovered  by  Mr.  Layard,  the  king,  priests,  warri- 
ors, and  common  people  of  their  time,  doubtless  took  for  mod- 

*  Gen.  XXV.,  20.  t  Gen.  xii.,  1,  2. 


ETHNOLOGY. 


343 


els-  their  contemporaries  of  the  ancient  Nineveh.  It  is  not 
probable  that  these  sculptures  arc  always  portraits,  but  they 
doubtless  correctly  represent  the  national  type  of  form  and 
feature.  It  may  be  doubted,  however,  whether  they  are  equal- 
ly successful  in  their  delineations  of  foreign  nations,  except 
where  there  exists  some  striking  peculiarity.  Foreigners  are 
usually  indicated  by  different  attire  and  weapons  of  war.  In 
the  slab,  therefore,  which,  according  to  Mr.  Layard,  represents 
the  destruction  of  the  city  of  Lachish  by  Sennacherib,  we  are 
not  to  expect  faithful  represen- 
tations of  Hebrew  combatants  or 
sufferers.  Still  the  intimate  rela- 
tions existing  between  the  As- 
syrians and  the  Hebrews,  their 
common  origin,  climate,  and  com- 
mercial intercourse,  justify  us  in 
claiming  that  the  human  forms 
represented  on  those  ancient  mon- 
uments are  fair  samples  of  the 
physical  appearance  of  the  an- 
cient Assyrians,  and,  by  deduc- 
tion, of  the  Hebrews  themselves. 
We  have  selected,  therefore,  as 
a  specimen  a  carefu  11}^ -executed 
and  well-preserved  bass-relief  of 
the  Assyrian  king  who  built  the 
palace  of  Koyoonjik.  It  is  doubt- 
less a  portrait,  and  great  interest 
attaches  to  it  from  the  fact  that 
it  represents  no  less  a  personage 
than  Sennacherib,  as  proved  by 
the  inscriptions  upon  it,  which 
have  been  deciphered.*  And  we  Sennacherib  ou  hi; 
have  every  reason  to  believe  that 
some  of  the  most  renowned  of  the  Hebrew  kings  looked  very 
much  like  that,  both  as  to  person  and  costume. 

We  have,  then,  amidst  the  mouldering  ruins  of  Nineveh 
carefully  drawn  pictures  of  the  men  and  women  of  ancient 


Throne 
ian  Sculpture. 


An  Assyr- 


*  Rawlinson,  "Five  Monarchies,"  vol.  i.,  p.  393. 


344  BIBLE    LANDS. 

Assj'ria,  from  the  king  down  to  the  slave,  in  their  various  cos- 
tumes and  vocations,  a  fac-simile  —  almost  a  photograph  —  of 
the  very  people  who  bore  the  nearest  resemblance  of  any  to 
the  Hebrews  during  the  entire  period  of  their  national  inde- 
pendence. It  really  seems  as  if  Providence  had  intentionally 
preserved  the  ancient  monuments  of  Egypt  and  Assyria  from 
the  iconoclastic  violence  of  succeeding  ages  for  the  very  pur- 
pose of  elucidating  the  pages  of  Holy  Writ. 

But  where  are  the  descendants  of  these  same  Assyrians? 
Can  they  be  recognized?  or  have  they,  like  the  Hebrews,  de- 
generated from  their  original  type?  Could  they  be  found  in 
the  same  localities,  and  living  under  similar  conditions,  we 
might  hope  to  discover  in  them  something  of  the  personal  ap- 
pearance of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  and  some  of  the  old  Jewish 
customs  might  still  exist  among  them. 

The  history  of  the  Assyrian  people  has  been  checkered,  and 
often  sad.  After  the  destruction  of  Nineveh  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, Assyria  remained  in  subjection  to  Babylon  until  it  became 
one  of  the  provinces  of  the  Persian  empire,  which  was,  in  its 
turn,  subdued  by  Alexander  the  Great.  His  successors  were 
followed  by  the  Parthians,  after  whom  came  the  second  Per- 
sian empire,  in  which  time  the  Christian  religion  was  intro- 
duced, and  was  embraced  by  most  of  the  population  of  Meso- 
potamia and  Assyria.  At  the  schism  on  account  of  Nestorius, 
the  Assyrians,  under  the  generic  name  of  the  Chaldean  Church, 
mostly  separated  from  the  orthodox  Greeks,  and,  being  un- 
der the  rule  of  the  Persians,  were  protected  against  persecution. 
They  engaged  actively  in  the  dissemination  of  the  Gospel 
throughout  the  continent  of  Asia,  and  appear  to  have  met 
with  great  success.  Monuments  are  yet  standing  in  China 
with  Assyrian  inscriptions  in  the  Syriac  character  which  attest 
the  triumphs  of  the  Nestorian  Church  in  that  land.  There 
are  Christians  in  India,  on  the  Malabar  coast,  who  to  this  day 
are  supplied  with  their  principal  clergy  by  the  Chaldean  patri- 
arch in  Koordistan.  Nestorian  churches  existed  in  Transoxi- 
ana  as  far  as  Kashgar.  and  in  the  distant  region  of  Mongolia; 
the  great  khan  of  the  Tartars  himself  was  known  as  Presbyter 
John.  They  had  churches  in  all  parts  of  Persia  and  Nubia, 
and  there  were  no  less  than  twenty-five  metropolitans,  or  arch- 
bishops, who  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the  Chaldean 


ETHNOLOGY.  345 

patriarch.  Even  after  the  introduction  of  the  Muslim  faith 
these  people  were  allowed  to  exercise  their  religious  rites  with 
little  molestation,  and  to  colonize  the  entire  East  with  their 
laborious  clergy.  But  when  the  Tartars  embraced  the  religion 
of  Islam,  their  cruelty  and  rapacity  made  Christianity  an  ex- 
cuse for  the  exercise  of  persecution.  Its  professed  followers 
were  put  to  death  everywhere,  particularly  by  Timoor  Lenk, 
and  the  remnant  of  the  Chaldean  Church,  and  the  Assyrian 
people  identified  with  it,  were  driven  in  great  part  into  the 
fastnesses  of  the  adjoining  mountains  of  Koordistan,  where 
they  are  usually  able  to  defend  themselves,  even  against  the 
blood-thirsty  Koords  who  inhabit  the  same  region.  The  Nes- 
torians  are  a  race  of  bold  and  hardy  mountaineers,  leading  a 
life  of  danger  and  privation,  yet  sadly  ignorant  of  that  faith 
to  which  they  cling  with  so  heroic  a  devotion.  We  have  the 
strongest  evidence  that  they  are  the  lineal  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Assyrians,  whom  they  strikingly  resemble  in  their  fea- 
tures, and  who  were  so  closely  allied  by  blood  to  the  Hebrews. 
Their  spoken  language  is  a  modern  dialect  of  the  Chaldee,  cor- 
rupted by  the  introduction  of  foreign  words ;  but  their  written 
language  is  the  ancient  Chaldee,  essentially  the  same  as  that 
learned  by  the  Hebrews  at  Babylon,  in  which  were  written 
the  last  books  of  the  Hebrew  Canon.  The  Nestorians  have  an 
old  version  of  the  whole  Bible  in  Chaldee,  which  is  used  in 
their  churches.  They  have  been  preserved  from  amalgamation 
with  other  nations  by  the  universal  prejudice  which  forbids  the 
intermarriage  of  persons  of  different  faith  throughout  the  East. 
If  any  foreign  blood  runs  in  their  veins,  it  is  most  likely  to  be 
that  of  the  Jews  belonging  to  the  ten  tribes  who  were  brought 
from  Samaria  by  Shalmaneser,  and  were  dispersed  among  them.* 

*  2  Kings  xvii.,  6.  Others  besides  ourselves  have  been  struck  with  the  resem- 
blance of  the  modern  Nestorians,  or  Chaldeans,  to  the  portraits  of  the  ancient  As- 
syrians in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh.  Mr.  Fletcher,  who  spent  several  years  at  Mosul, 
says:  "Those  who  have  studied  with  care  the  sculptured  representatives  of  the 
ancient  Assyrians,  and  compared  them  with  the  modern  inhabitants  of  the  plains 
of  Nineveh,  can  hardly  fail  to  trace  the  strong  features  of  affinity  which  exist  be- 
tween the  robed  monarch  and  priests  of  early  days  and  the  Christian  peasants 
of  Bagh-Sheikha  and  Bagh-Zani "  (p.  188).  And  Dr.  Grant,  an  American  mis- 
sionary, who  labored  several  years  among  the  Chaldean  Christians,  both  of  the 
mountains  and  of  the  plain,  was  so  much  impressed  with  their  resemblance  to  the 
Jews  in  features  and  manners  and  customs  that  he  published  a  volume  to  prove 
that  they  were  the  descendants  of  the  lost  tribes. 


346  BIBLE    LANDS. 

The  remnant  of  the  Chaldean  Christians  who,  as  we  have 
seen,  may  be  justly  regarded  as  the  direct  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Assyrians  of  Nineveh  and  Mesopotamia,  and  who  are 
now  dwelling  among  the  fastnesses  of  Koordistan,  number 
about  eighty  thousand  souls,  surrounded  by  a  million  of  Koords, 
professing  the  Muslim  faith  and  inhabiting  other  valleys  of  the 
same  mountain  ridges.  The  latter  are  celebrated  as  the  most 
adventurous,  cunning,  unscrupulous,  and  blood-thirsty  highway 
robbers  of  Western  Asia.  About  thirty  thousand  of  these 
Chaldean  Christians  have  taken  refuge  from  the  Koords  over  the 
Persian  frontier,  in  the  rich  plain  and  about  the  city  of  Ooroo- 
mia,  where  they  live  in  security,  but  in  great  poverty.  Their 
condition  has  of  late  been  much  improved,  through  the  labors 
of  Protestant  missionaries  from  America.  Another  branch, 
amounting  to  about  forty  thousand,  occupy  the  slopes  and  val- 
leys of  the  Tigris,  in  the  region  of  Diarbekir  and  Mardin. 
Most  of  these  have  been  induced  by  the  emissaries  of  Eome  to 
accept  a  nominal  connection  with  the  papac}^ 

We  offer  to  our  readers,  as  a  fair  specimen  of  these  descend- 
ants of  the  ancient  Assyrians,  the  portrait  of  Mar  Yohanan,  a 
bishop  of  the  Chaldean  Church,  residing  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Ooroomia.  The  title  "  Mar  "  signifies  saint,  and  is  given  to 
the  high  clergy,  i.  e.,  to  the  bishops  and  patriarchs  of  that 
Church.    This  bishop's  name,  literally  translated,  is  Saint  John. 

We  shall  have  occasion  hereafter  to  refer  to  some  of  the 
customs  existing  among  these  people;  for  their  history  gives 
promise  of  the  existence  of  traditions  carefully  preserved  from 
their  earliest  ancestors.  They  had  not  long  received  Christian- 
ity when  it  began  to  be  corrupted  in  the  West,  but  being  the 
subjects  of  a  power  which  was  ever  in  deadly  hostility  with  the 
Byzantine  empire,  they  were  isolated  from  their  brethren  in  the 
faith  during  the  period  of  the  general  decay  of  Christian  doctrine. 
Hence  we  may  reasonably  expect  to  find  among  them  a  nearer  ap- 
proach to  apostolic  Christianity  (barring  their  extreme  ignorance 
and  moral  degradation),  somewhat  as  with  the  Waldenses,  who 
were  for  many  cetituries  shut  out  from  the  rest  of  mankind. 

Thus  far  we  have  had  reference  only  to  the  Eastern  portion 
of  the  great  Aramean  family.    Ur  of  the  Chaldees,*  Abraham's 

*  Gen.  XV..  7. 


ETHNOLOGY. 


34: 


Mar  Yohauau. 


birth-place,  would  seem  to  have  been  situated  ou  the  Euphrates, 
below  Babylon,  at  Mugheir,  according  to  the  latest  readings  of 
cuneiform  inscriptions  on  bricks  and  cylinders,  so  that  really 
the  patriarch  belonged  to  Chaldea.  But  he  is  identified  with 
the  western  portion  from  his  long  residence  there  ;  some  of  his 
kindred,  indeed,  remained  in  Haran.  And  the  question  arises 
whether  there  exist,  among  the  present  inhabitants  of  Syria, 
any  remnants  of  the  western  branch  of  the  Aramean  race,  which 
have,  in  the  main,  kept  themselves  distinct  and  pure,  either  as 
to  lineage,  or  as  to  historical  and  traditional  usages. 

Many  of  the  Syrians  have  identified  themselves  with  their 
conquerors,  sacrificing  their  nationality  to  their  worldly  ad- 
vantage. Great  numbers  of  the  women  and  girls  have  been 
transferred  to  the  harems  of  their  masters.  But  the  rule  holds 
here  as  elsewhere:  the  men  who  remain  among  their  people 
never  marry  outside,  and  so  their  race  is  kept  pure. 

The  Syrians  (marked  No.  10  in  the  map)  belong  to  what  is 
called  the  Jacobite,  or  Monophysite,  Church,  who  use  a  Bible 
23 


348  BIBLE   LANDS. 

and  liturgy  in  the  Syriac  or  Chaldee  tongue,  but  speak  only 
Arabic.  A  portion  of  this  people  have,  however,  become  pa- 
pists. This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  inhabitants  of 
Mount  Lebanon,  a  hardy  and  independent  race  of  mountaineers, 
who  are  also  of  the  Syrian  stock. 

It  is  probable  that  the  modern  Syrians  are  not  so  unmixed 
a  race  as  the  Assyrians,  but  this  statement  applies  least  to  the 
Maronites.  From  the  conquests  of  Alexander  to  the  Crusades, 
many  foreigners  must  have  settled  among  them,  yet  they  have 
their  own  distinctive  traits,  and  probably  constitute  as  fine  a 
race  of  men  and  women  as  can  be  found  the  world  over.  Dr. 
Pritchard,  who  occupies  a  foremost  rank  as  a  student  of  the 
physical  history  of  mankind,  regards  what  he  calls  the  Syrio- 
Arabian  race  (Syrian  in  blood,  but  speaking  Arabic)  as  possess- 
ing the  most  perfect  physical  development,  both  of  the  general 
structure  of  the  body,  and  of  those  portions  in  particular  most 
intimately  connected  with  the  functions  of  the  mind.* 

The  Christian  mountaineers  of  Lebanon  are  the  portion  of 
the  Syrian  race  to  whom  attaches  the  chief  interest  from  our 
point  of  view.  Most  of  them  profess  adherence  to  the  Cburcli 
of  Rome ;  but  they  are  hard  to  manage.  They  are  called  Maro- 
nites from  St.  Maro,  one  of  their  teachers.  They  are  not  all 
papists,  however;  for  many  of  them  belong  to  the  Greek 
Church,  while  a  few  are  Muslims.  The  Syrians  of  Lebanon 
are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  plain  by  the  greater  prom- 
inence of  their  features  and  their  sinewy  frames,  a  remark 
which  applies  to  all  the  mountaineers  of  Western  Asia,  to  the 
Druses  of  Lebanon,  the  Nestorians  and  Koords  of  Koordistan, 
and  the  Lesghies  of  Daghestan. 

We  here  insert  the  portrait  of  a  man  of  mark  among  the 
Syrian  population,  the  celebrated  Emir  B'shir  Shehab,  who 
governed  the  turbulent  inhabitants  of  the  mountain,  both 
Christian  and  Druse,  maintaining  a  comparative  peace  for  more 
than  fifty  years.  He  belonged  to  an  influential  Muslim  family, 
but  became  a  convert  to  popery.  His  features,  though  promi- 
nent to  excess,  are  of  a  cast  which  the  reader  will  do  well  par- 
ticularly to  note.  He  will  not  fail  to  discover  a  general  re- 
semblance to  those  of  the  Nestorian  bishop,  as  well  as  to  the 

*  Vol.  iv.,  p.  548. 


ETHNOLOGY. 


349 


The  Emir  B'shii-  Shehab,  Prince  of  the  Lebanon. 

portraits   of  the   Persian    and   Asia   Minor  or  Spanish  Jews 
(page  340). 

There  is  yet  another  people,  who  hold  a  near  relationship  to 
the  Hebrews;  they  are  the  Arabs,  the  posterity  of  Ishmael,  the 
son  of  Abraham,  by  Hagar,  an  Egyptian,*  and  therefore  a  de- 
scendant of  Ham,  Hence  the  Arabs  are  less  intimately  related 
to  the  Hebrews  than  the  Arameans;  but  their  history  has,  to 
a  remarkable  degree,  tended  to  preserve  the  Hebrew  traditions, 
many  of  which  they  have  disseminated  in  connection  with  the 
propagation  of  Monotheism,  and  the  peculiar  institutions  of 
their  prophet,  Mohammed.  Their  early  history  lies  hid  in 
considerable  obscurity.  The  Arabian  peninsula  is  isolated 
from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  two  gulfs,  whose  navigation  is 
insecure  and  dangerous,  while  its  southern  coast  offers  few 
good  harbors,  and  still  fewer  attractions,  to  a  foreign  invader. 
On  the  north  they  are  separated  from  other  nations  by  the 
Great  Arabian  Desert,  with  every  portion  of  which  their  rov- 
ing habits  make  them  perfectly  familiar.     Their  petty  internal 


Gen.  xvi.,  1. 


350  BIBLE   LAXDS. 

dissensions  and  wars  from  time  immemorial  have  been  record- 
ed by  no  historian,  and,  saving  their  occasional  incursions  upon 
the  territories  of  their  neighbors,  little  is  known  of  them  pre- 
vious to  the  Christian  era.  About  that  time,  however,  the 
population  of  the  peninsula,  becoming  overcrowded,  was  forced 
to  seek  room  in  the  adjoining  countries.  But  it  was  not  until 
Mohammed  united  the  hitherto  divided  tribes  by  the  profession 
of  a  common  faith  that  they  fully  embarked  upon  that  remark- 
able exodus  which  has  pervaded  with  their  peculiar  ideas  no 
less  than  one -seventh  of  the  population  of  the  entire  globe. 
There  can  not  be  a  doubt  that  ultimate  good  has  thereby  been 
achieved  for  the  human  race.  The  heathen  rites  superseded 
by  this  new  faith  were  often  of  the  grossest  and  most  debasing 
character;  while  the  Muslim  conception  of  Allah  (in  Hebrew 
Elohirn)  was  ennobling  in  its  influence  upon  the  mind,  though 
infinitely  inferior  to  the  Jewish  idea  of  Jehovah  or  the  Chris- 
tian's Triune  God.  It  is,  moreover,  worthy  of  note  that  the 
Arabs  carried,  wherever  they  went,  their  literature  and  civiliza- 
tion, an  additional  boon  to  the  tribes  of  Central  Africa,  and  the 
islands  of  South-eastern  Asia,  which  adopted  their  faith  or  were 
conquered  by  their  arms.  These  secondary  influences  of  the 
religion  of  Mohammed  are  sufficient  to  account  for  many  of 
its  triumphs,  so  that  we  can  not  be  surprised  to  learn  that 
its  tenets  were  embraced  in  many  parts  of  Africa,  in  Tartary 
as  far  as  the  wall  of  China,  and  throughout  the  Indian  penin- 
sula. 

The  race  of  Ishmael,  uncontaminated  by  intermarriage  with 
foreign  nations  until  the  time  of  Mohammed,  became  thence- 
forth greatly  mixed  with  the  nations  whom  they  proselyted  to 
their  faith  ;  for  Mohammed,  deeming  the  division  of  the  Arabs 
into  distinct  tribes  the  cause  of  their  constant  broils,  preached 
the  universal  brotherhood  of  mankind,  and  brought  about  the 
amalgamation  of  many  nations  which  had  heretofore  preserved 
their  individuality.  Thence  sprang  the  Saracens,  who,  though 
of  various  origin,  were  one  in  the  foith  of  Islam  and  in  the  use 
of  the  Arabic  language.  Within  their  own  natural  bounda- 
ries, however,  the  Arabs  in  general  tenaciously  adhere  to  the 
Hebrew  system  respecting  marriage,  and  this  is  likewise  the 
case  among  the  tribes  settled  in  the  north  of  Africa,  and  even 
nmoncT  the  Druses  of  Mount  Lebanon,  so  that  there  doubtless 


ETHNOLOGY. 


351 


exist  families  of  pure  descent  who  may  be  regarded  as  fair 
representatives  of  this  branch  of  the  Abrahamic  family. 

We  insert  here,  as  a  specimen  of  the  pure  Arab  race,  the 
portrait  of  the  celebrated  Ab'd-el-Kadir,  of  the  tribe  of  Hashem, 
which  long  ago  settled  in  ^  -  - 

Northern  Africa,  in  a  re- 
gion similar  to  the  land 
whence  they  migrated, 
and  where  they  have 
preserved  the  mode  of 
life  of  their  ancestors. 
We  do  not  claim  for  the 
Arab  race  a  close  physic- 
al resemblance  to  the  an- 
cient Hebrew.  The  for- 
mer are  generally  noted 
for  their  slender,  sin- 
ewy forms,  medium  stat- 
ure, dark  complexion, 
and  nervous  tempera- 
ment; peculiarities 
which  may  be  ascribed 

to    their    spare   diet,   the  ^he  Aiab  Emir,  Ab-d-el-Kadir. 

hot,  dry  climate  of  their  country,  and  their  peculiar  mode  of 
life.  In  their  language,  manners,  and  customs,  however,  these 
people,  more  perhaps  than  any  other,  vividly  remind  us  of 
the  social  life  and  political  institutions  of  God's  ancient  peo- 
ple. They  inherited  much  from  their  common  "  Father  Abra- 
ham," and  Mohammed's  system  was  an  attempted  imitation 
of  the  Hebrew  legislation.  Hence  an  opportunity  for  study- 
ing the  ancient  original  is  offered  to  the  Christian  scholar, 
which  is  the  more  available  from  the  fact  that  he  need  not 
seek  the  Arab  beyond  the  trackless  desert,  since  he  may  find 
him  settled  for  centuries  past  in  Palestine,  the  old  home  of 
the  Israelites.  Of  the  million  and  a  half  of  human  beings 
now  constituting  the  population  of  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land, 
probably  more  than  two-thirds  belong  to  the  Arab  race ;  and 
so  great  has  been  their  influence  in  that  land  and  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, that  their  language  has  supplanted  every  other. 

If  the  reader  has  followed  us  thus  far  in  our  illustrations  of 


352  BIBLE    LANDS. 

the  personal  appearance  and  physical  peculiarities  of  the  an- 
cient Hebrews,  he  will  probably  adopt  the  following  conclu- 
sions, i.  e.,  that  the  modern  Jews,  by  avoiding  all  intermarriage 
with  the  nations  among  which  they  are  dispersed,  have  kept 
themselves  distinct,  but  that  their  altered  circumstances  have 
greatly  changed  their  personal  appearance,  so  much  so  as  to 
create  what  might  be  called  new  varieties  of  the  same  race. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Assyrians,  now  represented  by  the 
Chaldean  Christians,  dwell  to  this  day  in  the  land  of  their  fa- 
thers, and  cherish  a  spirit  of  brave  independence  in  the  mount- 
ain fastnesses  of  Koordistan.  They  bear  a  sufficient  resem- 
blance to  the  Jews  of  the  present  day  to  betray  their  common 
origin,  and  the  latter  have  probably  deviated  from  the  orig- 
inal more  than  the  former.  The  same  may  be  said,  though  to 
a  somewhat  less  degree,  of  the  Syrian  Jacobites,  and  of  the 
Syrians  of  Mount  Lebanon.  When  we  come  to  the  Arabs, 
however,  the  points  of  difference  increase ;  the  nose  is  less 
aquiline,  the  eyes  small  and  deep -set,  the  complexion  dark, 
and  the  beard  scanty.  The  Arab  is  indeed  near  of  kin,  but 
he  has  ever  lived  in  a  trying  climate,  and  led  a  hard  life;  nor 
has  he  kept  his  race  pure.  Yet  he  has  done  his  full  share  in 
preserving  the  common  traditions  and  customs  of  the  family, 
together  with  the  Nestorians  and  the  Syrians,  and  even  in  con- 
straining his  successive  conquerors  to  adopt  and  perpetuate 
them. 

There  is,  however,  a  test  yet  to  be  applied  to  the  conclusions 
we  have  now  reached ;  it  consists  in  those  pictures  of  the  an- 
cient Hebrews,  executed  with  more  or  less  accuracy,  which 
have  been  discovered  among  the  ruins  of  Egypt  and  Nineveh. 
Should  we  be  able  to  trace  no  correspondence  between  these 
portraits  and  our  present  ideal,  we  might  indeed  take  shelter 
in  the  probable  inaccuracy  of  the  ancient  sculptor;  but  a  re- 
semblance, especially  if  it  should  be  striking,  would  not  fail  to 
be  an  interesting  confirmation  of  our  theory.  And  it  is  our 
deliberate  opinion  that  the  carvings  of  the  Hebrew  faces  found 
in  those  two  countries  are  remarkably  alike,  and  that  both 
bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the  present  Chaldean  and  Syrian 
types,  which,  as  we  claim,  come  nearest  to  the  ancient  Hebrew. 

The  annexed  figure  is  a  part  of  a  highly  interesting  sculp- 
ture, found  at  Abou  Simbcl,  in  Nubia,  representing  King  Rame- 


ETHNOLOGY. 


858 


ses  II.  holding  with  one  hand  eleven  captives  by  the  hair  ol' 
their  heads,  while  with  the  other  he  brandishes  the  sword. 
The  captives  probably  represent  different  nations;  they  are 
painted  black,  yellow,  or  white,  a  circumstance  indicative  of 
the  existence  of  three  races  of  men  even  at  that  early  period.* 


Heads  of  Captives  held  by  Rameses  II.,  King  of  Egypt.    Sculpture  at  Abou  Simbel, 
ii.o.  1300. 

Rameses  II.  is  supposed  to  have  reigned  about  1300  B.C.,  which 
corresponds  to  the  period  of  the  Jewish  theocracy.  We  ought 
not,  perhaps,  to  seek  for  the  portrait  of  a  Hebrew  among  the 
captives  of  Rameses;  for  the  nation  was  yet  feeble,  often  sub- 
ject to  its  nearest  neighbors,  and  confined  at  best  to  the  mount- 
ain districts,  yet  there  are  several  faces  in  this  picture  belong- 
ing to  the  Hebrew  type,  particularly  the  farthest  to  the  right  in 
the  top  row ;  they  may  belong  to  cognate  races.  The  central 
figure  of  the  lower  row  strikingly  resembles  some  of  the  pic- 
tures on  the  celebrated  Etruscan  vases  in  the  Naples  Museum. 
Over  this  is  a  front  view  of  a  yellow  Chinaman,  with  eyes  char- 


*  Gen.  ix.,  19, 


8o-i 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


acteristic  of  his  race;  and  it  is  easy  to  recognize  among  the 
black  figures  the  features  of  a  negro,  a  Nubian,  and  an  Abys- 
sinian. It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  Rameses  invaded 
or  conquered  the  lands  of  every  people  here  represented  as  his 
prisoners;  he  may  have  encountered  them  elsewhere.  Indeed, 
the  most  probable  supposition  is  that  the  artist  flattered  his 
sovereign  by  placing  in  the  group  of  his  captives  represent- 
atives of  all  the  principal  nations  then  known  to  the  Egyp- 
tians. In  any  case,  we  must  conclude  that  these  nations  ex- 
isted at  that  early  pe- 
riod, which  is  the 
chief  point  in  ques- 
tion, and  one  of  great 
interest  to  the  Bibli- 
cal scholar. 

But  we  have  yet 
another  picture  of 
still  greater  interest, 
if  possible  —  found 
among  the  Egj'ptian 
monuments  at  Medi- 
net  Abou.  It  is  the 
portrait  of  a  bearded 
old  man,  a  prisoner 
of  Rameses  III.,  who  lived  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  years 
later  than  his  predecessor  of  the  same  name,  i.  e.,  about  1170 
B.C.  This  brings  us  to  the  birth  of  the  prophet  Samuel,  at 
which  period  the  Hebrews  were  lying  under  the  power  of  the 
Philistines,  from  which  they  were  not  wholly  delivered  until 
one  hundred  years  later,  under  the  leadership  of  Samson, 
Saul,  and  David.  In  the  present  case  we  are  not  left  to  con- 
jecture; a  name  is  attached  to  the  picture,  in  hieroglyphic 
characters,  which  is  read  by  some  scholars  "Lebanon,"  and  by 
others  "  Ilermon,"  both  indicating  localities  occupied  by  the 
Israelites,  or  possibly,  at  that  early  period,  by  the  Syrians.  A 
comparison  of  this  figure  with  those  already  given,  of  the  mod- 
ern Jew,  Chaldean,  and  Syrian,  shows  a  striking  degree  of  re- 
semblance. 

It  hardly  seems  necessary  to  allude  to  a  cartouche  found  in 
Egypt,  containing  the  title  "King  of  Judah,"  which  occurs  in 


Captive  of  Rameses  III 


ETHNOLOGY. 


355 


a  list  of  the  conquests  and  victo- 
ries of  Sheshonk,  king  of  Egypt, 
who,  according  to  the  Egyptian 
historian  Manetho,  lived  at  a  pe- 
riod corresponding  to  about  972 
B.C.  The  Scriptures  state  that  in 
this  very  year  "Shishak  king  of 
Egypt  took  the  fenced  cities  of 
Judah,  and  came  to  Jerusalem ; 
he  took  away  the  treasures  of  the 
house  of  the  Lord  and  the  treas- 
ures of  the  king's  house ;  he  took 
all ;  he  carried  away  also  the 
shields  of  gold  which  Solomon 
had  made."* 

This  agreement  between  Mane- 
tho and  the  Scriptures  can  not  be 
fortuitous ;  it  strongly  confirms  the 
authenticity  of  both  writers.  At- 
tached to  the  cartouche  we  have 
described  is  the  figure  of  a  man 

with    his    hands    bound,  probably    ^ingof  Jadah.    An  Egyptian  sculpture. 

intended  to  represent  King  Eehoboam.  Some  have  thought 
that  this  picture  might  be  a  portrait  of  the  vanquished  king.f 
A  comparison  with  other  Egyptian  sculptures,  however,  proves 
the  face  to  be  drawn  in  the  usual  conventional  style,  so  that,  if 
this  be  a  faithful  portrait  of  the  Jewish  king,  there  are  hosts  of 
Rehoboams  pictured  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt.  "We  can 
not  even  discern  in  this  picture  the  true  Aramean  type. 

Let  us  now  pass  to  such  of  the  recently  discovered  Assyrian 
sculptures  as  promise  to  throw  further  light  upon  our  subject. 
And  here  we  certainly  have  the  advantage  of  meeting  with 
later  productions,  greatly  in  advance  of  the  Egyptian  in  point 
of  artistic  merit — truer  imitations  of  nature,  and  inferior  only 
to  the  masterly  and  unrivaled  works  of  Grecian  and  Koman 
genius. 

The  first  illustration  is  taken  from  the  Kliorsabad  ruins,  op- 
posite Mossul.     There  stood  once  a  palace,  whose  halls  were 


1  Chron,  xii.,  2,  9. 


t  Cliampollion— Figeac,  p.  273. 


'doQ 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


tidorned  with  slabs  of  sculptured  alabaster.  Many  of  the  in- 
scriptions attached  to  these  sculptures  have  been  deciphered  by 
Colonel  Kawlinson,  who  has  discovered  that  it  was  built  by  a 
king  named  Sargina,  called  Sargon  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,* 
and  elsewhere  spoken  of  in  the  Scriptures  as  Shalmaneser. 
The  history  of  his  wars  with  the  kingdom  of  Israel  is  fully  re- 
corded. Our  illustration  represents  a  group  of  ambassadors 
with  tribute  sent  by  Hoshea,  king  of  Samaria  (called  Samarina 
in  the  inscription),  to  the  King  of  Assyria.     The  circumstances 


Samaritan  Hebrews  bearing  Tribute.    An  Assyrian  Sculpture.    (2  Kings  xvii.,  3.) 

are  thus  related  in  the  Bible  :f  "Against  him  came  up  Shal- 
maneser, king  of  Assyria;  and  Hoshea  became  his  servant, 
and  gave  him  presents."  This  tribute  was  paid  but  a  short 
time ;  for,  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign,  "  conspiracy  was  found 
in  Hoshea ;  for  he  had  sent  messengers  to  So,  king  of  Egypt,  and 
brought  no  present  to  the  King  of  Assyria,  as  he  had  done  year 
by  year."  So  Shalmaneser  came  to  Samaria,  took  it,  and  car- 
ried the  people  captive  to  Assyria  and  Media.  The  features 
of  these  Samaritan  tribute -bearers  are  marked,  and  probably 
drawn  from  nature.  Their  dress  is  precisely  that  of  Orientals 
of  the  present  day,  consisting  of  a  turban  bound  around  a  cap 
of  felt;  a  kuftan^  or  robe;  a  henish,  the  long  coat,  always  worn 
on  special  occasions.  Their  feet  are  shod,  not  with  sandals, 
now  worn  only  by  the  Bedawy,  but  with  veritable  papooshes, 
apparently  of  Morocco  leather.  There  is,  however,  one  pe- 
culiarity in  their  dress,  which  distinguishes  it  from  the  mod- 


+  2  Kings  xvii.,  3-G. 


ETHNOLOGY. 


357 


ern  costume :  it  is  the  fringe  bordering  the  hem  of  the  garment, 
which  must  have  been  blue,  according  to  the  requirement  of 
the  Mosaic  law* 

Our  last  illustration  is  taken  from  another  palace,  near  Mo- 
sul, built  by  Sennachi-riba,  according  to  the  inscriptions  on 
the  slabs — the  Sennacherib  of  the  Bible.  Colonel  Rawlinson 
has  succeeded  in  reading  the  entire  history  of  this  king's  wars 
with  the  Jews,  which  agrees  remarkably  with  the  Scripture 
record,  even  to  the  very  items  of  the  fine  Hezekiah  paid  to 
Sennacherib,  i  e.,  "  three  hundred  talents  of  silver,  and  thirty 
talents  of  gold."f  The  Bible  account  adds:  "At  that  time  did 
Hezekiah  cut  off  the  gold  from  the  doors  of  the  temple  of  the 
Lord,  and  from  the  pillars  which  Hezekiah  king  of  Judah  had 
overlaid,  and  gave  it  to  the  King  of  Assyria  "  (verse  16).  In- 
stead of  which  the  Assyrian  account  states  that  he  also  gave 
"  the  ornaments  of  the  Temple,  slaves,  boys  and  girls,  and  men- 
servants  and  maid-servants  for  the  use  of  the  palace."  It  is 
surely  very  interesting  to 
meet  with  so  close  an  agree- 
ment between  records  kept 
in  different  languages  and 
by  people  in  bitter  hostil- 
ity to  each  other.  The  As- 
syrian record  calls  Heze- 
kiah, Khazakiah-hoo ;  Je- 
rusalem, Urselimma;  and 
Judah,  Yehoodah,  names 
which  come  closer  to  the 
original  Hebrew  than  our 
rendering  of  them.:{:  Our 
illustration  is  taken  from  a 
group  of  captive  Hebrews 
at  work  upon  the  palace, 
carrying  stones  in  baskets 
up  a  steep  incline.  The 
features,  it  will  be  noticed, 
resemble  those  of  the  preceding  illustrations,  while  the  dress  is 
that  of  the  common  laborer  of  the  present  day  in  Mesopotamia, 


Jewish  Captives.    An  Assyrian  Sculpture. 


Numb.  XV., 


t  2  Kings  xviii.,  14. 


X  Bonomi,  p.  r)01. 


358  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Palestine,  and  Egypt,  consisting  of  a  felt  cap  and  a  blue  shirt, 
with  a  leathern  or  woolen  girdle.     They  are  also  barefooted.* 

Thus  far  we  have  confined  ourselves  to  two  of  the  inquiries 
propounded  near  the  beginning  of  the  present  chapter.  We 
first  pointed  out  the  great  and  striking  changes  which  have 
befallen  the  descendants  of  Israel,  and  then  showed  that  the 
traditions,  the  customs,  and  the  very  features  of  the  ancient 
Hebrews  have  fortunately  been  preserved  with  little  alteration 
by  three  branches  of  the  family  to  which  they  belong,  i.  e.,  the 
Eastern  Arameans,  or  Assyrians,  now  called  Chaldeans;  the 
Western  Arameans,  or  modern  Syrians ;  and  the  Arabs. 

This  disposes  of  three  important  nations  on  our  ethnologic- 
al map,  i.  e.,  Nos.  4,  10,  and  11 ;  and  we  now  propose  to  add  a 
few  words  respecting  the  origin  and  present  condition  of  the 
most  interesting  of  the  remaining  tribes  of  Western  Asia. 

Next  to  the  Hebrews  there  is  scarcely  a  people  to  which 
more  prominence  is  given  in  the  Bible  than  the  Egyptians. 
The  Israelites  dwelt  four  hundred  years  among  them ;  and 
when,  at  a  later  period,  their  country  was  overrun  by  their 
Eastern  foes,  Egypt  was  the  asylum  to  which  they  readily  fled. 
As  soon  as  Alexandria  was  built  (b.c.  332),  it  became  a  favor- 
ite place  of  abode  for  the  Jews,  and  has  continued  so  to  the 
present  day.  Many  of  the  Mosaic  regulations  were  derived 
from  the  Egyptians,  whose  granite  monuments  are  invaluable 
treasures  of  Biblical  illustrations.  The  Egyptians  were  early 
converted  to  Christianity,  owing  to  their  proximity  to  Judea. 
Some  of  the  Alexandrian  preachers  and  divines,  Athanasius 
in  particular,  were  men  of  power,  and  did  much  in  the  cause 
of  truth  and  for  the  purity  of  the  Church  in  all  time.  But 
thence  also  have  arisen  hcrcsiarchs  of  note,  and  there  for  many 
ages  was  the  special  home  of  the  hermit,  the  numerous  caves 
of  Upper  Egypt,  and  the  salubrity  and  dryness  of  the  climate 
affording  conditions  unusually  fiivorable  to  such  a  mode  of  life. 
The  fickle  character  of  the  Egyptians,  however,  became  mani- 
fest when  the  religion  of  Islam  offered  them  its  sensual  attrac- 
tions; for  they  readily  accepted  it,  and  constituted  its  first  na- 
tional conquest,  the  immediate  effect  of  which  was  their  rapid 
amalgamation  with  the  hordes  of  Arabs  which  swept  over,  like 

♦  Bonomi,  p.  380. 


ETHNOLOGY.  359 

swarms  of  locusts,  from  their  arid  land  to  the  fertile  valley  of 
the  Nile.  They  were  numerous  enough  to  change  the  lan- 
guage of  Egypt  to  the  Arabic ;  yet  it  is  asserted  by  those  who 
have  enjoyed  the  best  opportunities  of  judging  that  the  pres- 
ent  fellah,  or  peasant,  of  Egypt  is  the  counterpart  of  the  sculp- 
tured effigies  of  the  people  of  the  Pharaohs,  as  well  as  of  their 
long-buried  mummies.  They  are  now  Muslims,  and  the  relig- 
ion of  the  ancient  Misraim  has  become  extinct,  barring  some 
local  superstitions.  Some  of  the  Egyptians,  however,  refused 
to  embrace  Islam,  and  have  to  this  day  continued  to  adhere  to 
Christianity,  though  oppression  and  persecution  have  reduced 
them  to  the  lowest  depths  of  poverty  and  ignorance.  They 
seem  to  be  the  lineal  descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
and  next  to  the  Nubians,  the  least  contaminated  by  any  for- 
eign mixture.  They  are  called  Copts,  a  word  identical  with 
Egypt;  they  number  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
souls,  and  dwell  mostly  in  Upper  Egypt,  while  their  patri- 
arch, who  is  both  their  civil  and  religious  head  and  represent- 
ative, resides  in  Cairo,  at  the  seat  of  government.  They  pre- 
serve more  of  the  traditions  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  in  their 
manners  and  customs  than  any  other  race  in  the  land.*  Their 
church  services  are  performed  in  the  old  language  of  Egypt, 
which  is  understood  only  by  the  learned,  the  Arabic  being 
their  spoken  dialect.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  Copts 
exhibit  traces  of  negro  blood,  indicated  by  a  similarity  in  the 
shape  of  the  head ;  but  this  opinion  finds  few  advocates.f 

We  are  indebted  to  the  modern  Egyptians  for  the  faithful 
preservation  of  the  Muslim  traditions  which  throw  light  upon 
the  Mosaic  law.  They  also  exemplify  some  of  the  workings 
of  the  Muslim  system,  which  has  been  carried  out  by  them  un- 
der the  most  favorable  conditions,  upon  a  rich  and  fertile  soil, 
and  without  the  remotest  interference.  In  their  physique  and 
personal  appearance  the  modern  Egyptians  are  of  medium 
stature,  and  inclined  to  corpulency.:}:  They  all  have  straight 
black  hair,  and  are  easily  distinguished  from  negroes,  who 
have  been  introduced  as  slaves  among  them,  by  the  greater 
regularity  of  their  features  and  their  lighter  skin.  The  Arabs 
of  the  desert  are  of  a  darker  hue,  owing  to  their  constant  ex- 

*  Lane,  vol.  ii.,  p.  275.  t  Marcel,  vol.  iii.,  p.  105.  {  Ezek.  xvi.,  26. 


360  BIBLE   LAXDS. 

posure  to  the  sun  ;  this  may  be  seen  in  our  portrait  of  AVd-el- 
Kadir. 

The  "Ethiopians"  of  the  Scriptures  remain  unchanged. 
They  occupy  the  portion  of  the  Nile  above  Syene,  now  called 
the  kingdoms  of  Nubia,  Sennaar,  Kordofan,  and  Abyssinia. 
"We  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  them  hereafter,  especially 
to  the  latter,  to  which  the  name  appears  to  be  exclusively  ap- 
plied in  Ezek.  xxix.,  10.  The  Abyssinians  are  particularly 
interesting  to  us  on  account  of  their  appearance  upon  the 
page  of  Sacred  History,  when  the  Queen  of  Sheba  (the  modern 
Habesh,  or  Abyssinia)  visited  the  court  of  Solomon.*  The  fact 
is  recorded  in  the  annals  of  the  country,f  and  it  is  asserted 
that  the  whole  nation  then  adopted  the  Hebrew  faith  and  the 
rite  of  circumcision,  which  is  practiced  among  them  to  this 
day,  as  it  is  among  some  heathen  tribes  of  Eastern  Africa. 
The  Abyssinians  received  Christianity  at  an  early  period,  but 
it  has  now  become  little  more  than  an  empty  form.  The  por- 
trait of  Balgadda-Arca,  a  great  Ab3'ssinian  chief,  will  give  a 
good  idea  of  the  personal  appearance  of  this  interesting  people. 

Let  us  next  pass  to  Palestine,  and  inquire  who  now  occu- 
pies its  sacred  soil.  There  is  a  strong  Arab  element  prevail- 
ing; you  see  it  in  the  language,  religion,  and  manners  of  the 
bulk  of  the  population.  Christianity  once  united  all  into  a 
comparatively  homogeneous  people,  harmonizing  elements  once 
antagonistic.  A  common  faith  had  obliterated  every  vestige 
of  the  old  nationalities  of  Canaanite,  Hittite,  Philistine,  Am- 
monite, Idumean,  and  many  others.  When  Islam  came  in 
with  the  Arabian  exodus,  more  as  a  political  than  as  a  moral 
power,  most  of  the  people  accepted  the  change.  Some,  how- 
ever, chiefly  upon  the  crags  of  Lebanon,  held  fast  to  a  purer 
faith,  despite  persecutions  and  sufferings,  even  unto  death,  pro- 
tracted to  the  present  day. 

But  there  yet  exist  within  the  boundaries  of  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  David  and  Solomon  several  tribes  which  have,  to 
a  greater  or  less  degree,  preserved  their  purity  of  lineage.  We 
have  already  spoken  of  the  Syrians,  especially  of  those  of  the 
mountain,  whether  Maronites  (papists)  or  Melchites  (Greeks). 
The  Druses  of  the  southern  portion  of  Lebanon  and  the  Hau- 

*  1  Kings  X.,  1-3.  t  Bruce,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  109-115. 


ETHNOLOGY. 


861 


The  AbyssiDian  Chief,  Balgadda-Arca. 

ran  (the  Gilead  of  the  Bible)  are  another  instance.  These  peo- 
ple claim  a  descent  from  the  Beni-Hammiar,  an  Arab  tribe, 
which  left  the  Yemen  with  some  others,  and  migrated  to  Chal- 
dea,  about  the  year  100  of  our  era.  They  soon  after  went  to 
the  neighborhood  of  Aleppo ;  and  in  the  ninth  century  moved 
in  a  body  to  Mount  Lebanon,  where  they  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing possession  of  the  southern  portion  of  that  range.  They 
have  adopted  the  doctrines  of  the  followers  of  Hakem,  one  of 
the  Fatimite  sultans  of  Egypt,  who  lived  in  the  tenth  century. 
The  peculiar  tenets  of  these  people  (called  Druses,  from  El  Do- 
razi,  their  first  teacher)  were  for  a  long  time  kept  secret  from 
the  world,  but  have  now  been  made  public  by  the  translation 


362  BIBLE   LANDS. 

of  their  books.  Their  religious  faith  is  a  sort  of  Pnntheism, 
mixed  with  notions  borrowed  from  the  Magians ;  they  beheve 
in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  but  they  assume  the  profession 
and  perform  the  rites  of  any  other  faith  whenever  it  suits  their 
purpose ;  and  hence  they  outwardly  conform  to  the  require- 
ments of  Islam.  They  practice,  strictly  speaking,  no  religious 
worship ;  their  leaders  meet  together  once  a  week,  professedly 
to  perform  religious  rites,  but  in  reality  with  political  ends  in 
view. 

The  Druses  number  about  one  hundred  thousand  souls, 
including  those  in  the  Hauran.  They  hate  the  neighboring 
Christians,  and  are  often  at  war  with  them,  and  it  is  their  prac- 
tice to  kill  every  male,  even  the  youngest  infant,  of  their  ene- 
mies, and  to  carry  the  women  and  girls  into  slavery.* 

The  Metuallies,  numbering  about  eighty  thousand  souls,  oc- 
cupy the  hilly  country  above  Sidon,  and  a  portion  of  Lebanon 
lying  near  Baalbec.  They  belong  to  the  Slieite  portion  of 
Islam,  and  are,  therefore,  thought  by  some  to  have  come  over 
from  Persia,  which  is  the  bulwark  of  that  sect.  There  is  great 
enmity  between  them  and  their  Sunni  or  orthodox  Muslim 
neighbors,  for  they  regard  each  other  as  worse  than  heathen. 

The  Ismailyeh  and  Noosairyeh  are  two  secret  sects,  similar 
in  many  respects  to  the  Druses.  Their  doctrines,  however,  are 
not  known,  nor  wherein  they  differ  from  each  other.  They 
are  supposed  to  be  the  descendants  of  some  of  the  ancient  hea- 
then nations,  number  about  two  hundred  thousand  souls,  and 
occupy  a  district  which  extends  from  the  mountains  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Tripoli  to  Antioch,  on  the  Orontes.f 

We  ought  not  to  overlook  a  small  remnant  of  Samaritans 
dwelling  at  Nabloos  (the  ancient  Shechem),  who  still  worship 
and  offer  sacrifices  on  the  mountain  Gerizim.;}:  They  are 
probably  the  descendants  of  the  "men  from  Babylon,  and  from 
Cuthah,  and  from  Ava,  and  from  Hamath,  and  from  Sephar- 
vaim,"  who  were  transferred  to  the  territory  vacated  by  the 
ten  tribes  by  order  of  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria.§ 

*  Deut.  XX.,  13, 14;  1  Kings  xi.,  15,  16. 

t  The  Ismailyeh  are  the  once  famous  Assassins  (or  Ilashishin)  wlio  so  often, 
during  the  Crusades,  changed  the  fate  of  the  struggle  by  their  daring  murders. — 
MiciiAui),  "  Croisades,"  vol.  i.,  p.  329;  vol.  ii.,  p.  145. 

X  John  iv.,  20.  §  2  Kings  xvii.,  24. 


ETHNOLOGY,  863 

The  Jews  of  Tiberias,  on  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret,  seem  to  be 
descended  in  direct  line  from  those  who  settled  there  soon  after 
their  return  from  Babylon, 

Let  us  now  cross  the  desert  eastward,  and  visit  the  land  of 
Israel's  exile,  the  plains  of  Chaldea,  the  site  of  Babylon,  and 
later  of  Seleucia,  Ctesiphon,  and  Bagdad,  upon  which  God  has 
visited  every  calamity  which  they  had  brought  upon  his  peo- 
ple, Babylon  was  vanquished  by  Cyrus,  and  Persia  by  Alex- 
ander; then  came  the  Parthians,  and  the  Persians  again,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Saracen  caliphs,  who  were,  in  their  turn,  con- 
quered by  the  Turkish  hordes  that  swept  down  from  Central 
Asia,  partitioned  the  land,  and  hold  it  to  this  day.  What  an 
ebb  and  flow  of  human  power  and.  pride,  rapine  and  crime, 
have  passed  over  these  interesting  larids!  Where  are  their 
ancient  inhabitants?  Have  they  utterly  perished,  and  become 
extinct?  A  nation  never  dies  except  by  thorough  annihila- 
tion, and  this  has  rarely  if  ever  occurred  on  any  large  scale. 
Its  traditions,  its  language,  even  its  separate  identity,  may  be 
lost,  but  its  life  is  propagated,  and  even  that  which  seems  to 
perish  imperceptibly  infuses  itself  into  the  minds  of  the  con- 
querors. The  cities  and  towns  of  Chaldea  are  now  mostly  oc- 
cupied by  a  population  of  mingled  and  yet  undefined  origin, 
while  the  open  plain  is  the  home  of  several  Arab  tribes.  Be- 
sides a  small  number  of  nominal  Christians,  the  Yezidees  ap- 
pear to  be  the  only  descendants  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Shinar  who  have  not  wholly  lost  their  identity  by  amalgama- 
tion with  their  conquerors.  They  are  hated  and  bitterly  perse- 
cuted by  the  Persians,  but  fare  somewhat  better,  for  political 
reasons,  under  the  Turks,  in  whose  territory  they  have  taken 
refuge.  They  sometimes  annoy  their  old  enemies  by  predatory 
expeditions.  We  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  of  certain  prac- 
tices of  these  people,  whose  religion,  as  far  as  can  be  discovered, 
appears  to  be  a  mixture  of  sun-worship,  Christianity,  and  Islam. 
They  are  few  in  number,  and  confined  to  the  edges  of  the 
Koordish  mountains,  toward  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia  and  of 
the  Aras. 

The  modern  kingdom  of  Persia  is  mostly  confined  to  the 

plateau  we  have  described  at  the  beginning  of  this  work.     Its 

north-western  boundary  commences  at  the  river  Aras,  not  far 

from   Mount  Ararat,  and  follows   a  line   across   the  plateau 

24 


364 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


to  the  edge  of  the  plain  of  Mesopotamia,  so  as  to  include 
the  elevated  plain  of  Ooroomia.  The  territory  widens  as  it 
spreads  to  the  south-east,  being  bounded  on  the  one  side  by 
the  Caspian  Sea,  and  on  the  other  by  the  low  alluvium  of 
Mesopotamia  and  Chaldea  and  the  Persian  Gulf  The  climate 
of  Persia  is  cold,  for  its  plains  are  no  less  than  four  thousand 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Its  history  shows  that  its  pop- 
ulation is  of  a  mixed  origin,  yet  certain  districts  are  occupied 
chiefly  by  distinct  tribes,  with  some  of  whose  names  we  are 
familiar. 

The  province  of  Shiraz  is,  properly  speaking,  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Persia  before  Cyrus.  Here  lie  the  ruins  of  Persep- 
olis  and  the  palace  of  Darius,  burned  by  Alexander  the  Great 
in  a  drunken  frolic.  Here,  too,  are  inscriptions,  altars,  and 
tire  temples,  mementos  of  the  old  Persian  religion,  with  a  rem- 
nant of  living  worshipers,  known  as  the  Parsees  {Farsi,  Per- 
sians), most  of  whom,  however,  live  in  Bombay,  under  the  shel- 
ter of  a  liberal  Christian  govern- 
ment. The  province  of  Shiraz  is 
the  richest  and  finest  portion  of  the 
kingdom.  Here  the  Persian  lan- 
guage (or  Farsi)  is  spoken  in  its 
purity,  and  here  reside  the  Soofis 
(o-w^ol),  the  wise  men  of  Persia.* 
Here,  too,  the  national  costume  is 
preserved  nearly  identical  with  its 
original  type,  which  may  be  seen  in 
the  annexed  copy  of  a  sculpture  at 
Persepolis.  It  has  been  adopted  by 
the  court,  though  the  Persians,  un- 
like other  Orientals,  are  very  fond 
of  changing  foshions  in  dress.  This 
was  theircharacteristic  of  old. f  They 
are  inclined  to  be  small  of  stature, 
and  are  noted  for  the  fullness  of  their 
beards,  and  the  abundance  of  their 
hair  when  unshaven — a  circumstance  which  fully  agrees  with 
the  ancient  carvings.     They  also  dye  them  with  indigo  and 


Ancient  Persian.      A  Persepoli 
Sculpture. 


Matt,  ii.,  1. 


t  Herodotus,  vol.  i.,  p.  IS.'i. 


Ancieut  Persiau. 


ETHNOLOGY.  365 

henna.  The  annexed  figure,  copied  from  a 
gem,  would  answer  very  well  for  a  modern 
Persian.*  He  appears  even  to  wear  the  little 
curls  behind  the  ears  which  are  so  common 
with  these  people  at  the  present  time,  and  has, 
like  them,  a  lamb-skin  cap  upon  his  head. 

But  we  must  say  a  few  words  respecting  the 
ruling  race  in  Persia,  as  it  will  prepare  us  the 
better  to  understand  the  changes  which  have  altered  the  face 
of  all  Western  Asia. 

The  Arab  exodus  was  neither  so  extensive  nor  so  disastrous 
in  its  effects  as  that  of  the  Tartar  race,  which  commenced  about 
the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  and  may  be  said  to  have  ended 
in  the  fourteenth.  These  people  came  from  the  great  plains 
east  of  the  Caspian,  the  nursery  of  a  hardy  race  of  men  dwell- 
ing in  tents,  and  leading,  with  their  flocks  and  herds,  a  life  'of 
constant  exposure.  They  own  immense  droves  of  horses,  with 
whose  management  they  are  familiar  from  childhood,  and  their 
life  is  mostly  spent  in  military  exercises  and  expeditions,  whose 
success  chiefly  depends  on  personal  prowess.  Their  skillful 
horsemanship  has  so  long  been  acknowledged  in  the  East,  that 
the  fastest  mail-carriers  and  post-riders  are  called  Tatars.  The 
people  are  called  Tatars,  Turks,  or  Turkmens,  according  to  the 
tribe  or  district  from  which  they  originally  came.  They  long 
;igo  conquered  China,  and  now  hold  its  government,  and  con- 
stitute the  main  strength  of  its  armies.  Their  monuments  still 
exist  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor,  at  the  eastern  extremity 
of  the  continentf  In  Persia  tbey  hold  the  same  position  as 
in  China,  accepting,  as  is  their  wont,  the  prevailing  religion  of 
their  adopted  country.  Most  of  them  lead  a  nomad  life  in  the 
northern  provinces.  They  number  no  less  than  eight  hundred 
thousand,  and  constitute  the  cavalry  and  flower  of  the  army. 
They  continue  to  speak  Turkish,  while  the  Shah,  who  himself 
is  one  of  them,  speaks  also  Persian.  Their  other  settlements 
and  the  changes  they  have  undergone  in  Turkey  proper,  will 
by-and-by  claim  our  attention. 

We  now  return  back  over  the  border  into  Turkey,  and  here 
certainly  the  ethnology  becomes  very  complicated.     The  coun- 

•  Perkins,  p.  143.  t  Collins,  pp.  293-300. 


366  BIBLE    LANDS, 

try  embraces  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  region  lim- 
ited by  the  Caucasian  range,  and  bounded  by  the  Black  and 
Caspian  seas,  and  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia  and  Syria.  It 
seems  as  though  nearly  all  the  white  races  of  man  had  either 
been  cradled  here,  or,  what  is  more  probable,  they  have  been 
pushed  in  turn  toward  this  common  centre,  and  crowded  into 
the  gorges  and  among  the  craggy  heights  of  this  great  plateau, 
where  they  vehemently  cling  to  their  expiring  national  life. 
Here  we  have  the  Gauls  from  France  (the  Galatians  of  St. 
Paul's  famous  epistle),  and  here  we  meet  with  true  Mongolian 
faces,  speaking  the  language  of  Central  Asia,  wandering  nom- 
ads, practicing  their  secret  heathen  rites.  Negro  slaves  from 
all  parts  of  Africa  have  been  imported  from  time  immemorial, 
and  shared  the  harem  of  the  master,  with  the  fairest  Circassians. 
Here  we  find  remains  of  Grecian,  Assyrian,  and  Egyptian  art, 
with  inscriptions  in  unknown  tongues,  which  baffle  the  efforts  of 
men  who  can  read  the  hieroglyphics  and  cuneiform.  Tribes  are 
usually  recognized  by  their  dialects  ;*  those  of  this  region  have 
not  perished ;  but  where  is  the  language  of  the  Lycaonians,f 
or  that  inscribed  upon  the  gems  or  the  monuments  of  Lycia, 
upon  the  tomb  of  the  Phrygian  king  Midas,  or  upon  the  ruins 
of  Euyuk.+ 

Yet,  with  all  these  difiiculties,  there  is  much  to  be  learned  in 
this  whole  region,  if  we  take  up  the  remnants  of  extinct  nation- 
alities, and  study  them  one  by  one,  like  pages  of  a  history  torn 
from  their  places  and  preserved  while  the  rest  of  the  volume 
has  perished.  We,  however,  shall  content  ourselves  with  of- 
fering such  items  of  information  as  will  interest  the  general 
reader. 

The  ancient  kingdom  of  Armenia,  though  often  varying  in 

*  The  many  languages  spoken  by  the  different  Koordish  and  Caucasian  tribes 
may  be  the  product  of  the  natural  dialectic  development  of  language  when  litera- 
ture does  not  fix  its  character  and  arrest  its  growth.  We  have  an  instance  of  this 
in  the  Friesian  dialects  of  Europe,  and  in  the  three  hundred  dialects  of  Oolchis,  de- 
scribed by  Pliny,  the  seventy  of  Strabo. — Max  Muller,  "Science  of  Language," 
p.  61.  t  Acts  xiv.,  11. 

t  The  inscriptions  of  Midas's  and  several  Lycian  tombs  have  been  copied  and 
decij)hered,  some  of  them  being  bilingual.  But  they  do  not  furnish  twenty  words 
— enough  only  to  show  that  the  languages  are  Indo-European.  The  former  near- 
ly resembles  the  Greek  in  its  inflections,  and  the  latter  the  Latin,  though  the  roots 
themselves  are  generally  totally  unlike. — Hawlinson,  "  Herodotus,  "vol.  i.,  p.  -"i-t". 


ETHNOLOGY.  367 

size,  was  never  so  extensive  as  the  territory  now  occupied  by 
the  race.  They  are  a  people  of  fine  physical  development, 
often  of  high  stature  and  powerful  frame,  industrious  and 
peaceable,  yet  more  jealous  of  their  rights  and  liberties  than 
any  other  Oriental  race.  They  passionately  cherish  the  mem- 
ory of  their  fathers,  and  preserve  the  use  of  their  national  lan- 
guage, which  belongs  to  the  Indo-European  family,  and  pos- 
sesses a  literature  of  considerable  importance.  Their  religious 
centre  is  Echmiadzin,  the  residence  of  the  spiritual  head  of 
their  Church,  situated  within  sight  of  Mount  Ararat,  upon 
which  they  believe  that  the  ark  of  Noah  rested  after  the  Del- 
uge.* They  are  disseminated  over  the  plateau,  occupying  its 
most  fertile  portions,  especially  the  rich  plain  of  Van,  which 
constitutes  its  greatest  elevation.  They  dwell  in  the  high  re- 
gions whence  spring  the  four  chief  rivers  of  Western  Asia, 
the  Euphrates,  the  Tigris,  the  Aras,  and  the  Fazi.f  They  are 
found  extending  in  a  south-westerly  direction  over  the  slopes 
and  in  the  valleys  of  Taurus  and  Amanus,  where  they  main- 
tained their  independence  under  their  own  kings  until  after  the 
Crusades,  making  Sis  their  capital.  Here  they  still  have  a  pa- 
triarch, second  only  to  the  one  at  Echmiadzin.  Some  of  the 
towns  in  this  region  yet  maintain  a  quasi  independence,  and  are 
occupied  by  a  race  of  bold  and  hardy  men.  The  Armenian 
people  also  abound  in  Cappadocia  and  Pontus ;  indeed,  their 
villages  are  met  with  throughout  the  north  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
along  the  western  coast  of  the  peninsula.  Almost  in  every  city 
of  any  importance  in  Turkey  there  is  a  quarter  appropriated  to 
this  people,  where  they  cluster  together  for  the  sake  of  mutual 
protection  and  greater  liberty,  while  they  pursue  their  various 
occupations  as  artisans  or  merchants,  in  which  they  have  no 
superiors.  They  also  hold  offices  of  trust  under  the  govern- 
ment. So  highly  is  their  industry  esteemed,  that  Shah  Abbas 
introduced  them  to  Ispahan,  then  the  capital  of  the  kingdom, 
and  gave  them  the  suburb  of  Zulpha  to  dwell  in.:}:  But  the 
enterprise  of  the  Armenian  people  has  also  led  them  to  foreign 
countries,  and  they  are  to  be  found  in  considerable  numbers 
at  the  chief  commercial  centres  of  Europe.     In  India  they  are 

*  Gen.  viii.,  4,  where  the  word  is  probably  used  in  the  sense  of  Armenia,  as 
in  Jer.  li.,  27. 

t  Gen.  ii.,  10-14.  J  Tavernier,  p.  157. 


368 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


SO  numerous  that  an 
edition  of  the  Arme- 
nian Scriptures  has 
been  published  at  Cal- 
cutta for  their  exclusive 
use.  They  are  distin- 
guished among  all  the 
nations  of  Turkey  for 
the  zeal  with  which  they 
engage  in  the  reforma- 
tion of  their  Church, 
and  in  diffusing  the 
blessings  of  education. 
The  accompanying 
sketch  represents  an 
Armenian  in  the  cos- 
tume worn  half  a  cen- 
tury ago. 

It  must  not  be  sup- 
posed that  the  Arme- 
nians exclusively  in- 
habit the  regions  we 
have    described.       One 

Armenian  Merchant,  Co«tume  of  hfty  \eiis  a^o         q|*    ^^xq    peculiarities    of 

Asia  Minor  is  that  nations  differing  in  language  and  in  faith 
occupy  the  same  district,  living  in  separate  villages,  sometimes 
divided  only  by  a  small  stream  or  ravine ;  they  are  generally 
peaceable  neighbors,  and  hold  the  large  towns  and  cities  in 
common.  In  Armenia  proper  it  is  the  Koords  who  share  the 
possession  of  the  soil  with  the  Armenians,  while  from  Pontus 
westward  it  is  the  Greeks  and  Turks.  The  Koords  are  n 
peculiar  race,  generally  tall  and  gaunt,  with  sinewy  forms  and 
marked  features.  They  are,  by  the  Turks,  divided  into  the 
nomad,  or  independent,  and  the  stationary  tribes.  The  latter 
alone  pay  tribute  to  their  Turkish  rulers,  and,  though  dwelling 
in  villages,  are  little  given  to  agriculture,  their  wealth  chiefly 
consisting  of  cattle  and  flocks.  They  leave  their  villages  in 
the  spring,  and  resorting  to  the  higher  regions,  where  grass  is 
abundant,  remain  there  until  the  return  of  autumn.  Being 
constantly  in  the  saddle,  they  are  unsurpassed  as  horsemon. 


ETHNOLOGY.  369 

All  summer  long  they  waylay  and  rob  the  passing  traveler, 
and  even  government  officials.  The  Turkish  authorities  are 
powerless  to  prevent  this  state  of  things.  They  occasionally 
send  troops  into  a  Koordish  district,  who  burn  the  villages, 
and  put  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword,  which  only  serves  to 
keep  up  the  mutual  hatred.  These  people  are  spread  over  a 
very  extensive  region  of  country,  and  always  select  the  most 
rugged,  inaccessible,  and  easily  defended  portions  of  it.  They 
are  found  in  Persia,  Looristan,  on  the  entire  range  of  Mount 
Zagros,  which  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  Turkey,  as  well 
as  in  the  mountains  of  Koordistan,  as  far  north  as  the  river 
Kur;  on  Mount  Taurus  and  Mount  Amanus,  where  they  oc- 
cupy the  wild  gorges,  while  the  Armenians  inhabit  the  valleys 
and  plains.  They  also  extend  to  Pontus  and  Cappadocia,  but 
are  limited  westward  by  the  river  Halys.  They  call  them- 
selves Muslims,  but  are  undoubtedly  pagans,  venerating  aged 
trees,  believing  in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and  engaging  in 
the  secret  orgies  of  the  cock  sacrifice.  Hence  they  are  called 
Kuzul  Bash  (Red-heads)  by  the  Turks,  a  name  applied  to  all 
Muslim  heretics.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  some  of 
them  are  the  descendants  of  ancient  tribes  who  inhabited  the 
same  mountains,*  no  less  than  thirty-nine  of  whose  names  are 
found  engraved  upon  an  Assyrian  cylinder.f  Other  tribes 
have  probably  been  added,  for  they  now  number  more  than  a 
hundred,  speaking  as  many  different  dialects,  and  often  at  war 
with  each  other.;}: 

The  Georgians  bound  the  Armenians  on  the  north,  and  are 
an  unusually  fine -looking  race  of  people.  Their  daughters 
formerly  supplied  the  harems  of  the  sensual  Turks  and  Persians, 
but  the  conquest  of  the  Muscovite  arrested  the  iniquitous  traf- 
fic, which  has  left  behind  among  this  people  the  bane  of  ir- 
religion  and  immorality.  Their  name — Ourjy,  or  Kurjy — sim- 
ply indicates  that  they  inhabit  the  valley  of  the  Kur.  They 
have  a  language  of  their  own,  closely  allied  to  the  Tartar ;  hence 
they  are  thought  to  be  of  Turanian  origin.     Their  physique, 

*  Xenophon's  "  Carduci "  (Koords)  among  the  rest. 

+  Rawlinson,  "  Herodotus,"  vol.  i.,  p.  471. 

}  Mr.  Hoernle,  a  German  missionary,  who  has  paid  considerable  attention  to  tlie 
subject,  thinks  there  are  between  one  and  two  himdred  tribes  of  Koords,  speaking 
as  many  distinct  dialects.— See  Perkins,  "  Residence  in  Persia,"  p.  192. 


370 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


however,  does  not  support  this 
hypothesis,  but  makes  them  nearly 
related  to  the  Armenians.  It  is 
probable  that  they  were  early  com- 
pelled to  adopt  the  language  of  a 
conquering  race.  The  Georgians 
are  called  Virh  by  the  Armenians, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  the  name 
of  the  ancient  Iberians  of  some  au- 
thors, and  the  Tubal  of  the  Bible.* 
The  Meshek  are  always  coupled 
with  the  Tubal  in  the  Scriptures; 
so  also  the  Moschi  and  the  Tibare- 
li  in  the  Greek  authors,f  and  the 
Muskai  and  Tuplai  in  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions.  The  Meshek  are  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Eussians,  still  call- 
ed Moscov  all  over  the  East ;  the}' 
must  formerlv  have  been  intimate- 

GL-ulgiail  of  Titlis.  ,  .  -i"       •    ^         ^  r~t 

ly  associated  with  the  Georgians, 
and  are  of  Tartar  origin.  The  Georgians  were  early  converted 
to  Christianity,  and  are  still  nominal  Christians,  though  igno- 
rance and  superstition  greatly  prevail  among  them. 

We  do  not  propose  to  describe  the  tribes  inhabiting  the  Cau- 
casus, where,  it  is  said,  at  least  fifteen  distinct  languages  are 
spoken.  This  would  be  irrelevant  to  our  purpose,  carrying  us 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  lands  of  the  Bible.:}:  We  shall  briefly 
speak  of  the  most  noted,  particularly  of  such  as  have  exerted 
an  influence  upon  the  regions  which  chiefly  concern  us,  or  af- 
ford illustrations  of  our  main  subject. 

The  Lesghies  (ancient  Legae?)  occupy  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  Daghestan,  the  hill  country  north  of  the  Caucasus. 
They  are  bold  mountaineers,  and  were  conquered  only  by  Eus- 
sian  bribes.  The  Laz  occupy  the  shore  of  the  Black  Sea  be- 
tween Trebizond  and  the  Phasis  (the  modern  Fazi),  and  ex- 
tend into  the  interior  as  far  as  the  sources  of  the  Kur.  They 
are  an  independent,  lawless  tribe,  who  prey  upon  their  neigh- 

*  Ezek.  xxvii.,  13;  xxxix.,  1.  t  Herodotus,  vol.  ii.,  p.  402  ;  iv.,  p.  50. 

X  The  Caucasian  isthmus  is  called  the  "Mountain  of  Languages." — Max  Mci.- 
LER,  "  Science  of  Languages,"  p.  5)3. 


ETHNOLOGY. 


371 


bors,  and  are  the  probable  descend- 
ants of  the  Lazi,  or  Colchians  of  an- 
tiquity.* Their  language  indicates 
a  Turanian  origin. f 

But  the  most  interesting  of  the 
Caucasian  tribes  are  the  Circas- 
sians, who,  after  a  long  struggle 
for  liberty  against  the  whole  pow- 
er of  Russia,  were  finally  crushed, 
many  thousands  of  them  taking 
refuge  in  Turkey,  where  they  live 
in  voluntary  exile.  Their  coun- 
try lies  between  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Kooban  River,  the  Circassians 
chiefly  occupying  the  south  side 
of  the  mountain  chain,  while  their 
allies,  the  Nogay  Tartars,  are  on 
the  north.  Having  no  acquaint- 
ance with  their  language,  we  can 
not  conjecture  to  what  race  they 
belong,  but  they  look  very  unlike 
the  Tartars.  They  are  tall,  well- 
proportioned,  and  fair,  being  in  fact  the  finest-looking  race  of 
men,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  accompanying  specimen,  in  his 
national  costume.  Their  fair  complexion,  brown  hair,  and  gray 
eyes  may  be  owing  to  the  dampness  of  their  climate,  which  main- 
tains a  perpetual  verdure,  so  that  fixllow  land  soon  becomes  an 
unbroken  forest.  Some  of  them  are  Muslims,  but  many  practice 
the  heathen  rites  of  their  ancestors.  The  long-continued  practice 
of  selling  their  children  to  the  Turks  has  materially  affected  the 
Osmanli  race,  many  among  the  higher  classes  of  whom  are  of 
pure  Circassian  blood.  The  famous  Mamelukes  and  Beys  of 
Egypt  were  mostly  Circassian  slaves.  We  shall  find  many 
valuable  illustrations  of  the  pages  of  Scripture  in  the  primitive 
manners  of  this  people  at  their  mountain  homes. 

The  descendants  of  the  Greek  colonists  established  along  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor  are  still  found  in  the  sea-ports,  and  in  vil- 


Circassiau  Warrior. 


*  Agathias,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  18,  19. 

t  Muller,  "Languages,"  etc.,  p.  126;  Le  Beau,  "  Bas  Empire,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  339. 


i{72  BIBLE   LANDS. 

lages  extending  some  distance  inland.  These  show  a  special 
aptitude  for  the  mechanical  arts.  They  work  the  only  saw- 
mills in  the  country,  and  are  exclusively  employed  in  the  dif- 
ferent mines,  where  their  isolation  has  given  birth  to  a  patois 
scarcely  understood  by  other  Greeks.  Everywhere,  however, 
they  have  the  features  and  complexion  of  the  Greek  race; 
their  language  is  the  modern  Greek,  or  Romaic,  which  was  at 
one  time  greatly  corrupted  with  foreign  words,  but  has  been  so 
improved  within  the  last  fifty  years,  especially  in  the  schools 
of  Athens,  that  it  now  closely  resembles  the  Greek  of  the  New 
Testament.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  modern  pronun- 
ciation is  essentially  identical  with  the  ancient. 

These  Greeks  should  not  be  confounded  with  other  Greeks, 
so  called,  who  abound  in  Asia  Minor,  constituting  a  large  part 
of  the  rural  population,  and  being  prominent  in  the  inland 
cities.  The  latter  are  Greeks  only  because  they  belong  to  the 
Greek  Church,  and  are  taught  in  her  schools  the  use  of  the 
Greek  alphabet.  They  now  speak  only  Turkish,  whatever 
may  have  been  their  original  language;  and  the  fact  of  their 
lacking  any  distinct  physical  characteristic  favors  the  hypothe- 
sis that  they  are  the  descendants  of  those  of  the  aborigines 
who  embraced  Christianity,  while  such  as  clung  to  their  hea- 
thenism are  now  classed  among  the  Kuzulbashes,  or  Koords 
of  the  East,  or  the  Yuruks  of  the  West.  As  may  be  supposed, 
they  present  a  great  variety  of  types,  and  fine  specimens  are 
not  unfrequently  met  with. 

The  Yuruks,  to  whom  we  have  just  referred,  are  nomads, 
sometimes  confounded  with  the  Koords.  They  are,  indeed, 
heathen  like  them,  and  have  languages  of  their  own  ;  they  both 
alike  pay  tribute  a-nd  rob.  But  the  Yuruk  tribes  are  distin- 
guished from  each  other  by  their  occupation,  some  being  char- 
coal-burners, others  hewers  of  trees,  which  they  saw  into  beams 
and  planks,  while  others  still  raise  cattle  for  the  market.  There 
are  also  the  Turkmens,  the  most  nomadic  of  all,  who  appear  to 
be  the  unchanged  posterity  of  the  Turks  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  have  never  settled  down  in  the  land  of  their  adoption. 
Like  the  Bedawin,  they  wander  about  with  their  flocks  and 
herds,  hunt  with  the  falcon,  and  are  reputed  to  be  less  addicted 
to  highway  robbery  than  any  other  nomads.  The}''  are  heathen, 
and  are  mostly  found  on  the  borders  of  Armenia,  in  Central 


ETHNOLOGY. 


373 


and  Western  Asia  Minor,  in  the  re- 
gion of  Tarsoos,  and  on  the  island  of 
Cyprus.  Their  features  are  Tartar, 
and  they  seem  to  have  most  affini- 
ty with  the  Tartar  popuhition  of  the 
Crimea. 

Jews  are  found  in  considerable 
numbers  in  all  the  great  commercial 
centres  of  Western  Asia.  Gypsies 
occur  both  in  Egypt  and  in  North- 
ern Asia  Minor,  where  they  are  mem-  oriental  Uyp«y  with  the  Gypsy  Lock. 

bers  of  the  Armenian  Church.     We  give  a  characteristic  por- 
trait of  one  of  them.* 

In  the  foregoing  cursory  enumeration  of  the  most  importan'u 

tribes  which  people  West- 
ern Asia  we  have  purposely 
omitted  the  present  ruling 
race,  in  order  to  mention  it 
last  of  all.  They  are  known 
to  the  rest  of  the  world  as 
Turks,  a  name  they  despise, 
and  apply  only  to  the  bar- 
barian nomad  hordes  which 
invaded  the  country  from 
Central  Asia.  In  common 
parlance,  Turk  means  a 
Boor.  They  represent 
themselves  as  a  new  nation 
called  Osmanli,  or  Ali  Os- 
man,  composed  of  all  the 
races  previously  existing 
on  the  peninsula,  profess- 
ing the  Sunni  doctrine  of 

Tuikish  Lady  in  Modern  Costume.  ,■,  •,  •    •  ^P   T„1^».^      «„/l 

the  religion  oi  Islam,  and 
speaking,  not  Turkish,  the  language  of  their  Tartar  "  poor  re- 


*  They  go  in  Persia  by  the  name  of  Karashy,  the  Black  Kace,  their  complexion 
being  darker  than  that  of  the  Persians.  Their  features,  however,  are  very  regu- 
lar, and  they  resemble  their  race  everywhere  else.  Many  are  Muslims,  and  of  in- 
imical sects,  and  have  their  own  moUahs.  They  first  appeared  in  Euroije  in  14l'0  ; 
but  their  occupations  and  vices  are  the  same  the  world  over. 


374 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


Greek  Geutlemau  iu  liis  xXative  (Jostume. 

lations,"  but  Osraanli,  which  is  made  up  of  Turkish,  Arabic, 
and  Persian,  They  afford  us  illustrations  of  Scripture  only  so 
far  as  they  have  preserved  the  customs  of  the  East  unimpaired. 
Most  of  this  mixed  race  are  found  on  the  Asiatic  continent,  the 
Muslims  of  Europe  being  chiefly  Greeks  or  Albanians,  in  whoso 
sincerity  little  confidence  is  reposed.  The  Osmanlis  offer  a  great 
variety  of  types,  of  which  we  give  an  interesting  specimen. 

The  population  of  European  Turkey  and  Greece  is  too  well 
known  to  need  description.  But  it  may  be  well  to  state  that 
many  of  the  islands  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  such  as  Hydra,  Andros, 
etc.,  are  either  wholly  or  in  part  occupied  by  Albanian  colo- 
nists, who  retain  the  use  of  their  native  language.  The  illustra- 
tion given  above  is  a  specimen  of  the  pure  Greek  type,  and 
will  serve  as  a  sample  of  a  race  not  a  little  conspicuous  in  the 
New  Testament,  in  whose  language  that  book  was  originally 
written. 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE.  375 


CHAPTER  11. 

ORAL  AND    WRITTEN  LANGUAGE. 

The  descriptive  sketch  contained  in  the  preceding  chapter 
can  not  fail  to  impress  the  reader  with  the  conviction  that 
great  social  changes  have  taken  place  in  Western  Asia  since 
the  Scriptures  were  written.  Those  countries,  with  their  cli- 
mates and  productions,  have,  as  has  already  been  shown,  re- 
mained essentially  the  same.  One  must  indeed  search  dili- 
gently before  he  can  discover  a  change  in  these  respects ;  and 
the  same  is  true,  as  we  have  shown,  of  all  those  occupations  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  that  influence  upon  their  minds  and  char- 
acter which  have  an  intimate  connection  with,  and  may  fairly 
be  said  to  depend  upon,  the  climate,  productions,  and  natural 
features  of  the  land  in  which  they  dwell. 

With  regard  to  its  political  condition,  however,  there  is  no 
part  of  the  earth's  surface  whose  history  presents  such  rapidly 
shifting  scenes.  Here  have  transpired  the  greatest  moral  and 
religious  revolutions  which  have  affected  the  character  and 
condition  of  human  society ;  the  most  remarkable  systems  of 
idolatry  suddenly  crushed,  or  alternately  struggling  with  Ju- 
daism ;  then  both  these  contending  systems  disappearing  be- 
fore Christianity,  like  ice  and  snow  before  the  genial  heat  of 
summer;  and,  finally,  Islamism  putting  a  sudden  close  to  the 
kingdom  of  peace  which  had  been  inaugurated  by  the  Gospel, 
and  filling  the  land  with  a  chaos  of  blood  and  rapine,  till,  pant- 
ing and  wearied  with  its  own  desolation,  it  now  waits  to  be 
regenerated.  What  a  complete  vanishing  away  of  world-re- 
nowned empires,  which  have  left  scarce  a  vestige  behind  them! 
what  equally  magical  growth  of  empires  undreamed  of  till  that 
hour! 

Some  of  our  readers  may  wonder  that  any  relics  remain  af- 
ter so  many  successive  wrecks,  to  tell  a  story  that  ended  two 
thousand  years  ago.     But  let  them  not  overestimate  the  ardu- 


376  BIBLE    LANDS. 

ousness  of  the  task  before  us.  We  have  shown  that  not  only 
do  many  direct  descendants  of  the  Hebrews  exist  in  different 
parts  of  the  world — faithful  depositaries  of  many  of  their  na- 
tional traditions,  but  cognate  tribes,  the  Assyrians,  the  Syrians, 
and  Arabs,  still  preserve  their  national  identity,  and  cling 
with  Shemitish  tenacity  to  the  usages  of  their  ancestors.  As 
we  now  proceed  to  pick  up,  one  by  one,  the  fragments  handed 
down  with  religious  care,  that  we  may  build  up  again  the  fi\b- 
ric  of  the  ancient  Hebrew  society,  we  shall  be  troubled  only 
with  the  abundance  of  the  materials,  and  the  difficulty  of  our 
task  will  chiefly  consist  in  eliminating  and  casting  aside  what 
is  superfluous  or  doubtful. 

In  our  examination  of  races  nearest  of  kin  to  the  Hebrews, 
we  endeavored  to  throw  some  light  upon  the  physical  charac- 
teristics of  the  latter,  people.  We  shall  not  pursue  the  subject 
farther,  but  proceed  to  speak  of  the  language  of  the  ancient 
Israelites  as  the  next  subject  of  inquiry. 

Among  all  the  tongues  now  spoken  in  Western  Asia,  is  there 
any  which  can  give  us  a  fair  idea  of  the  dialect  in  use  among 
that  people  during  the  nineteen  centuries  of  their  political  ex- 
istence, which  can  impart  the  general  sound,  the  construction, 
and  any  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  language  selected  to  be  the 
medium  of  communication  between  the  Deity  and  his  erring 
creatures?  What  were  the  utterances  which  proclaimed,  with 
the  voice  of  thunder,  the  commandments  of  Jehovah  from  Sinai's 
cloud-enveloped  summit,  while  nearly  two  millions  of  human 
beings  stood  in  the  plain  below,  and  worshiped  with  fear  and 
trembling?*  We  fain  would  know  something  of  that  tongue 
in  which  the  sweet  singer  of  Israel  struck  the  first  note  of  a 
harmony  which  has  never  since  ceased  to  ascend  from  earth  to 
heaven  ;  in  which  the  prophets  uttered  their  denunciations  and 
their  lamentations;  and,  above  all,  the  dialect  in  which  He  that 
"spake  as  never  man  spake,"  first  proclaimed  the  gospel  of 
"  peace  on  earth  and  good-will  toward  men." 

The  foregoing  inquiries  do  not  spring  from  a  desire  merely 
to  gratify  a  vain  curiosity,  for  what  is  it  which  chiefly  distin- 
guishes from  each  other  the  different  races  and  nations  of  men, 
if  it  be  not  their  language  and  modes  of  speech?     These  un- 

•  Exod.  XX.,  lS-22. 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE.  377 

doubtedly  contain  a  more  complete  revelation  of  the  character 
of  the  people  who  use  them  than  almost  any  other  mark  of 
distinction.  Compare,  for  instance,  the  Sclavonic  languages,  so 
chary  of  vowels,  which  are  half  smothered  by  crowding  con- 
sonants, with  the  Italian,  sonorous  and  clear,  abounding  with 
harmonious  vocals;  or,  again,  with  the  language  of  the  Bush- 
men of  South  Africa,  filled  with  its  hisses  and  clicks,  so  like  the 
sounds  made  by  the  snakes  and  other  reptiles  which  abound 
there— do  they  not  all  tell  a  tale  of  climate,  mode  of  life,  and 
political  condition  which  could  not  otherwise  be  so  briefly  and 
strikingly  revealed?  Language  also  exerts  a  powerful  influ- 
ence upon  the  mind,  for  it  is  not  only  the  means  by  which  we 
communicate  our  thoughts  to  others,  but  constitutes  the  garb 
assumed  by  our  ideas  in  our  own  minds.  Every  man  thinks 
in  his  own  familiar  tongue,  and,  when  conversant  with  several, 
his  ideas  assume  the  garb  of  the  language  which  suits  him  best. 
The  dialect  of  a  people  is  the  epitome  of  all  their  knowledge, 
for  its  words  express  no  idea  with  which  they  are  not  famil- 
iar. New  words  can,  indeed,  be  coined  with  greater  facility 
in  one  language  than  in  another;  but  whoever  does  this  must 
communicate  the  new  idea  by  circumlocution  before  the  word 
intended  to  express  it  can  be  fully  understood.  There  is  a  say- 
ing in  the  East,  that  "a  man  is  as  many  times  a  man  as  he 
knows  languages."  This  doubtless  means  that  he  thereby  be- 
comes acquainted  with  the  ideas  of  new  peoples,  and  that  every 
language  he  acquires  opens  to  him  a  new  source  both  of  knowl- 
edge and  influence ;  for  the  acquisition  of  two  or  more  lan- 
guages does  not  simply  imply  the  power  to  represent  the  same 
idea  by  so  many  distinct  sounds  or  words.  This  may  indeed  be 
true  of  material  objects ;  but  as  soon  as  we  pass  to  the  imma- 
terial, there  is  at  once  a  difference  in  the  meaning  perceptible  in 
a  literal  translation.  Even  words  belonging  to  the  first  of  these 
two  classes,  while  they  cease  not  to  represent  definite  objects 
recognizable  by  the  senses,  often  convey  in  one  language  a 
shade  of  meaning  which  they  do  not  express  in  another.  In 
the  word  woman,  for  instance,  in  English,  the  qualification  ivo 
placed  before  man  indicates  merely  a  difference  of  sex;  in  Lat- 
in, she  is  called  the  mulier,  a  word  derived  from  mollior — softer, 
more  tender;  in  Hebrew,  ish  signifies  man,  and  the  addition  of 
a  terminal  vowel  makes  it  isha  —  a  woman.     In  all  three  of 


378  BIBLE    LANDS. 

these  languages,  the  words  we  have  cited  are  also  applied  to  a 
loife.  In  Turkish,  however,  the  name  karh — woman — is  never 
applied  to  a  wife;  she  is  always  called  e«;,  which  signifies  Aoz^e, 
while  the  Armenians  call  her  imdanik^  or  the  keeper  at  home, 
a  word  which  includes  the  children  ;  they  also  call  the  wife  gin^ 
i  e.,  a  woman. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  some  that  the  Hebrew  must  be  the 
most  perfect  and  beautiful  language  in  existence,  because  of 
its  adoption  by  the  Deity  as  a  medium  of  communication  with 
mankind.  In  matters  of  this  nature,  however,  as  well  as  in 
every  scientific  investigation,  the  inductive  mode  of  reasoning 
is  always  the  safest.  We  can  no  more  judge,  a  priori,  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  Hebrew  tongue  than  we  can  tell  before- 
hand what  are  the  animals  and  vegetables  which  exist  in  a  land 
entirely  unknown  to  us.  Moreover,  as  the  object  of  the  Deity 
was  to  impart  instruction  to  man,  He  was  limited  to  the  use  of 
words  already  understood,  expressive  of  ideas  already  familiar 
to  those  whom  he  addressed.  It  would  have  been  easy  for 
Him  to  speak  in  strains  as  melodious  as  angels  ever  uttered, 
or  to  employ  words  whose  meaning  angels  could  not  fathom. 
But  revelation  would  then  have  been  a  failure,  and  the  Bible 
a  sealed  book.  The  student  of  this  Divine  Kevelation,  there- 
fore, must  not  expect  to  find  in  the  Hebrew  dialect  any  thing 
beyond  a  human  language,  whose  range  is  limited  to  the  ideas 
of  a  people  who  had  indeed  come  in  contact  with  the  highest 
civilization  of  their  time,  but  who  needed  to  be  kept  aloof  from 
its  demoralizing  heathenism. 

It  is  through  the  medium  of  this  human  dialect,  however, 
that  the  inspired  authors  of  Scripture  have  brought  to  light 
truths  wholly  unknown  before,  but  now  made  familiar  to  us  by 
their  writings,  and  have  enforced  them  with  a  power  and  elo- 
quence un approached  by  an}'-  other  book. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  the  fact  that  Abraham  was  an 
Aramean.  The  Syrian  language  seems  to  have  been  in  use  at 
that  epoch  through  the  whole  extent  of  Syria  and  ^[esopotamia. 
The  Canaanites,  or  Phoenicians,  who  occupied  Palestine  and 
Mount  Lebanon,  spoke  a  dialect  of  this  language,  which,  hav- 
ing been  adopted  by  Abraham  and  his  descendants,  was  suf- 
ficiently modified  to  deserve  the  distinctive  name  of  the  He- 
brew tongue,  whose  golden  age  appears  to  have  extended  from 


ORAL    AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE.  379 

the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon  to  the  Babylonish  captiv- 

itj.* 

About  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by  the  Jews,  the 
Canaanites,  more  particularly  the  Sidonians,  having  founded 
the  city  of  Tyre,  which  soon  became  the  chief  emporium  of  the 
world's  commerce,  sent  their  surplus  population  across  the  sea 
to  Cyprus,  to  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  to  Crete,  to  continental 
Greece,  and  to  Northern  Africa.  On  the  shores  of  the  latter 
they  founded  the  important  city  of  Carthage,  which  shortly 
rivaled  Tyre  herself  in  opulence  and  power.  The  Carthagin- 
ians built  towns  on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  and  occupied  the  little 
island  of  Malta,  whose  fine  double  harbor  was  doubtless  fully 
appreciated  by  this  commercial  people.f  The  language  of  the 
Phoenicians  has  now  perished,  being  supplanted  by  the  dialects 
of  more  powerful  nations  which  have  conquered  their  colonies 
as  well  as  the  mother  country.  The  inhabitants  of  the  little 
island  of  Malta  alone  still  speak  the  language.  "It  is  unpolish- 
ed indeed,  rude  as  the  people  whose  ideas  it  serves  to  express, 
and  filled  with  Italian,  French,  and  English  words,  adopted 
from  their  successive  masters.  But  there  it  stands,  a  living 
proof  of  the  fact  that  a  people  speaking  a  language  so  nearly 
akin  to  that  in  which  the  Old  Testament  was  originally  written 
once  lived  in  the  country  conquered  by  the  Hebrews.  The 
latter  have  lost  their  own  tongue,  though  they  understand  the 
meaning  of  their  sacred  books;,  and  yet  the  Hebrew  is  not 
wholly  a  dead  language,  for  the  rude  Maltese  still  essentially 
speak  it,  confirming  the  history  of  its  original  colonization.;}: 

The  history  of  the  ten  tribes  after  their  removal  from  Pales- 
tine into  Media,  B.C.  721,  by  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  is 
involved  in  an  obscurity  which  the  assiduous  efforts  of  scholars 

*  The  Shemitish  character  of  the  language  of  Assyria  is  proved  by  the  many 
cuneiform  inscriptions  found  in  Assyrian  ruins,  which  have  been  read  by  learned 
men,  and  leave  not  the  smallest  donbt  that  it  "closely  resembled  the  Arabic, 
Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  Phcenician,  and  was  especially  allied  to  the  Hebrew."  (Raw- 
linson.)  The  oldest  inhabitants  of  Canaan  were  Cushites  from  Egypt,  but  they 
were  driven  out  before  the  time  of  Abraham  by  the  Hittites  and  other  Shemites, 
speaking  what  is  now  called  the  Phoenician  dialect. 

t  Gillies,  "Greece,"  vol.  ii.,  chap,  xi.,  p.  .'>. 

t  On  the  Maltese  dialect,  see  Gesenius's  essay,  "  Versuch  uber  die  Maltische 
Sprache,"  Leipsic,  1810.  There  are  still  Phoenician  inscriptions  about  the  island. 
See  Rawlinson,  "  Herodotus,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  41. 

25 


380  BIBLE   LANDS. 

and  antiquarians  have  not  been  able  to  dispel.  Media  has, 
since  that  period,  been  overrun  by  so  many  devastating  hordes; 
its  political  condition,  its  religious  faith,  and  its  very  language, 
have  so  many  times  been  completely  changed,  each  change 
implying  the  destruction  of  what  preceded  it,  that  it  rendered 
quite  improbable  the  solution  of  this  mystery.  Not  so,  how- 
ever, with  the  two  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin ;  they  had 
remained  fiiithful  to  the  religion  given  them  in  so  preternatural 
a  manner;  the  heathen  around  them,  and  even  their  own  hea- 
thenish brethren  of  the  ten  tribes,  had  perished  from  the  mem- 
ory of  man;  but  they  were  wonderfully  preserved  through  the 
seventy  years'  captivity  in  Babylon,  B.C.  606-536.  They  ap- 
pear to  have  enjoyed  many  privileges  during  this  long  exile 
from  the  land  of  their  fathers.  King  Nebuchadnezzar,  having 
rebuilt  or  repaired  the  city  of  Babylon,*  which  was  of  very 
great  extent,  added  many  of  the  Jews  to  its  population,  and 
not  a  few  of  this  people  occupied  high  positions  in  his  court 
and  government,  and  those  of  his  successors.f  Thus  were  the 
Jews  brought  into  frequent  contact  with  the  Chaldeans  as  well 
as  with  the  Assyrians,  who  were  likewise  transferred  to  Baby- 
lon when  Nineveh  was  destroy ed,:j:  just  before  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem.!  The  original  dialect  of  Abraham  had  been  the 
Chaldee,  changed  to  the  Phcenician  by  his  posterity ;  and  the 
residence  of  these  in  Babylon  for  more  than  a  generation  nat- 
urally brought  about  their  return  to  the  language  first  spoken 
by  their  ancestor  Abraham.  We  have  evidence,  a  hundred 
years  before  the  captivity,  that  the  language  of  the  Hebrews 
was  not  the  same  as  that  of  the  Assyrians, ||  for  the  words  of 


*  Dan.  iv.,  29,  30.  t  Neh.  ii.,  1;  Est.  ii.,  17;  x.,  2,  .*};  Dan.  ii.,  48,  49. 

t  Nahiimiii.,  7,10,  18. 

§  Tho  original  people  of  Babylonia  were  Cushites  (Gen.  x.,  8-10),  as  is 
proved  by  many  inscriptions  on  bricks,  cylinders,  etc.,  of  an  older  date  than  the 
Assyrian  kingdom,  which  are  in  a  Cushite  or  Ethiopian  dialect,  nearly  akin  to 
the  Abyssinian,  Galla,  Gonga,  Agaii,  Wolaitsa,  and  other  languages  of  the  same 
family.  About  the  time  that  Nineveh  comes  upon  the  stage  all  inscriptions  cease 
in  Babylonia ;  but  they  again  appear  nearly  one  thousand  years  later,  on  the  fall 
of  that  city,  but  are  in  a  totally. different  language  from  before,  i.  e.,  in  a  Shemitish 
dialect,  tlie  language  of  the  later  books  of  the  Bible.  The  change  took  place  while 
Babylon  was  subject  to  Nineveh,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  was  occupied  by  a  She- 
mitish race.  Such  changes  in  the  languages  of  the  conquered  have  repeatedh 
occurred  in  modern  times  in  the  lands  of  the  Bible. 

II  2  Kings  xviii.,  2G. 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN    LANGUAGE.  381 

Eliakim  and  Shebna  to  Rabshakeh  indicate  that  there  was  suf- 
ficient difference  between  the  national  dialect  of  the  latter  and 
that  of  the  common  people  of  Jerusalem  to  prevent  their  under- 
standing one  another;  thej  also  prove  that  the  dialect  of  the 
people  of  Nineveh  was  identical  with  the  Syrian  language ; 
for  they  said,  "  Speak  not  in  the  Jews'  language,  but  in  your 
Syrian  tongue,  which  ive  understand."*  On  the  other  hand, 
the  change  which  occurred  during  the  captivity  in  the  dialect 
spoken  by  the  Jews  is  proved  by  a  corresponding  change  in 
the  language  of  those  of  their  sacred  books  which  were  written 
just  before  and  after  their  return  to  their  own  country.  We 
have,  furthermore,  a  proof  of  this  decided  change,  in  the  fact 
that  when  Ezra  the  scribe  "stood  upon  a  pulpit  of  wood"  in 
the  sight  of  all  the  people  gathered  together  as  one  man,  in  the 
street  that  was  before  the  water-gate  of  Jerusalem,  and  read  to 
them  in  the  book  of  the  law  of  God,  "Ae  gave  the  sejise,  and 
caused  them  to  understand  the  reading;"  in  other  words,  he 
translated  the  original  Hebrew  of  Moses  into  the  Chaldean  of 
the  returned  captives.  The  latest  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
are  written  in  this  Chaldee  dialect,  and  there  is  abundant  evi- 
dence in  the  New  Testament  that  it  continued  to  be  the  spoken 
language  of  the  Jewish  people  until  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus,  A.D.  74,  when  their  dispersion  in  many  lands  led  them 
to  exchange  it  for  the  dialects  of  the  Gentiles.f 

For  several  centuries  after  the  Babylonish  captivity,  one  of 
the  regular  duties  at  the  synagogue  consisted,  after  the  reading 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  in  giving  the  interpretation  in  the 
Chaldee  dialect,  first  verbally,  and  later  out  of  the  Chaldee 
Targums,  or  paraphrases,  now  mostly  lost.  When  our  Lord 
quoted  Isa.  Ixi.,  1,  in  his  discourse  at  the  synagogue  of  Naza- 
reth,:}: he  must  have  read  it  in  the  Chaldee  version  under- 
stood by  the  people,  for  his  words  are  neither  those  of  the  He- 
brew original  nor  of  the  Greek  Septuagint.     So  in  Mark  xv.. 


*  Prideaux,  vol.  iv.,  p.  223. 

t  According  to  Gesenius,  the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament  in  which  this  dia- 
lect appears,  first  faintly,  and  then  so  as  to  supersede  the  Hebrew,  are  the  follow- 
ing :  1st  and  2d  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Esther,  Jonah,  Haggai,  Zechariah. 
Malachi,  Daniel,  Ecclesiastes,  Canticles,  and  some  of  the  Psalms.  These  books 
are,  as  literary  works,  decidedly  inferior  to  those  of  an  earlier  date. 

X  Luke  iv.,  18. 


382  BIBLE   LANDS. 

34,  Eldi,  Eldi^  lama^  sabachthani,  quoted  from  Psa.  xxii.,  1, 
are  Cbaldee ;  the  Hebrew  original  is,  Eli,  Eli,  lama  azabtani. 
There  are  yet  Jews  in  the  Persian  province  of  Tabriz  and  in 
Palestine,  who  to  this  day  use  the  Chaldee  or  Syriac  tongue, 
in  which  were  written  the  latest  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  which  was  spoken  by  the  Israelites  for  about  six  hundred 
years ;  nor  can  it  be  called  a  dead  language  any  more  than  the 
Hebrew,  since  it  is  still  spoken  by  two  hundred  thousand  Chal- 
dean Christians  in  Koordistan,  Aderbijan,  and  Upper  Mesopo- 
tamia. Theirs  is  indeed  a  rude  dialect,  with  a  large  intermix- 
ture of  Persian,  Arabic,  and  Koordish  words,  and  even  phrases; 
yet  it  is  essentially  the  language  of  the  ancient  Ninevites  and 
Babylonians — the  language  of  Abraham,  of  Nehemiah,  Ezra,  and 
others  of  the  minor  prophets,  and,  above  all,  the  language  in 
which  our  Saviour  uttered  his  sublime  teachings,  in  which  he 
spoke  his  last  words,  crying  aloud  in  his  last  agony,  "  My  God ! 
my  God !  why  hast  Thou  forsaken  me?"* 

The  Maltese  and  the  modern  Syriac,  then,  are  the  living  rep- 
resentatives of  the  two  dialects  in  which  the  Old  Testament 
was  written.  Few,  however,  enjoy  the  opportunity  of  hearing 
them  spoken,  and  thus  forming  an  idea  of  the  language  of  the 
Hebrews.  Moreover,  in  their  present  condition  they  are  poor 
representatives  indeed  of  a  language  which  was  probably  un- 
surpassed in  harmony  and  wealth.  It  would  be  easy  to  show 
that  not  only  do  the  richness  and  regular  construction  of  a  lan- 
guage depend  on  the  cultivation  of  those  who  speak  it,  but  that 
its  very  pronunciation  is  so  much  affected  by  this  cause,  that 
a  stranger  would  fail  to  recognize  the  same  language  in  the 
mouth  of  the  rude  mountaineer  and  of  the  polished  inhabitant 

*  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  difficult  passage,  Ezra  iv.,  7,  may  be  explain- 
eil  by  the  fact  that  there  is  considerable  difference  of  pronunciation,  but  none  in 
writing,  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Syriac  of  the  present  day.  The  words 
in  Ezra  are :  "  In  the  days  of  Artaxerxes  wrote  Bishlam,  IMithredath,  Tabeel,  and 
the  rest  of  their  companions,  unto  Artaxerxes  king  of  Persia  ;  and  the  writing  of 
the  letter  was  written  in  the  Syrian  tongue,  and  interpreted  in  the  Syrian  tongue." 
This  is  supposed  to  mean  that  the  letter  was  written  with  characters  common 
to  both  the  Eastern  and  Western  Syriac,  but  that  the  man  who  read  it  to  the 
king  pronounced  it  as  done  by  the  Eastem  Syrians,  then  exclusively  called  Syr- 
ians. (Fletcher,  p.  139.)  We  would,  however,  suggest  that  the  "Syrian  writ- 
ing" is  put  in  opposition  to  the  cuneiform,  and  the  "Syrian  tongue"  to  the  Per- 
sian or  court  language.  We  now  have  in  Turkey  the  Armeno-Turkish  and  Greco- 
Turkish,  or  the  Turkish  witli  Greek  or  Armenian  letters. 


ORAL  AND   WRIITEN   LANGUAGE.  883 

of  a  metropolis.  Every  one  knows  that  the  English  language, 
for  instance,  is  spoken  differently  in  London,  in  Yorkshire,  in 
Scotland,  in  Ireland,  and  in  the  United  States,  yet  it  is  the 
same  language  everywhere. 

This  is  still  more  strikingly  seen  in  Western  Asia.  The 
Armenians  of  Van  speak  a  rough  dialect  which  can  hardly  be 
understood,  and  is  much  ridiculed  by  their  polished  brethren 
of  Constantinople,  though  it  is  in  fact,  in  other  respects,  the 
nearest  approach  to  the  language  of  their  flithers.  The  Turk- 
ish, as  spoken  by  the  Crimean  Tartars  and  Turkmens,  is  rude 
and  most  uncouth,  while  the  same  tongue  can  not  be  surpassed 
in  softness,  harmony,  and  richness,  as  it  is  spoken  by  the  edu- 
cated classes  of  Stambool,  and  especially  by  the  ladies  of  the 
imperial  palace.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  nei- 
ther the  Maltese  nor  the  Syriac  can  give  us  any  adequate  con- 
ception of  the  language  which  was  spoken  by  Moses,  David, 
and  Isaiah. 

But  there  is,  fortunately,  a  language  so  near  akin  to  the  an- 
cient Hebrew,  that  we  may  consider  it  as  its  modern  dialect 
or  representative,  holding  the  same  relation  to  it  as  the  Italian 
does  to  the  Latin,  or  the  modern  Greek  to  the  ancient.  We 
refer  to  the  Arabic,  probably  spoken  by  a  larger  number  of 
human  beings  than  any  other  language.  It  is  so  near  the  an- 
cient Hebrew,  that  the  Maltese,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  speaks 
essentially  the  latter  language,  is  able  easily  to  communicate 
with  the  Arab.  It  is  also  nearly  akin  to  the  ancient  Syriac,  or 
Chaldee,  so  that  a  person  is  often  struck  with  their  resemblance 
when  listening  to  the  Chaldean  Christians  of  Koordistan. 

In  answer,  then,  to  the  query  respecting  the  language  of  the 
ancient  Israelites,  we  would  point  to  the  Arab,  and  direct  at- 
tention to  the  dialect  he  speaks.  But  as  many  of  our  readers 
may  never  have  the  opportunity  of  hearing  the  Arabic  from 
the  lips  of  those  to  whom  it  is  indigenous,  we  will  endeavor,  as 
briefly  as  possible,  to  give  them  some  idea  of  its  peculiarities. 

There  is  a  saying  in  the  East  that  when  our  first  parents 
were  tempted  in  Eden  and  fell  from  their  blissful  estate,  the 
serpent,  wishing  to  beguile  Eve,  addressed  her  in  Arabic,  as  the 
best  instrument  of  persuasive  eloquence.  Eve  spoke  to  her 
husband  in  Persian,  the  language  of  tenderness  and  affection ; 
and  the  angel  Gabriel,  commissioned  to  expel  them  from  Para- 


384  BIBLE   LANDS. 

dise,  after  vainly  addressing  them  in  various  dialects,  finally 
succeeded  in  frightening  them  away  by  the  use  of  the  Tartar- 
Turkish. 

Every  nation  is  apt  to  make  its  own  dialect  the  standard  by 
which  to  judge  of  the  harmony  and  beauty  of  all  others.  We 
can  with  greater  impartiality  compare  several  languages  of 
which  we  are  entirely  ignorant,  and,  by  carefully  listening 
to  their  sounds,  note  the  peculiarities  of  each  in  this  respect. 
With  regard  to  the  English  language,  for  instance,  a  stranger 
who  understands  not  a  word  of  it  is  always  struck  with  two 
peculiarities,  i.  e.,  the  frequency  of  the  sibilants,  and  the  fact 
that,  in  speaking  it,  the  mouth  is  but  slightly  open,  so  that  the 
vowels  are  never  as  rounded  and  full  as  with  more  Southern 
dialects.  In  the  German,  on  the  other  hand,  while  the  vowels 
are  not  any  clearer,  there  are  fewer  sibilants  and  more  guttur- 
als. In  the  Italian  the  vowels  are  very  full,  because  the  mouth 
is  more  open,  and  there  is  an  absence  of  both  sibilants  and  gut- 
turals, with  a  predominance  of  the  liquid  consonants ;  hence  the 
Italian  is  the  language  of  song,  and  it  gives  less  prominence  to 
the  consonants  than  any  known  language,  unless  it  be  that  of 
the  Sandwich  Islands.  The  Arabic  has  full  vowels,  a  moder- 
ate amount  of  sibilants  and  gutturals,  and  its  enunciation  be- 
ing fuller  than  that  of  the  Italian  admits  the  use  of  the  letter 
am,  which  is  not  found  in  the  languages  of  more  northern 
climes. 

Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Arabic  has  an  uncommonly 
extensive  range  of  sounds,  not  one  of  which  is  inharmonious, 
being  softened  by  clear  and  full  vowels.  A  stranger  usually 
receives  an  unfavorable  impression  of  the  Arabic,  hearing  it 
spoken  chiefly  by  rough  boatmen  or  muleteers.  But  he  can 
not  form  an  intelligent  opinion  concerning  it  until  he  has  heard 
it  in  the  homes  of  the  people,  and  particularly  from  the  lips 
of  woman.  No  more  can  a  stranger  be  considered  fit  to  pro- 
nounce upon  the  harmony  of  the  English  of  Shakspeare  and 
of  the  Bible,  when  he  has  only  heard  the  jargon  of  the  cabman 
or  of  the  railway  porter. 

And  we  may  here  remark  that  there  were  doubtless  differ- 
ences of  pronunciation  among  the  Hebrews  of  different  dis- 
tricts, as  is  the  case  among  the  Arabs  of  the  present  day.  We 
have,  indeed,  a  striking  instance  of  this  in  the  incidents  nar- 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE.  385 

rated  in  Judg.  xii.,  6.  Some  have  thought  that  the  statement  is 
applicable  only  to  the  word  shibboleth^  which  the  Ephraimites 
pronounced  sibboleth,  while  the  Gileadites  gave  the  initial  let- 
ter the  sound  of  sh.  The  former  were  doubtless  unable  to  give 
this  sound,  and  perished,  being  betrayed  as  members  of  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim  by  this  physical  peculiarity  in  their  organs 
of  speech,  which  was  evidently  a  well-known  and  recognized 
diet.  We  need  not  go  into  the  question  as  to  how  extensively 
this  peculiarity  had  spread ;  whether  it  prevailed  at  any  time 
among  all  the  Hebrews  on  the  west  side  of  the  Jordan,  when 
it  commenced,  or  how  long  it  lasted.  But  it  is  worthy  of  note 
that  we  have  a  modern  parallel  of  this  striking  peculiarity, 
which  is  well  known  to  all  the  people  of  the  Levant;  the 
Greek  language  does  not  possess  the  sh  sound,  though  it  prob- 
ably exists  in  all  the  cognate  dialects.  And  it  is  noticeable 
that  when  a  Greek  learns  an  Oriental  language,  however  pro- 
ficient he  may  become  in  it,  he  is  always  betrayed  by  his  sub- 
stitution of  5  for  sh;  which  they  all  possess.  This  is  as  true  of 
those  Greeks  who  have  lived  for  generations  upon  the  Asiatic 
coast,  but  chiefly  use  their  own  tongue.  The  defect  is  cured 
only  by  learning  an  Oriental  language  in  infancy. 

The  Arabic  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  richest  languages  in 
the  world,  and  there  is  no  end  of  anecdotes  current  in  the  East 
illustrative  of  its  wealth.  We  will  repeat  but  one  of  these :  A 
learned  poet  and  historian  of  Mecca,  walking  one  day  outside 
of  the  city,  met  an  old  woman  of  whom  he  asked  what  she  had 
in  her  bundle;  she  answered  by  a  word  he  had  never  heard 
before.  The  question  was  repeated,  and  again  followed  by  a 
reply  unintelligible  to  the  scholar;  and  so  the  old  woman  went 
on,  giving  successively  thirty-nine  difi'erent  Arabic  names,  un- 
til, at  the  fortieth,  she  was  understood  to  mean  onions! 

Should  the  reader  consider  this  to  be  an  illustration  suggest- 
ive of  the  'Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments,"  let  him  remem- 
ber that  any  Arab  child  will  readily  repeat  seven  different 
names  for  the  lion,  each  of  which  is  applicable  to  that  royal 
beast  alone.  No  less  than  ninety-nine  different  names  are  ap- 
propriated to  the  Deity.  There  is  one  peculiarity  of  the  Arabic 
language,  possessed  alike  by  the  Hebrew  and  the  Syriac,  which 
distinguishes  it  from  our  own  modern  European  languages, 
and  is  generally  considered  as  one  of  its  most  striking  char- 


386  BIBLE  LANDS. 

acteristics.  Many  words  contain  two  consonants  only,  and  a 
much  larger  number  have  three ;  these  remain  unaltered,  while 
the  vowels  of  the  word  undergo  various  changes,  so  that  they 
constitute  its  stem,  or,  as  it  might  be  termed,  the  branches, 
while  the  vowels  and  inflections  are  the  leaves  of  the  tree.  The 
vowels  are  changed  according  to  fixed  rules,  producing  a  cor- 
responding change  in  the  meaning.  For  instance,  take  the 
three  consonants  h,  t,  and  6,  as  an  original  frame-work ;  out  of 
these  the  Arabs  construct  the  following  words :  keteb,  to  write 
(literally,  he  wrote) ;  ketihy,  a  writing ;  Mtdb^  a  book ;  kutub, 
books;  and  ka-tib,  a  scribe;  then,  by  prefixing  an  m,  mektub, 
an  epistle  (literally,  iDritten\  and  mekteb,  a  school,  i.  e.,  a  place 
where  writing  is  done.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  this  peculiarity 
enables  the  Arab  to  coin  new  words  indefinitely  by  a  mere 
change  in  the  vowels,  instead  of  combining  several  words,  as  is 
done  in  the  European  languages.  It  also  allows  him  to  culti- 
vate his  fondness  for  alliteration,  and  much  of  the  poetry  of 
the  country  contains  a  play  upon  words  which  is  not  without 
beauty.  Take,  for  instance,  the  ditty  which  begins  with  the 
following  lines,  so  often  in  the  mouth  of  the  little  ones  : 

Ya  wutwat,  wetty,  wetty,  O  bat !  swoop  low,  swoop  low, 

Ta  itamak  iz-zbiby  That  I  may  feed  thee  with  raisins ; 

Ya  wutwat,  ally,  ally,  O  bat !  fly  high,  fly  high. 

La  tekulak  id-diby.  Lest  the  she-wolf  catch  thee. 

When  the  Arabs,  sitting  in  a  group  around  the  camp-fire, 
have  used  up  all  their  thrilling  tales  of  war  and  robbery,  they 
begin  to  repeat  scraps  of  poetry,*  and  nothing  captivates  their 
imagination,  or  delights  them  more,  than  the  ballads,  impro- 
vised or  recited  memoriter^  which  extol  the  valor  of  some  renown- 
ed hero  of  their  tribe.  The  favored  name,  skillfully  handled  by 
the  poet,  is  made  to  undergo  successive  changes,  each  of  which 
is  an  expression  of  some  new  quality,  or  record  of  some  heroic 
deed,  and  elicits  a  fresh  burst  of  admiration  from  the  eager  list- 
eners.f  So,  doubtless,  used  the  Hebrews  to  repeat  the  historic 
song  of  Moses  and  Miriam.:}:  and  so  did  they  enthusiastically 
listen  to  the  story  of  the  discomfiture  of  Sisera,  commemorated 
by  Deborah, §  and  to  other  compositions  of  a  similar  character.|| 

*  See  Appendix  IT.  +  Porter,  "Damascus,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  129. 

:  Exod.  XV.,  1-L'l.  §  Judg.  V. 

II  2  Sam.  i.,  18,  19 ;  iii.,  33  ;  2  Chron.  xxxv.,  25. 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE.  387 

Many  examples  of  the  play  upon  words  referred  to  occur  in 
the  original  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament,  more  particularly 
in  the  poetic  and  prophetic  writings,  which  it  is,  of  course,  im- 
possible to  preserve  in  a  translation.  The  fact,  however,  is  in- 
dicated by  the  signification  of  many  of  the  proper  names  of  the 
Hebrews,  and  the  following  expressions  occasionally  found  in 
our  English  Bibles,  "to  live  the  life,"  "to  die  the  death,"  "to 
sleep  the  sleep,"  etc. 

The  influence  of  the  old  Phoenician  language,  which  became 
the  dialect  of  the  patriarchs  and  their  posterity,  is  clearly  dis- 
cernible in  those  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  both  by  their  al- 
phabet and  in  many  of  their  words.  So  likewise  the  modern 
European  languages  are  indebted  to  the  Arabic  for  its  inval- 
uable system  of  numeration,  and  for  many  words,  chiefly  of  a 
scientific  character.  The  latter  are  often  distinguished  by  the 
Arabic  article,  which  we  have  preserved  unaltered,  as  in  alge- 
bra, alchemy,  etc.  We  lately  noticed,  for  the  first  time,  that 
the  exclamation  Ito,  which  occurs  in  Greek  and  Latin  authors, 
is  of  Phoenician  origin,  and  has  been  preserved  down  to  our 
times;  for  it  is  now  used  by  the  Arabic-speaking  descendants 
of  the  old  Phoenician  mariners,  and  by  the  Arab  children  of 
the  Syrian  coast  when  playing  at  the  rope-swing. 

The  Arabic  language  possesses  a  large  body  of  literature 
which  makes  its  acquisition  valuable  to  the  scholar.  The 
Koran  first  fixed  the  language,  and  reduced  it  to  a  single  dia- 
lect; it  thus  accomplished  a  work  similar  to  that  done  by  the 
English  and  German  translations  of  the  Bible.  Yet  the  Ko- 
ran by  no  means  contains  the  purest  old  Arabic.  The  various 
dynasties  which  succeeded  Mohammed  on  the  three  continents 
often  patronized  letters;  so  that  many  works  exist  in  Arabic 
not  only  on  history,  poetry,  and  philology,  but  also  upon  chem- 
istry, natural  history,  geography,  and  the  physical  sciences  gen- 
erally. There  is  likewise  a  considerable  literature  in  the  Per- 
sian and  Turkish  languages  which  use  the  same  character,  and 
have  largely  borrowed  from  the  Arabic  nomenclature ;  but  it 
may  justly  be  said  that  many  of  these  works  lack  the  accuracy 
and  precise  description  required  by  modern  science.* 

No  one  who  has  visited  the  East  can  have  failed  to  be  struck 

*  Bruce,  voL  vi.,  p.  242. 


388  BIBLE   LAXDS. 

with  the  frequent  use  of  proverbs  among  the  people,  as  a  spice 
to  conversation  or  as  an  argument.  These  short  and  pithy 
sayings  were  highly  esteemed,  and  treasured  up,  by  the  He- 
brews. King  Solomon  spoke  three  thousand  proverbs,*  and 
the  book  of  Proverbs  probably  contains  the  choicest  of  them. 
The  curious  reader  will  find  examples  of  the  use  or  origin  of 
proverbs  in  the  following  passages :  1  Sam.  x.,  12 ;  Jer.  xxxi., 
29 ;  Ezek.  xvi.,  44 ;  Matt  xiii.,  57 ;  Mark  x.,  25 ;  Luke  iv.,  23 ; 
and  2  Peter  ii.,  22.  A  short  list  of  proverbs  now  current  in 
the  East,  not  published  before,  will  be  found  in  Appendix  A, 
at  the  close  of  this  volume. 

We  have  confined  our  remarks  to  the  Shemitish  language 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  have  said  nothing  respecting  the  In- 
do-European dialect  of  the  New,  in  which  it  was  intended  to  be 
conveyed  to  the  ends  of  the  earth  by  the  ever-active  children 
of  Japheth.  The  Greek  is  too  well  known  among  us  to  need 
illustration.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  present  Eomaic  is  as 
truly  a  dialect  of  the  Greek  as  the  language  of  Homer,  Xeno- 
phon,  or  Luke.  There  is  no  more  reason  for  pronouncing  the 
orations  of  Demosthenes  according  to  the  principles  of  the  En- 
glish language,  than  there  is  for  uttering  the  dramas  of  Shaks- 
peare  with  the  tongue  of  a  Frenchman.  The  knowledge  of 
the  modern  Greek  modulations  can  alone  give  us  an  adequate 
idea  of  the  eloquence  of  St.  Paul,  in  some  of  his  most  remark- 
able speeches.  Moreover,  the  language  of  the  New  Testament 
is  a  sort  of  medium  between  classic  and  modern  Greek,  and 
the  latter  often  explains  terms  upon  which  the  former  can  not 
throw  any  light.  In  Acts  i.,  15,  for  instance,  there  is  a  state- 
ment respecting  "the  number  of  names"  {ovofxara),  i.e.,  the 
number  of  the  disciples.  Classical  literature  throws  no  light 
upon  the  expression ;  but  it  is  constantly  met  with  among  the 
moderns,  who  have  even  made  of  it  a  new  word,  vo/uaToi,  sig- 
nifying men.  So  likewise  the  New  Testament  contains  many 
Orientalisms,  which  are  more  fully  developed  in  the  Romaic; 
such,  for  instance,  is  the  common  mode  of  addressing  men,  i  e., 
iraiBia,  children;  which  we  find  in  John  xxi.,  5. 

We  have  already  stated  the  fact  that  the  Hebrews  derived 
their  alphabet  from  the  PhoBuicians,  and  subsequently  modi- 


*  1  Kings  iv.,  32. 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN    LANGUAGE.  889 

fied  it  during  their  abode  in  Babylon.  But  the  Samaritans, 
who  received  the  Pentateuch  before  that  period,  still  continue 
to  use  the  old  Phoenician  alphabet.  The  modern  Syriac  char- 
acter is  also  a  modification  of  the  Phoenician,  which  appears 
chiefly  to  consist  in  uniting  to  each  other  the  letters  which  be- 
long to  the  same  word,  while  the  Arabic  is  a  further  step  in 
the  same  direction.  The  latter  is  often  written  with  much 
grace  and  beauty ;  and  as  Muslims  are  forbidden  to  make  rep- 
resentations of  living  things,  great  pains  are  taken  to  excel  in 
calligraphy,  and  passages  taken  from  the  Koran  and  other  fa- 
vorite writings  are  tastefully  carved  in  marble.  Instead  of 
pictures,  they  have  upon  their  walls  framed  specimens  of  fine 
writing.  Gate- ways  are  often  ornamented  with  similar  inscrip- 
tions, beautifully  carved,  and  the  interior  of  mosks  and  mauso- 
leums are  adorned  in  like  manner,*  the  ninety-and-nine  names 
of  God  being  sometimes  inscribed  all  round  the  walls  next  to 
the  ceiling. 

The  Arabs  write  from  the  right  hand  to  the  left,  as  do  all 
the  people  of  Western  Asia,  except  the  Greeks  and  Armenians. 
The  Persians  and  Turks  adopted  the  Arabic  characters  at 
the  same  time  that  they  espoused  the  religion  of  Islam.  Yet 
this  system  of  writing  is  ill  adapted  to  the  dialects  they  speak, 
having  been  framed  with  reference  to  that  peculiarity  of  the 
Arabic  which  we  have  already  pointed  out;  for  the  conso- 
nants alone  are  written  down  in  full,  while  the  vowels  are  indi- 
cated, as  in  Hebrew,  with  little  points  or  marks  placed  above 
or  below.  These  marks  are  three  in  the  Arabic,  whereas  the 
Hebrew,  as  now  pointed,  has  fifteen.  The  vowel  points  of  the 
Hebrew  were  invented  after  the  captivity,  and,  therefore,  after 
the  people  had  ceased  to  use  the  Hebrew,  and  had  adopted  the 
Chaldee  dialect.  In  the  Arabic,  also,  the  vowel  points  are  not 
used  by  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  language,  but  only  by 
such  as  use  it  as  a  dead  tongue.  The  only  pointed  book  is 
the  Koran,  for  Muslims  think  it  sinful  to  translate  it;  and  the 
reading  of  it  being  deemed  meritorious,  they  are  obliged  to  use 
points,  in  order  to  indicate  vowel  sounds  which  their  ignorance 
of  the  language  does  not  enable  them  to  supply.  These  state- 
ments are  equally  applicable  to  all  the  languages  which  use 


Job  xix.,  24  ;  Jer.  xvii.,  1. 


390  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  Arabic  or  a  similar  character,  such  as  the  Chaldee,  Syriac, 
Turkish,  Persian,  Malayan,  etc.  The  Greek  and  Armenian 
languages  have  characters  of  their  own,  in  which,  as  in  ours, 
the  vowel  sounds  are  represented ;  yet  they  abbreviate  many 
words  by  dropping  out  the  vowels.  They  also  represent  en- 
tire words  by  a  single  letter,  as  is  frequently  seen  in  ancient 
inscriptions,  and  was  practiced  by  the  Jews.* 

The  Arabic,  like  the  Hebrew,  can  not  be  written  with  a 
quill,  much  less  with  a  steel  pen ;  nor  can  they  employ  the 
style  of  the  Komans  and  Greeks.  The  pen  is  made  of  a  small 
reed,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  is  generally 
of  a  dark-brown  color,  which  is  cut  as  we  do  a  quill,  with  this 
difference,  that  instead  of  being  sharp  at  the  point,  it  is  broad 
and  slanting,  and  is  held  sideways.  The  ink  used  is  thick ;  it 
is  made  of  gum,  lampblack,  and  water,  and  does  not  corrode 
like  ours.  The  writing  done  with  this  ink  is  said  to  last  for- 
ever. A  little  roll  of  palm-threads,  always  kept  in  the  inkstand, 
prevents  its  drying  up.  The  latter  is  of  brass,  and  occasionally  ■ 
of  silver,  while  in  some  rare  instances  it  is  of  gold.  Its  cover 
is  of  the  same  material,  and  it  is  firmly  attached  to  a  case  hold- 
ing pens,  about  six  inches  in  length,  which  is  stuck  into  the 
girdle,  in  a  slanting  position,  so  as  to  prevent  the  ink  from 
running  out,  and  to  enable  the  writer  to  use  it  without  remov- 
ing it  from  his  girdle.  Merchants  and  scribes  always  wear 
such  an  inkstand  in  their  belts,  and  it  may  be  called  the  insig- 
nia of  their  office  or  trade.  But  when  a  man's  occupation  is 
stationary,  confining  him  to  a  single  spot,  where  he  has  a  good 
deal  of  writing  to  do,  if  he  be  a  judge,  for  instance,  the  govern- 
or of  a  large  city,  or  an  officer  of  state,  he  sits  cross-legged  in  the 
corner  of  his  divan,  and  has  beside  him  a  box,  or  small  chest, 
often  handsomely  carved  or  inlaid,  in  which  he  keeps  his  writ- 
ing materials  and  documents,  and  upon  which  are  set,  in  a 
small  tray,  a  variety  of  little  porcelain  cups,  with  their  covers, 
containing  inks  of  various  qualities,  and  black  or  golden  sand, 
with  a  bundle  of  pens.f  In  some  parts  of  Egypt  the  inkstand 
yet  consists  of  a  small  horn  set  up  in  a  hole,  as  was  done  by 
the  ancient  Egyptians.:}: 

Our  description  thus  far  is  the  counterpart  of  what  existed 

*  Prideaux,  iii.,  252.  t  Wilkinson,  ii.,  176.  J  Curzon,  p.  87. 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN  LANGUAGE.  891 

among  the  Hebrews,  for  the  word  translated  pen  in  3  John  13, 
is  reed;  in  the  Greek,  calamos;  same  as  the  word  kakm,  in 
Turkish  and  Arabic — their  only  term  for  pen ;  and  in  Ezek. 
ix.,  2,  "by  his  side"  is  in  the  Hebrew  upon  his  loins^  and  evi- 
dently refers  to  the  custom  of  carrying  an  inkstand  in  the  gir- 
dle. But  the  ancients  wrote  on  papyrus,  a  plant  which  still 
grows  abundantly  in  the  canals  and  ponds  of  Egypt,  and  in  the 
marshy  precincts  of  Hooleh  or  Lake  Merom,  in  Palestine.  In 
2  John  12,  the  word  translated  "paper"  properly  means  the 
'papyrus.  The  use  of  the  papyrus  has  been  abandoned  since 
the  invention  of  paper  made  of  cotton  or  linen ;  but  modern 
Orientals  still  employ  parchment  for  valuable  documents.*  In 
Isa.  viii.,  1;  Jer.  xxxvi.,  2;  Ezek.  ii.,  9;  and  iii.,  1-3,  the 
books  described  being  rolls  were  doubtless  written  on  parch- 
ment. So  likewise  the  copy  of  the  Law  must  have  been  of 
the  same  material,  which  was  kept  in  the  sanctuary,  and  was 
discovered  by  Hilkiah  and  sent  to  King  Josiah ;  for  it  would 
otherwise  hardly  have  remained  legible  after  eight  hundred 
and  thirty  years.f  The  ancients  also  wrote  on  tablets  which 
were  fastened  together  with  a  string,  and  sometimes  sealed  with 
one  or  more  seals.  Such  may  have  been  those  mentioned  in 
the  Apocalypse,  Rev.  v.,  1-8  ;  x.,  2,  8,  9.  In  chap,  xx.,  12,  the 
book  was  opened,  not  unrolled. 

It  is  impossible  now  positively  to  ascertain  how  early  paper 
made  of  cotton  came  into  use.  It  was  probably  invented  in 
the  East,  like  papyrus  and  parchment;  for  it  was  introduced 
into  Europe  from  the  Spanish  Moors  about  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, and  they  must  have  obtained  it,  as  well  as  silk  paper, 
from  the  East,  cotton  and  silk  being  then  produced  nowhere 
else.  The  paper  now  used  in  the  East  is  thick,  in  large  sheets, 
and  polished  by  rubbing. 

The  mode  of  writing  is  as  follows:  The  sheet  is  ruled,  not 
with  a  ruler  and  pencil,  but  by  successive  foldings,  a  margin 
being  left  at  the  right  side  of  the  page,  and  the  lines  being 
made  to  slant  somewhat  upward  toward  the  left,  unless  the 
sheet  be  written  on  both  sides,  in  which  case  they  are  straight. 
The  paper  is  then  held  in  the  left  hand,  which  rests  upon  the 
right  knee  in  such  a  manner  that  the  pressure  of  the  pen  upon 


2  Tim.  iv.,  13.  t  2  Kings  xxii.,  8  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.,  15 


892  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  paper  is  sustained  by  two  fingers  of  that  hand.  It  will  be 
seen,  therefore,  that  an  Oriental  never  rests  his  paper  when 
writing  upon  a  desk  or  table,  but  is  content  with  what  nature 
has  bestowed  upon  every  able-bodied  man;  a  good  illustra- 
tion this  of  his  independence  of  the  mechanical  contrivances  to 
which  the  more  civilized  Occidental  has  become  a  slave. 

Arabic  Running-hand;  the  Language  Turkish,  with  the  Seal  instead  of  a  Signature. 

The  signature  of  a  letter  or  document  is  not  written,  but 
stamped  with  a  seal.  The  latter  is  generally  made  of  metal, 
unlike  many  of  those  used  by  the  ancients,  which  were  graven 
on  costly  gems.*  Among  the  heathen  the  seal  usually  bore 
the  image  of  one  of  their  gods  or  some  symbol.f  A  modern 
seal,  however,  like  those  of  the  Hebrews,  is  engraved  with  the 
name  of  its  owner.:}:  In  the  case  of  officials,  the  seal  usually 
bears  the  title  of  office,  so  that  they,  at  every  new  appointment, 
have  a  new  seal.  The  practice  of  the  sovereign,  who  gives  the 
seal  of  state  to  the  grand  vizier  when  appointed  to  that  office,  is 
clearly  alluded  to  in  the  case  of  Joseph. §  But  the  ring  "put 
upon  the  hand  "  of  the  Prodigal  Son||  was  an  ornament  worn 
by  the  wealthy,  as  is  the  custom  at  the  present  day.^  The  first 
act  in  the  dismissal  of  a  functionary  by  his  superior  consists  in 
demanding  his  seal  of  office,  and  breaking  it  up  with  a  hammer, 
in  the  presence  of  witnesses. 

State  documents  have  the  name  and  titles  of  the  sovereign 


*  Exod.  xxviii.,  9-11.         t  Clarke,  "Travels," p.  195.       X  Exod.  xxviii.,  21. 
§  Gen.  xli.,  42.  ||  Luke  xv.,  22.  \  James  ii.,  2. 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE. 


893 


Modern  Seals. 


inscribed  at  the  top,  in  a  peculiar  style,  called  the  "tourah,"  or 
imperial  cipher.  They  are  sealed  by  the  minister  of  state. 
The  seal  is  stamped  in  the  following  manner:  Some  ink  is 
placed  with  the  pen  upon  the  end  of 
the  little  finger,  and  rubbed  on  the 
face  of  the  seal ;  the  spot  on  the  pa- 
per which  is  to  be  stamped  is  then  wet 
with  the  tongue,  and,  resting  against 
the  index  finger  of  the  left  hand,  the 
seal  is  firmly  pressed  upon  it,  leaving 
a  clear  impression  upon  the  paper. 
When  a  man  has  no  seal,  he  inks  the 
end  of  his  finger,  and,  pressing  it  upon 
the  paper,  his  name  is  then  written  by 
the  side  of  this  mark.  To  give  great 
weight  to  a  letter,  it  is  sometimes 
marked  with  blood,  or  burned  at  the 
four  corners.* 

The  importance  of  the  seal  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  a 
man  never  parts  with  it  except  in  extraordinary  cases,  carrying 
it  always  in  his  bosom,  fastened  by  a  cord  around  his  neck  or 
to  his  garment,  or  else  in  the  form  of  a  signet-ring. f  In  the 
case  of  Judah,  in  Gen.  xxxviii.,  18,  the  value  of  the  ring  con- 
sisted in  its  being  a  "signet"  bearing  the  owner's  name;  and 
this  was  the  very  reason  why  Tamar  wished  to  get  possession 
of  it.  She  asked  for  the  other  articles  only  lest  her  real  object 
should  be  discovered.  Judah,  on  the  other  hand,  thought  it 
was  asked  as  the  surest  means  of  obtaining  the  kid,  since  no 
man  is  willing  long  to  leave  his  signet,  which  is  his  signature, 
in  the  hands  of  a  stranger. 

An  impression  of  one's  seal  is  sometimes  made  and  given  to 
a  friend  or  an  agent,  as  a  proof  that  he  is  fully  authorized  to 
act  in  the  name  of  the  owner.  It  is  a  letter  of  recommenda- 
tion or  of  credit,  limited  only  by  the  capacity  of  the  principal.;]: 

The  ancients,  however,  appear  to  have  stamped  their  seals 
upon  clay,  which  subsequently  hardened.§  We  have  ourselves 
picked  up  such  impressions  among  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities. 


*  Churchill,  "  Lebanon,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  150. 

t  Gen.  xxxviii.,  18;  1  Kings  xxi.,  8;  Esth.  iii.,  10,  12;  viii.,  2. 

t  Perkins,  p.  18G.  §  Job  xxxviii.,  14. 


394  BIBLE   LANDS. 

They  were  in  an  excellent  state  of  preserva- 
tion, and  had  evidently  been  fastened  to  the 
original  document  by  a  string,  which,  with 
the  parchment,  had  long  since  yielded  to 
the  action  of  time. 

It  was  not  letters  and  documents  alone, 
however,  that  were  anciently  or  are  now 
Ancient  seal  Impression   Stamped   with   the   imprcsslon    of   a    scal. 
on  Clay.  Whatever  was  intended  not  to  be  opened 

was  guarded  by  this  species  of  talisman.  The  ancient  Egyp- 
tians sealed  the  doors  of  the  tombs  of  their  ancestors,  whom 
they  venerated  to  a  degree  equaled  only  by  the  modern  Chi- 
nese; for  they  believed  that  their  bodies  would  at  a  future 
day  be  reanimated,  provided  they  were  preserved  entire. 
Many  of  these  stamps  upon  clay  are  still  found  at  the  pres- 
ent day.*  The  Jews,  who  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  and  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  guarded  the  tombs  of 
their  dead  with  the  same  jealous  care  as  the  modern  Orientals, 
and  they  doubtless  sometimes  sealed  them  with  a  signet,  as 
was  done  in  the  case  of  our  Lord.f  The  sealing  of  the  mouth 
of  the  lion's  den,  into  which  the  prophet  Daniel  was  cast,  with 
the  king's  "own  signet,  and  with  the  signet  of  his  lords,":}: 
still  further  explains  the  purpose  of  such  an  act,  and  shows 
that  the  custom  extended  to  Chaldea.  At  the  present  day, 
when  an  Oriental  dies,  his  property  is  sealed  by  the  authori- 
ties, and  the  seal  is  not  removed  until  the  judge  is  ready  to 
divide  the  inheritance.  Bags  of  money  are  sent  by  private  or 
public  post,  with  the  simple  precaution  of  stamping  them  with 
the  owner's  seal,  which  none  but  highway  robbers  dare  to 
violate. 

Intimately  connected  with  this  practice  is  the  custom  by 
which  the  votaries  of  particular  divinities  bore  special  marks 
indicative  of  their  spiritual  allegiance.  The  secret  society  of 
the  Thugs  of  India  bear  a  small  mark  tattooed  upon  the  arm ; 
and  those  who  visit  the  Church  of  the  Eesurrection  at  Jerusa- 
lem during  Easter  have  a  similar  mark  upon  their  left  wrist; 
while  the  worshipers  of  Yishnoo  and  Shiva  make  a  stripe  of 
red  paint  upon  their  heads  on  special  occasions,  by  which  they 

♦  Wilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  p.  364,  t  Matt,  xxvii.,  66.  t  !>«"•  vi-»  l"- 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE.  395 

are  distinguished  from  other  men.  We  thus  find  an  explana- 
tion of  that  interesting  passage  in  Eevelation  vii.,  3,  which  de- 
scribes the  "servants  of  God"  as  "sealed  in  their  foreheads" 
before  the  destruction  of  his  enemies.  So  is  likewise  the  mark- 
ing of  the  votaries  of  the  beast  "  on  their  right  hands  or  on 
their  foreheads."*  The  men  of  Jerusalem,  "  that  sighed  and 
cried  for  all  the  abominations  that  were  done  in  the  midst 
thereof,"  were  also  similarly  marked.f  The  same  idea  led  to 
the  "  boring  of  a  slave's  ear,"  as  a  sign  of  perpetual  bondage.  J 
The  ancient  form  of  books  was  more  varied  than  the  mod- 
ern, if  we  may  judge  from  the  pictures  found  on  the  walls  of 
Pompeii,  and  from  the  descriptions  of  ancient  authors.  Many 
of  their  documents,  and  even  books,  were  rolled  up  on  one  or 
two  rollers.  §  It  is  easy  to  see,  however,  that  such  a  form  was 
very  cumbersome,  and  fit  only  for  an  age  in  which  the  art  of 
reading  and  writing  was  monopolized  by  a  few  of  the  clergy, 
or  possessed  at  most  by  a  particular  class  of  people.  Modern 
books  are  always  made  of  separate  sheets,  bound  together  at 
the  back  as  in  Europe,  whether  they  be  of  parchment  or  of  pa- 
per. They  are  often  tastefully  illuminated,  richly  bound,  and 
kept  in  a  case  or  sachel,  elaborately  wrought  in  gold,  pearls, 
and  precious  stones.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the 
Koran,  upon  the  embroidered  wrapper  of  a  single  copy  of 
which  we  have  counted  more  than  four  hundred  gems;  the 
written  characters  are  often  in  black  and  red  ink,  with  occa- 
sional sentences  in  letters  of  gold.  Manuscript  volumes  are 
sometimes  met  in  Western  Asia  which  would  grace  the  finest 
library  in  Europe.  A  convent  at  Jerusalem  contains  among 
its  books  "one  hundred  manuscript  volumes  on  vellum,  one  of 
which  has  the  index  and  the  beginning  of  each  gospel  written 
in  gold  letters  on  purple  vellum,  and  contains  curious  illustra- 
tions." On  Mount  Athos  are  many  valuable  books,  kept  in 
libraries,  which  the  monks  are  unable  to  read ;  and  among  the 
rest,  "six  rolls  of  parchment,  each  ten  inches  wide  and  ten  feet 
long."||  But  it  is  usually  the  special  decrees,  or  firmans,  of  the 
sovereigns  which  are  written  in  the  most  elaborate  manner,  be- 
ing sometimes  inscribed  on  parchment  two  or  three  feet  long, 


*  Rev.  xiii.,  16,  17.  t  Ezek.  ix.,  4.  X  Deut.  xv.,  16,  17. 

§  Jer.  xxxvi.,  14 ;  Ezek.  ii.,  9,  10.  ||  Curzon,  pp.  161,  346. 


396  BIBLE   LANDS. 

and  fourteen  inches  wide,  and  written  with  red,  blue,  and  black 
ink ;  the  names  of  God  and  the  king  are  traced  with  fine  gold- 
dust,  mingled  with  a  little  water,  containing  gum  arabic  in  so- 
lution.* 

The  art  of  printing  was  quite  unknown  in  the  East  until  a 
few  years  ago,  and  even  now  the  Christian  population  alone 
properly  appreciate  the  power  and  value  of  the  press.  The 
Koran  is  never  printed.  There  is  a  class  of  men  whose  sole 
occupation  consists  in  copying  it  upon  parchment,  and  they 
are  supposed  to  be  possessed  of  a  peculiar  sanctity.  The 
■'  scribes "  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  constituted  a 
similar  class  among  the  Jews.f  It  is  not  such  a  class  exactly 
which  is  alluded  to  in  the  Old  Testament;  there  "the  scribe" 
means  a  secretary,  often  a  high  officer  of  state.:}:  Copies  of 
the  law  were  rare  before  the  Babylonish  captivity,§  during 
which  some  of  the  pious  Hebrews  devoted  themselves  to  the 
study  of  the  law,  and  their  literary  labors  acquired  for  them 
the  name  of  scribes.l  The  synagogue  was  established  soon 
after  the  return  from  the  captivity,  and  the  demand  created 
for  copies  of  the  Scriptures  gave  rise  to  the  numerous  body 
of  scribes,  whose  occupation  enabled  them  to  acquire  a  consid- 
erable knowledge  of  the  law.  It  is  now  a  custom  with  many 
in  Western  Asia  to  carry  a  book  in  the  bosom,  which  is  read 
at  odd  moments.  This  is  not  always  an  indication  of  a  desire 
for  improvement  or  instruction.  These  books,  more  common- 
ly, consist  of  collections  of  prayers  or  legends ;  and  the  Druses, 
a  sort  of  Arab  Jesuits,  who  are  ever  seeking  to  pass  themselves 
off  for  Muslims,  often  carry  a  small  copy  of  the  Koran  in  a 
case,  conspicuously  suspended  from  some  part  of  their  person. 

Simple  documents  of  importance,  such  as  firmans,  or  special 
orders  from  the  government,  are  folded  and  put  up  in  a  case 
of  tin  or  more  costly  material,  and  hung  by  a  cord  across  the 
shoulder.  The  bearers  of  imperial  orders  or  dispatches  carry 
them  in  a  richly  embroidered  case,  suspended  from  the  neck 
upon  the  breast ;  they  wear  a  special  uniform,  and  are  armed 
with  a  sword  and  staff  of  office. 

Letters  are  folded  and  put  up  in  envelopes  which,  instead  of 


*  Chardin,  vol.  iii.,  p.  160.  t  Matt,  xxiii.,  14,  15. 

X  2  Sam.  viii.,  17  ;  1  Kings  iv.,  3.  §  2  Kings  xxii.,  8.  ||  Ezra  vii.,  6. 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE. 


397 


being  opened  lengthwise,  receive  their  contents  at  one  end,  and 
are  closed  with  two  wax  seals  instead  of  one.  The  address  is 
written  across  the  width  of  the 
envelope.  A  messenger  carri^es 
such  a  letter  on  his  head,  be- 
tween the  cap  and  its  lining. 
This  may  perhaps  explain  the 
origin  of  the  answer  uniformly 
given  by  an  Oriental  to  any 
command  of  a  superior,  "Upon 
my  head." 

The  art  of  writing  is  possess- 
ed by  few  in  the  East,  and  few- 
er still  are  acquainted  with  those   sealed   Letter   (Esther  m.,  n).  Penknife, 

forms  which  long  usage  has  con-  «<='^^°'-^'  ^'^'^  p^"- 

nected  with  the  idea  of  a  proper  mode  of  addressing  persons  of 
different  ranks;  hence  a  class  exists  all  over  the  East  who 
secure  a  livelihood  by  writing  petitions,  letters,  and  other  docu- 
ments for  the  illiterate.  They  sit  in  a  public  place,  in  front  of 
a  conspicuous  mosk,  or  of  some  court  or  hall  of  justice,  and 
their  whole  stock  in  trade  consists  of  writing  materials,  a  little 
box  in  which  they  are  stowed,  and  a  rug  on  which  they  sit. 
The  documents  they  write  are  stereotyped  in  style,  and  the  gist 
of  the  matter  is  usually  found  at  the  close,  after  a  profusion  of 
compliments,  or  even  in  a  slanting  line  of  writing  upon  the 
margin,  which  corresponds  to  the  postscript  of  the  Occidental. 
These  "scribes"  are  generally  old  men,  broken-down  school- 
masters, government  clerks,  or  priests,  many  of  whom  wear 
the  Oriental  spectacles,  which  consist  of  two  large  round  glasses 
without  bows,  and  worn  on  the  tip  of  the  nose. 


398  BIBLE   LANDS. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  TENT,  AXD  NOMAD  LIFE. 

The  iuhabitants  of  Western  Asia  have,  from  time  imme- 
morial, been  divided  into  two  classes,  according  as  they  dwell 
in  permanent  or  in  movable  habitations.  This  distinction  is 
not  local,  as  many  suppose.  It  is  stated  in  Gen.  iv.,  17,  20, 
that  Cain  built  the  first  city,  and  that  Jabal  was  the  father  of 
such  as  dwell  in  tents  and  of  such  as  have  cattle ;  and  this 
early  classification  of  mankind  took  place  within  the  limits  of 
a  comparatively  small  region  equally  adapted  to  agricultural 
as  to  pastoral  pursuits.  The  passage  above  cited  also  implies 
that  pastoral  pursuits  have  been  adhered  to  by  certain  races, 
who  have  engaged  in  them  for  a  succession  of  ages.  This  fact 
is  amply  sustained  by  historical  evidence,  and  the  tradition  of 
modern  nomads  point  to  no  period  when  they  led  a  different 
mode  of  life. 

These  tribes  are  now  met  with  in  all  parts  of  Western  Asia. 
and  perform  their  regular  migrations  through  the  richest  por- 
tions of  the  country,  from  the  Caucasus  to  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  from  the  Caspian  to  the  ^gean  Sea.  Nor  does  such  a 
manner  of  life  imply  barbarism,  or  a  lack  of  that  civilization 
which  is  found  among  their  neighbors  who  occupy  the  cities 
of  the  same  region.  This  relation  is  a  reproduction  of  that 
which  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  bore  to  the  Canaanites  that 
dwelt  in  the  Promised  Land,  and  which  the  reader  can  under- 
stand only  by  a  careful  perusal  of  the  entire  biography  of  those 
patriarchs,  as  contained  in  the  book  of  Genesis.  Like  them, 
the  modern  nomads  keep  up  a  constant  and  friendly  intercourse 
with  the  people  of  the  villages  and  cities,  exchanging  the  prod- 
ucts of  their  herds  and  flocks  for  articles  of  manufiicture  or 
consumption,*  and  even,  not  unfrequently,  intermarrying  with 
them  when  no  obstacle  of  a  religious  character  lies  in  the  way.f 

*  Gen.  xlii.,  2,  3.  t  Gen.  xxvi.,  34  ;  xxxiv.,  3,  9,  14-16. 


THE   TENT,  AND   NOMAD   LIFE.  399 

The  Shah  of  Persia  belongs  to  a  tribe  of  nomads,  which  con- 
stitute the  flower  of  his  cavalry. 

The  pastoral  tribes  of  Western  Asia  traverse  every  spring 
the  same  tracts  of  country,  as  they  move  to  the  same  camping- 
grounds  in  higher  and  cooler  regions.  The  latter  are  called 
yailah,  or  yelak,  and  consist  of  elevated  plains  or  plateaus,  with 
springs  of  water  and  abundance  of  grass  for  the  flocks.  They 
are  highly  prized,  and  sometimes  fought  for  by  rival  tribes.* 
They  descend  in  the  autumn,  and  spend  the  winter  in  well- 
sheltered  valleys,  under  their  tents,  booths,  or  huts  of  sun- 
dried  bricks,  and  sometimes  amidst  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  city. 
They  constitute  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Asiatic  conti- 
nent, whence  they  have  spread  to  Southern  Russia,  and  North 
Africa.  Nothing  of  the  kind  is  found  in  Europe,  where  the 
miserable  gypsies,  the  nearest  approach  to  a  nomad  race,  find 
it  difficult  to  maintain  their  wandering  habits;  and  even  in 
North  America,  where  the  roving  red  Indian  had  so  long  pos- 
sessed the  entire  land,  the  wigwam  is  fast  vanishing  before  the 
ever-advancing  log-cabin  and  farm-house.  In  Western  Asia 
time  has  wrought  less  change  in  the  habits  of  the  nomad  than 
in  those  of  any  other  class  of  people.  They  are  not  affected 
by  the  political  changes  which  are  apt  so  greatl}'  to  modify  the 
condition  of  the  inhabitants  of  cities;  for  when  an  enemy  in- 
vades the  country  in  which  they  dwell,  they  flee  before  him  to 
their  secure  retreats,  like  the  wave  before  the  blast,  and  return 
to  their  wonted  haunts  as  soon  as  the  enemy  has  gone  by. 
The  study  of  their  life  and  habits,  therefore,  is  of  great  impor- 
tance to  the  Biblical  scholar,  for  he  will  find  in  them  a  strik- 
ing delineation  of  the  nomads  of  ancient  times.  Abraham  and 
the  patriarchs  led  precisely  the  life  of  the  Bedawin  now  inhab- 
iting the  same  land,  and  though  their  posterity  occupied  set- 
tled habitations  in  the  land  of  Goshen  during  two  hundred 
years,  yet  they  again  led  a  tent  life  for  forty  years  in  the  wil- 
derness. They  indeed,  for  the  most  part,  became  cultivators 
of  the  soil  when  they  had  conquered  the  land  of  promise,  and 
exchanged  the  tent  for  permanent  dwellings  and  the  fortified 
cities  of  their  vanquished  enemies.  But  from  the  time  of 
Joshua  to  that  of  Saul,  the  constitution  of  Jewish  society  ap- 


400 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Tuikmeu'8  Tent. 


preached  nearer  to  the  patriarchal  than  to  any  other;*  and  it 
is  this  system  that  now  prevails  among  the  Arab  tribes  of  the 
desert.  There  are,  also,  many  allusions  to  tent  life  at  subse- 
quent periods,  respecting  whose  identity  with  the  habits  of  the 
modern  Arab  there  is  no  difference  of  opinion  among  Oriental 
travelers. 

The  form  of  the  tent  used  by  different  tribes  of  nomads  con- 
stitutes a  striking  illustration  of  the  tenacity  with  which  pas- 
____  toral  peoples  adhere  to  the  tra- 

ditions of  their  fathers.  The 
Turkmens  of  Asia  Minor,  for  in- 
stance, live  under  the  same  kind 
of  tent  as  is  used  to  this  day  by 
their  kinsmen  in  Tartary.  We 
have  historic  evidence  that  they 
came  into  the  country  about  a  thousand  years  ago,  yet  their 
tent  is  quite  unlike  that  of  the  other  nomads  of  Western  Asia. 
It  is  circular,  about  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  and  is  constructed 
by  driving  firmly  into  the  ground,  in  a  circle,  a  number  of  long 
elastic  branches,  split  in  two,  which  are  bent  toward  the  centre, 
and  there  fastened  together.  Large  pieces  of  felt  are  then  spread 
upon  tliis  frame-work,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  shed  the  rain. 
The  tent  has  thus  the  shape  of  half  a  sphere,  of  little  more 
than  a  man's  height.  A  sim- 
ilar tent  is  represented  on  the 
sculptures  of  Nineveh.  The 
form  and  materials  of  the 
Arab  tent  are  also  doubtless 
of  the  greatest  antiquity.  It 
is  made  of  goat's  hair  cloth, f 
always  black:}:  or  of  a  dark 
brown,  about  three-fourths  of 
a  yard  wide,  manufactured  by 

^1  r^i,!        ol,^l^)3  Ancient  Tent.    ABsyrian  Sculpture. 

the  women  of  the  household,§ 

and  cut  in  long  strips,  which  are  stitched  together  at  the  edges 
until  the  desired  width  is  obtained.  This  tent-cloth  possesses 
the  double  advantage  of  being  water-proof  and  of  absorbing  the 


*  Judg.  xvii.,  G;   xxi., 
t  Cant,  i.,  5. 


t  Exod.  xxxvi.,  14. 
§  Exod.  XXXV.,  26. 


THE  TEJSTT,  AND  NOMAD   LIFE. 


401 


Arab  Tent.     (Isa.  xiii.,  20.) 

sun's  rays,  and  it  is  thus  actually  cooler  than  the  white  tent  of 

the  more  civilized  traveler.     The  strips  of  the  cloth  run  in  the 

direction  of  the  tent's  length,  for  it  is  in  shape  a  parallelogram, 

with  the  door  or  entrance  at  one  of  the 

long  sides.     It  is  supported  by  wooden 

posts,  called  pillars,*  varying  in  number, 

so  that  there  are  sometimes  as  many  as 

twenty-four ;  the  usual  number,  however, 

is  nine,  set  up  in  three  rows  across  the 

width  of  the  tent.     At  intervals  along  the 

border  of  the  tent-cloth  are  fastened  ropes, 

which  are  attached  to  the  tent-pins  by  their 

loops.     These  pins  are  wooden  stakes,  or 

pegs,  sometimes  called  "  nails,"  about  three  Tent-pin,  or  Hook,  and  Mai- 

feet  in  length,  with  a  notch  at  the  thicker        '^'-   (Ju'Jg- ^v.,  21.) 

end.     They  are  driven  firmly  into  the  ground,  being  "set  in 

a  sure  place,"f  by  means  of  a  wooden  mallet  or  hammer.:}:     In 

setting  up  a  tent,  the  edge  of  the  cloth  is  stretched  by  pull- 

*  Exod.  xxvi.,  32. 

t  Eccles.  xii.,  11 ;  Isa.  xxii.,  23.  The  "master  of  assemblies"  is  the  sheikh, 
who  orders  the  gathering  together  of  the  tent  dwellers,  and  the  pitching  of  the  en- 
campment. J  Judg.  iv.,  21. 


402  BIBLE   LANDS. 

ing  each  "cord"  in  turn,  passing  a  stake  into  its  loop,  and  driv- 
ing it  into  the  ground.  This  requires  the  co-operation  of  sev- 
eral persons,  and  is  generally  done  by  the  women  and  chil- 
dren.* The  tent-cloth  is  thus  raised  to  a  considerable  height 
above  the  ground,  and  the  space  is  closed  all  around,  except 
the  entrance,  by  "  curtains  "  of  hair-cloth,  or  reed  matting,  the 
latter  allowing  a  freer  circulation  of  air.f  The  interior  is  di- 
vided into  two  equal  parts  by  a  curtain  hung  upon  the  three 
centre  pillars.  In  Mesopotamia,  the  left  hand  is  occupied  by 
the  male  members  of  the  household,  the  entrance  being  in 
front  and  next  to  the  partition  curtain,  while  the  right  hand  is 
the  harem,  or  the  women's  apartment. 

In  Arabia,  however,  the  men's  apartment  is  on  the  right  side, 
and  the  women's  on  the  left.  The  central  partition  does  not 
exist  when  the  tent  is  occupied  wholly  by  women.  In  the 
graphic  narrative  contained  in  Gen.  xviii.,  2-12,  Abraham  is 
represented  as  sitting  in  his  tent  door,  in  order  to  catch  the 
breeze  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  hastening  to  entreat  the  pass- 
ing strangers  to  withdraw  from  the  burning  sun,  have  the  dust 
washed  off  from  their  soiled  feet,  and  be  refreshed  with  an  im- 
provised meal.  All  these  circumstances  are  still  of  daily  occur- 
rence in  the  same  region;  hospitality  is  as  urgent,  the  sun's 
rays  are  as  scorching,  the  sandals  worn  upon  the  feet  render 
frequent  bathing  of  the  feet  as  grateful,  and  the  meal  consisting 
of  the  same  materials  is  prepared  with  the  same  celerity.  The 
tent  was  doubtless  pitched  close  to  a  tree,  whose  grateful  shade 
always  materially  adds  to  its  coolness.  There  was  the  meal 
spread ;  Abraham  waited  upon  his  guests,  in  accordance  with 
the  universal  Oriental  custom  ;  and  Sarah,  though  invisible, 
was  close  by,  hidden  only  by  the  tent  curtain.  The  whole 
scene  could  not  have  been  better  described  had  it  occurred 
among  the  Arabs  of  to-day.  The  men's  apartment  is  the  place 
where  the  passing  guest  and  visitor  are  usually  received.  Car- 
pets are  spread  upon  the  ground,  and  cushions  or  camel-packs 
arranged  for  their  accommodation  upon  three  sides  of  the  space 
between  the  two  rows  of  pillars.  Beyond  the  last  row,  the 
end  of  the  tent  is  often  occupied  by  favorite  mares  and  their 
colts.     A  fire  of  camel's  manure  smoulders  in  the  centre  of  the 

•  Isa.  liv.,  2;  Jer.  x.,  20.  •  t  Jer.  iv.,  20 ;  xlix.,  29. 


THE   TENT,  AND   NOMAD   LIFE.  403 

divan,  with  a  coffee-pot  set  upon  it,  and  often,  especially  when 
there  is  company,  a  dusky  form  crouches  on  the  ground,  bus- 
ied in  burning  coffee,  grinding  it  in  a  little  brass  hand-mill, 
or  pounding  it  in  a  wooden  mortar,  pouring  the  frothing  fluid 
from  the  long-handled  pot  into  the  tiny  cup,  and  handing  it  to 
the  guests,  who  fill  up  the  pauses  in  the  conversation  with  the 
never-ending  fumes  of  their  pipes.  In  the  women's  apartment 
are  the  provisions  of  the  household,  the  culinary  operations  be- 
ing superintended,  and  even  performed,  by  the  mistress  her- 
self* 

It  is  rare  to  see  solitary  tents.  In  the  desert  they  are  often 
arranged  in  a  circle  or  quadrangle,  so  that  the  cattle  can  be 
gathered  together,  at  night,  into  the  central  space,  and  thus  be 
more  effectually  defended  against  thieving  marauders.  This 
arrangement  appears  to  be  of  very  ancient  date;  it  is  called  by 
the  Arabs  a  "  dowar,"  and  in  the  Old  Testament  "  hazerim."f 
It  exists  not  only  among  nomads  generally,  but  is  to  be  met 
with  where  permanent  habitations  have  been  substituted  for 
the  tent,  while  the  chief  occupation  of  the  people  has  continued 
to  be  the  tending  of  flocks  and  herds.  Among  the  Circassians, 
for  instance,  the  houses  are  built  of  very  light  materials,  and 
there  are  neither  villages  nor  towns,  properly  speaking.  A 
chieftain  resides  with  his  family  and  his  slaves  in  a  cluster  of 
houses,  arranged  in  a  circle,  and  shaded  by  the  dense  foliage  of 
numerous  trees,  while  the  central  space  is  appropriated  to  the 
many  cattle  and  horses,  which  are  gathered  there  every  night, 
and  let  out  every  morning. 

The  furniture  of  the  Arab  tent  is  simple,  but  amply  supplies 
every  want.  There  are  copper  pots,  kettles,  and  frying-pans 
for  cooking  purposes,  and  wooden  pails  or  bowls  for  milking 
the  goats,  sheep,  cows,  and  she-camels.:{:  There  are  skin  bags, 
or  "bottles,"  suspended  from  the  posts  of  the  tent,  whose  mouths 
are  sometimes  kept  open  by  three  sticks  placed  in  triangular 
position,  and  which  are  used  as  churns  for  making  butter,  or 
in  the  manufacture  of  sweet  curds,  white  cheese,  and  curdled 
milk,  or  lehen.%  This  last  preparation  of  milk  is  greatly  esteem- 
ed by  all  Orientals,  and  doubtless  dates  back  to  a  high  antiqui- 

*  Gen.  xviii.,  6;   xxvii.,  17. 

t  Deut.  ii.,  23;  in  Gen.  xxv.,  10,  the  English  version  has  "  towns." 

X  Job  xxi.,  24.  §  Judg.  iv.,  19. 


J 


404 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


ty.  It  is  believed  by  the  Arabs  to  have  been  divinely  reveal- 
ed to  Abraham,  who  handed  down  the  knowledge  of  it  to  the 
world  through  his  posterity ;  while  others  assert  that  when 
Hagar,  with  her  child,  was  sent  away  by  Abraham,*  and  was 
perishing  with  thirst  in  the  wilderness,f  an  angel  brought  her 
a  refreshing  draught  of  this  "  Oriental  nectar,"  which  has  ever 
since  been  held  in  the  highest  estimation  by  all  true  Ishmael- 
ites.  Leben^  however,  seems  to  be  well  known  and  fully  ap- 
preciated throughout  Tartary,  and  among  the  aboriginal  tribes 
who  dwell  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Caucasus.  It  is  always 
kept  ready  for  use  in  the  tent  of  the  Arab,  a  large  dish  of  it, 
usually  made  of  camel's  milk,  being  often  set  near  the  entrance 
of  the  tent,  where  all  who  are  thirsty  may  bend  the  head  and 
drink.  Leben  is  called  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  khemah^ 
which  our  English  version  wrongly  translates  butter^  and  some- 
times milk.  The  following  passages  are  acknowledged  to  con- 
tain references  to  this  beverage:  Gen.  xviii.,  8;  Judg.  v.,  25; 
2  Sam.  xvii.,  29 ;  Job  xx.,  17 ;  xxix.,  6;  Isa.  vii.,  22. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  articles  found  in  the  Arab's 
tent,  there  may  be  seen  the  entire  skins  of  animals — of  goats, 
cattle,  and  camels — taken  off  in  the  manner  already  described, 
which  are  used  for  carrying  water.  As  the  Arab's  tent  is  apt 
to  be  smoky  in  the  cold  weather,  the  skin  bottle,  hung  upon 
the  tent  pillar,  becomes  dried  and 
black  with  soot,  a  fit  object  for  the 
comparison  contained  in  Psa.  cxix.,  83. 
The  tent  also  contains  the  mortar  in 
which  the  Arabs  pound  their  grain, 
and  a  pair  of  millstones,  turned  by 
the  hand,  with  which  they  grind  it ;:{: 
the  kneading-troughs,§  in  which  they 
prepare  their  bread ;  and  the  porta- 
ble oven,  already  described  (page  90), 
which,  in  the  desert,  is  generally  heat- 
ed with  dry  grass,  thrown  in  by  handfuls,  no  other  suitable  fuel 
being  procurable.!  Their  thin  cakes  of  bread  are  often  baked 
on  the  hot  embers,  or  on  iron  plates  over  the  fire.     There  are 


Wooileu  Mortar  and  Pestle. 
(Numb,  xl.,8.) 


*  Gen.  xxi.,  14. 
§  Exod.  xii.,  34. 


t  Gen.  xxi.,  16-19. 
II  Matt,  vi.,  30, 


X  Numb,  xi.,  8. 


THE   TENT,  AND   NOMAD   LIFE.  405 

besides  several  articles  made  of  the  same  goat's-hair  cloth  as  the 
tent  cover;  such  are  bags  for  wheat,  barley,  millet,  rice,  beans, 
and  other  like  provisions  for  the  household.  These  stores  are 
often  the  fruit  of  their  own  sowing,  but  are  also  obtained  from 
the  towns  and  villages  on  the  border,  in  exchange  for  the  prod- 
uce of  their  own  flocks  and  herds.  They  are,  however,  acquired 
by  robbery  whenever  an  opportunity  offers. 

In  person  the  Bedawy*  is  well  -  built,  muscular,  often  tall, 
though  thin,  with  regular  features,  a  slight  beard,  and  a  com- 
plexion bronzed  by  heat  and  exposure.  His  raven  locks,  long 
and  glossy,  are  often  shaven  around  the  temples,  in  accordance 
with  the  Mohammedan  requirement.  His  eye  is  black,  pier- 
cing, and  restless.  His  dress  simple,  consisting  of  a  cotton  shirt, 
sometimes  white,  but  oftener  blue,  whose  loose  folds  descend 
to  the  ankles,  and  which  is  confined  with  a  leathern  girdle 
about  the  loins.f  This  shirt,  tunic,  or  robe  is  open  in  front 
down  to  the  waist,  and  serves  as  a  spacious  and  most  con- 
venient pocket,  where  the  wearer  stows  away  all  manner  of 
things.  This  arrangement  of  the  garment  is  common  to  all 
Orientals,  and  is  called  "  the  bosom ;"  and  we  have  an  example 
of  it  in  the  case  of  Moses  in  the  desert.ij:  Besides  the  girdle, 
however,  both  sexes  wear  from  infancy  a  leathern  girdle 
around  the  naked  waist,  adorned  with  amulets,  and  also  with 
shells  (cyprcea).  Neither  sex  wear  drawers,  either  under  or 
over  the  shirt,  which  usually  constitutes  the  entire  wardrobe 
of  both;  and  they  are  ridiculed  by  their  neighbors  for  "going 
naked."  This  is  also  the  custom  among  the  poorer  class  in 
Egypt.  It  would  seem  to  have  been  the  practice  of  the  He- 
brews during  the  Exodus,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  urgent 
repetition  of  the  command  that  priests  wear  "  linen  breeches 
to  cover  their  nakedness,  reaching  from  their  loins  to  their 
thighs,  when  they  come  into  the  tabernacle,  lest  they  die."§ 
A  woolen  cloak,  generally  of  camel's  hair,  in  broad  stripes, 
brown  and  white,  is  thrown  loosely  over  the  shoulders  of  the 
desert  Arab,  and  is  his  only  covering  at  night.|  With  it  he  also 
improvises  a  tent,  while  traveling  under  the  burning  sun ;  he 

*  Bedawy  means  the  inhabitant  of  the  desert ;  plural,  Bedawin.  Saracen  has 
the  same  meaning  ;  it  is  derived  from  zara,  saara,  desert. 

t  Matt,  iii.,  4.  J  Exod.  iv.,  6 ;  Luke  vi.,  38. 

§  Exod.  xxviii.,  42,  43.  ||  Exod.  xxii.,  26,  27. 


406  BIBLE   LANDS. 

stops,  panting  witli  the  heat,  and  spreads  his  cloak  on  the 
points  of  his  spears  stuck  into  the  ground,  and  waits  for  the 
evening.  His  head-dress  consists  of  a  gay  handkerchief  of  cot- 
ton, or  of  silk  mixed  with  cotton,  striped  red  and  yellow,  whose 
border  is  ornamented  with  a  long  braided  fringe  and  tassels, 
worn  in  such  a  manner  that  one  corner  hangs  loose  on  the 
back,  and  two  others  fall  on  the  shoulders,  while  the  folds  of 
the  fourth  shade  the  forehead  and  face.  This  handkerchief  is 
bound  around  the  head  with  a  thick  cord  of  brown  camel's 
hair,  considered  the  best  safeguard  against  a  sun-stroke,  and 
thus  floats  in  the  wind,  or  its  folds  are  wrapped  about  the  face 
to  protect  it  from  the  sun  or  conceal  it  from  an  enemy.  The 
Bedawy  generally  goes  barefoot,  but,  when  he  can  afford  it, 
buys  from  the  town,  or  steals  from  the  passing  traveler,  a  pair 
of  red  morocco  shoes  or  boots,  usually  very  large,  and  with  the 
toes  turning  up  like  a  skate;  or  he  makes  himself  a  pair  of 
sandals,  generally  of  camel's  skin,  which  he  binds  with  thongs 
around  his  foot.  These  sandals  are  always  made  after  one 
model,  and  appear  to  derive  their  form  from  high  antiquity. 
We  have  abundant  evidence  from  the  Bible  narratives  that 
this  identical  form  of  sandal  was  long  worn  by  the  Hebrews. 
The  word  naal^  signifying  sandal,  is  translated  shoe  in  Exod. 
iii.,  6 ;  Dent,  xxv.,  9 ;  xxix.,  5 ;  Josh,  v.,  15 ;  Euth  iv.,  7,  8 ; 
1  Kings  ii.,  5  ;  Isa.  xx.,  2  ;  Ezek.  xxiv.,  17.  The  word  latchet 
also  indicates  the  sandal  wherever  it  occurs,  as  in  Gen.  xiv.,  23  ; 
Isa.  v.,  27 ;  Mark  i.,  7.  All  of  the  foregoing  description  of 
the  Arab  costume  is  not  applicable  to  the  poorer  class,  whose 
sole  garment  is  the  loose  cotton  shirt  or  tunic  already  mention- 
ed, generally  the  worse  for  wear. 

The  Arabs,  like  the  Israelites  of  old,  are  divided  into  dis- 
tinct tribes,  which  take  their  name  from  their  earliest  progenitor. 
The  Beni-shammar,  for  example,  are  the  sons  of  Sham  mar,  as 
in  Hebrew  the  Israelites  are  called  Beni-yacob.*  We  have  a 
similar  example  in  the  Highland  clans  of  Scotland,  who  are 
called  the  MacGregors,  the  MacDonalds,  etc.,  Mac  being  equiv- 
alent to  Beni.  There  are  always  in  a  tribe  certain  families  of 
noble  blood  that  are  very  exclusive  in  their  alliances,  and  suc- 
ceed thereby  in  keeping  within  restricted  limits  the  possession 

*  Mai.  Hi.,  6. 


THE   TENT,   AND   NOMAD   LIFE.  407 

of  wealth  and  influence.  They  make  a  sort  of  compromise 
with  the  leveling  tendencies  <5f  the  Koran  by  marrying  several 
wives,  over  whom  rules  the  one  of  purest  lineage,  dispensing 
the  provisions  of  the  household,  and  enjoying  the  prerogative 
of  preparing  the  meals  destined  for  her  husband  and  his  guests.* 
When  the  husband  is  wealthy  each  wife  has  her  own  separate 
tent,  thus  diminishing  the  frequently  recurring  divisions  and 
disputes.f  In  each  of  these  tents  the  wife  reigns  supreme, 
surrounded  and  waited  on  by  slaves  and  women  of  inferior 
rank,  while  the  children  of  both  sexes  run  and  roll  about  in  a 
state  of  nature,  wearing  simply  an  amulet  to  ward  off  the  evil 
eye,  or  a  few  coins  fastened  in  their  braided  hair.ij:  We  find  a 
parallel  to  this  system  in  the  life  of  the  patriarchs.  Abraham 
sent  his  chief  servant  to  Padan-aram  to  take  a  wife  unto  his  son 
Isaac  from  his  country  and  his  kindred,  and  Isaac  sent  Jacob 
thither  on  a  similar  errand  on  his  own  account.  §  In  the  house- 
hold of  the  latter,  the  children  were  placed  upon  the  same  foot- 
ing from  a  sort  of  general  agreement,  but  Rachel  was  the  favor- 
ite wife,!  and  her  eldest  son  Joseph  received  from  his  father  his 
only  special  bequests.^  The  sons  of  Sarah  and  Rebecca,  more- 
over, inherited  their  father's  goods,  while  the  sons  of  the  concu- 
bines received  only  "gifts"  during  the  lifetime  of  their  father. 
The  tribes  of  the  desert  are  governed  by  what  is  called  the 
patriarchal  system.  The  head  of  the  household  is  absolute 
lord  and  master  of  the  lives  and  property  of  every  member  of 
his  family,  so  that  had  Abraham  slain  his  son  Isaac,  he  would 
not  have  transcended  the  authority  accorded  to  every  father  by 
the  nomad  tribes.**  We  have  another  evidence  of  this  in  the 
story  of  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  who  was  "  a  sheep-master,"  and 
who,  being  hard  pressed  by  the  Israelites,  actually  offered  "  his 
eldest  son,  that  should  have  reigned  in  his  stead,"  for  a  burnt- 
offering  to  obtain  the  favor  of  his  god.f  f  It  is  worthy  of  notice 
that  the  public  "indignation"  was  not  directed  against  Mesha 
himself,  but  "against  Israel,"  by  whom  he  had  been  driven  to 
such  straits. 

*  Gen.  xviii.,  6.  t  Gen.  xxxi.,  33. 

t  Layard  gives  us  a  striking  description  of  a  Bedawy  beauty,  "Nineveh,"  vol. 
i.,  p.  99.  §  Gen.  xxiv.,  3,  4 ;  xxviii.,  1,  2. 

II  Gen.  xxix.,  30;  xxx.,  15.  1  Gen.  xxxvii.,  3;  xlviii,,  22. 

**  Gen.  xxii.,  10.  tt  2  Kings  iii.,  27. 


408  BIBLE   LANDS. 

A  tribe  is  composed  of  independent  households,  united  by 
ties  of  consanguinity,  and  dwelling  in  the  same  region,  or  mov- 
ing together  in  their  migrations.  The  most  influential  and 
wealthiest  member  of  an  ancient  family  is  selected  as  the  lead- 
er of  the  tribe,  and  he  exercises  a  sort  of  authority  over  them. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  office  of  sheikh, 
or  emir,  bears  any  resemblance  to  that  of  a  monarch,  or  head 
of  any  government  existing  elsewhere,  unless  we  except  the 
sachems  of  the  North  American  Indians.  There  is  no  oath  of 
allegiance  nor  claim  to  obedience ;  every  head  of  a  household 
recognizes  and  follows  the  common  leader  only  as  long  as  he 
finds  it  for  his  advantage,  and  whenever  dissatisfied  he  waits 
upon  some  other  member  of  the  tribe,  and  follows  his  leader- 
ship ;  and  so  it  frequently  happens  that  a  few  households  leave 
their  own  tribe  and  join  themselves  to  another  whose  sheikh 
they  prefer.  As  might  be  expected,  a  tribe  with  all  its  tents, 
flocks,  and  herds,  covers  a  great  deal  of  ground,  and  the  men 
on  horseback  are  continually  moving  to  and  fro  in  small  com- 
panies of  three  or  four  to  a  dozen,  conveying  the  orders  of  the 
emir  directing  the  general  movements,  to  prevent  interference 
with  one  another,  looking  out  for  suitable  camping-grounds, 
especially  watching  against  marauders,  and  on  the  alert  for 
plunder.  They  often  lie  in  wait  behind  a  rise  of  ground,  or 
near  a  fountain  or  well,  and  the  only  safety  for  the  traveler  is 
in  paying  toll  to  some  of  them  to  act  as  an  escort.*  The  prin- 
cipal sheikhs,  on  the  other  hand,  scour  the  desert  with  larger 
bodies  of  men,  well  mounted  and  armed,  in  whatever  direction 
circumstances  may  require.  The  annual  movements  of  the 
Bedawin  are  similar  to  the  yearly  migrations  of  the  birds,  as 
they  issue  every  spring  from  the  inhabited  portions  of  Arabia, 
and  move  northward  to  Mesopotamia,  and  across  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains  of  Koordistan,  while 
westward  they  spread  to  the  very  gates  of  Damascus  and 
Aleppo,  and  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  eastward 
to  the  walls  of  Bagdad  and  the  frontiers  of  Persia.  The  liv- 
ing tide  returns  every  autumn,  laden  with  the  spoils  of  cara- 
vans and  the  wdieat  and  barley  of  agricultural  districts,  ever 
triumphing,  while  "their  hand  is  ngainst  everv  man,  and  every 

*  Lynch,  p.  892. 


THE   TENT,  AND   NOMAD   LIFE.  409 

man's  hand  against  them."*  The  countries  bordering  on  the 
desert  lie  completely  at  their  mercy,  and  preserve  food  enough 
to  sustain  their  population  only  by  paying  an  annual  tribute 
to  these  wild  marauders.  They  have  been  repeatedly  known 
to  commit  their  depredations  at  the  very  gates  of  the  fenced 
cities.  Not  long  ago  the  Beni-shammar  carried  off  twelve 
hundred  sheep  from  under  the  walls  of  Mossul,  and  the  pasha 
having  sent  five  hundred  soldiers,  with  two  cannon,  in  pursuit, 
they  turned  and  beat  a  hasty  retreat  as  soon  as  they  saw  the 
shaking  of  the  spears  of  the  dreaded  sons  of  the  desert.  The 
ancestors  of  these  wild  robbers  were  as  troublesome  to  the 
Israelitesf  as  they  are  to  their  neighbors  at  the  present  time. 
The  name  Bedawin,  by  which  they  are  now  called,  signifies 
"the  inhabitants  of  the  desert;"  they,  however,  like  the  oth- 
er branch  of  the  Abrahamic  family,  comprise  several  distinct 
tribes,  of  which  the  Enezeh  are  the  most  northern,  always  the 
most  ready  to  advance  in  the  spring,  and  the  last  to  return  in 
the  autumn.  The  strength  of  this  tribe  alone  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  their  emir,  Sheikh  Mohammed  ed  Dolhy,  can 
muster  a  force  of  ten  thousand  horsemen,  and  receives  a  yearly 
tribute  from  the  Turkish  government  to  keep  his  Bedawin  in 
check.  Other  desert  tribes  count  no  less  than  thirty  thousand 
horsemen.:}: 

The  Bedawin  have  always  been  celebrated  for  their  hospi- 
tality, a  quality  rendered  all  the  more  conspicuous  by  their 
dishonesty,  treachery,  and  cruelty.  Their  oral  laws  or  customs 
are  very  stringent  on  this  subject,  so  much  so  that  men  who 
are  liable  to  suffer  from  the  revenge  of  individuals  escape 
harm  by  contriving,  for  instance,  to  eat  bread  and  salt  in  the 
tent  of  their  enemy.  The  ideas  entertained  by  these  people 
respecting  the  duty  of  hospitality  interpose  a  great  and  saluta- 
ry check  upon  their  lawless  propensities,  and  especially  upon 
that  law  of  retaliation  which  requires  the  nearest  relation  of  a 
murdered  man  to  avenge  his  death  upon  his  murderer,  thus 
engendering  "blood  feuds,"  which  often  last  for  a  generation. 
Indeed,  were  it  not  for  the  powerful  influence  of  this  tent  law 
of  hospitality,  the  desert  could  not  be  trodden,  most  of  the  year, 
by  any  but  the  Arabs  themselves.      A  young  friend  of  ours. 


Gen.  xvi.,  12.  t  Judg.  vi.,  2-6,  11.  t  Tavernier,  p.  53. 


410  BIBLE   LANDS. 

having  ventured  upon  an  excursion  to  the  south-east  of  Alep- 
po with  two  companions,  suddenly  descried,  at  a  short  distance, 
a  considerable  company  of  well -mounted  Arabs,  who  imme- 
diately gave  them  chase.  Away  they  went,  pursuers  and  pur- 
sued, all  equally  well  mounted  and  skilled  in  the  management 
of  their  steeds,  for  the  disparity  of  their  numbers  was  such  that 
resistance  was  out  of  the  question.  Away  they  went,  flying 
over  the  slightly  undulating  plain,  until  a  cluster  of  black  tents 
appeared  in  the  distance,  and  all  made  for  this  spot — the  En- 
glishmen as  the  only  place  of  safety,  and  the  Arabs  to  cut  them 
off.  Fortunately  for  the  former,  they  succeeded  in  outstrip- 
ping their  pursuers,  and  reaching  the  tents  just  in  time  to  leap 
off  their  saddles,  and,  leaning  over  the  large  bowl  of  lehen,  to 
swallow  a  refreshing  draught,  when  their  pursuers  were  upon 
them.  But  the  people  of  the  encampment  were  on  the  alert. 
They  immediately  set  up  a  shout,  and  drove  off  the  baffled 
horsemen,  though  they  belonged  to  their  own  tribe. 

The  Arab,  however,  is  passionate,  and  under  the  influence 
of  anger  or  hatred  will  sometimes  break  the  laws  of  hospitali- 
ty, and  even  trample  upon  the  most  solemn  oaths.*  Heber,  the 
husband  of  Jael,  who  "  smote  Sisera,"  was  a  Kenite,  belonging 
to  a  nomadic  tribe,  and  had  wandered  to  Canaan.  The  con- 
duct of  his  wife  indicates  that  he  strongly  sympathized  with 
his  kinsmen,  the  Hebrews,  to  whom  he  was  related  by  his  de- 
scent from  Jethro,  priest  of  Midian,  Moses's  father-in-law. 
Jael  seems  to  have  laid  her  plan  as  soon  as  she  perceived  Sis- 
era  flying,  and,  to  allay  his  fears,  she  gave  him  lehen  to  drink, 
instead  of  water,  for  which  he  asked.  She  transgressed  the 
laws  of  hospitality,  but  in  doing  so  she  only  acted  as  any  Be- 
dawy  Arab  might  now  act  under  similar  circumstances.  Take, 
for  instance,  the  story  of  Sofuk,  the  sheikh  of  the  great  tribe  of 
the  Shammar.  He  had  been  a  noted  chief  of  the  tribe  for 
many  years,  obtaining  the  title  of  King  of  the  Desert,  and  hav- 
ing strengthened  his  influence  by  carrying  off  and  marrying 
Amsha,  the  daughter  of  Hassan,  sheikh  of  the  Tai,  who  had 
been  the  theme  of  Arab  poets  for  her  beauty  and  her  noble 
blood.  Sofuk's  conduct  toward  his  adherents  growing  more 
and  more  tyrannical,  they  gradually  left  him,  and  pitched  their 

*  Judg.  iv.,  17-22. 


THE   TENT,   AND    NOMAD    LIFE.  411 

tents  nround  that  of  his  cousin,  Nejris.  He  could  not  brook  this 
humiliation,  and  employed  expostulation,  violence,  and  every 
wile,  but  all  in  vain;  nothing  could  induce  the  wild  children 
of  the  desert  to  return  to  his  authority.  He  invited  Nejris  to 
an  interview ;  but  as  the  latter  could  not  trust  bis  treacherous 
rival,  he  sent  him  his  son,  Ferhan,  to  whom  he  pledged  him- 
self by  solemn  oath  that  no  harm  was  intended,  Nejris,  to 
show  his  confidence  in  Fei'han,  declared  that  he  would  accom- 
pany him  alone,  upon  his  mare,  to  his  father's  tent.  They  had 
scarcely  reached  it,  however,  when  they  both  clearly  saw  the 
treachery  about  to  be  perpetrated.  The  tent  was  filled  with 
blood-thirsty  adherents  of  Sofuk,  whom  he  had  called  together 
to  aid  him  in  consummating  the  work  of  revenge.  Nejris  was 
no  sooner  seated  than  Sofuk  began  to  address  him  with  in- 
vectives, to  which  he  fearlessly  responded.  Upon  this  Sofuk 
sprang  to  his  feet,  and,  drawing  his  sword,  rushed  upon  him. 
Nejris,  unarmed,  cast  himself  upon  the  protection  of  an  uncle, 
who  had  the  baseness  to  hold  him  down  while  Sofuk  cut  his 
throat.  Ferhan  nearly  lost  his  life  at  the  hand  of  his  infuriated 
father  in  the  vain  attempt  to  save  his  relative  and  guest.  He 
now  stood  at  the  door  of  the  tent  rending  his  garments,  and 
calling  down  curses  upon  the  head  of  his  father  for  violating 
the  laws  of  hospitality,  and  the  latter  was  with  difficulty  pre- 
vented from  striking  him  down  with  his  reeking  sword.  The 
Shammar  were  not  won  back  to  Sofuk  by  this  act  of  treachery, 
and  he,  ere  long,  himself  fell  a  victim  to  the  arts  he  had  em- 
ployed to  destroy  his  rival.  He  was  murdered  by  a  party  of 
Turkish  soldiers,  sent  ostensibly  to  aid  him,  and  his  head  was 
carried  in  triumph  to  the  Pasha  of  Bagdad.* 

As  the  nomads  have  no  settled  habitation,  the  remains  of 
their  dead  are  not  collected  in  cemeteries,  as  those  of  the  in- 
habitants of  cities,  but  are  buried  in  the  wilderness  wherever 
the  survivors  may  happen  to  be.f  They  are  not,  however, 
wholly  indifferent  as  to  the  locality,  for  they  usually  prefer  the 
neighborhood  of  a  well  or  fountain,  from  the  fact,  perhaps,  of 
their  habitually  encamping  at  such  spots.  In  portions  of  the 
country  where  trees  occur,  whether  in  clamps  or  alone,  the 
dead  are  buried  beneath  their  shade. :j:     When,  however,  any 


Layard's"Nineveli,"  vol.  i.,p.  108.        t  Gen.  xxxv.,  19.        J  Gen. 

27 


412  BIBLE   LANDS. 

particular  locality  has  become  sacred  to  the  nomads  by  the  in- 
terment of  several  of  their  people,  they  prefer  to  bury  upon  the 
same  spot,  and  thus  a  collection  of  graves  is  formed  almost 
amounting  to  a  cemetery.  Such  may  be  seen  in  all  regions  fre- 
quented by  these  people.  The  graves  are  usually  marked  by 
a  rude  stone  or  the  fragment  of  an  ancient  ruin,  among  which 
may  sometimes  be  seen  a  monument  of  a  more  elaborate  char- 
acter.* The  nomadic  tribes  hold  in  special  reverence  the 
tombs  of  such  of  their  people  as  were  reputed  saints,  and  when 
passing  by  invariably  stop  to  repeat  their  prayers  upon  the 
sacred  spot.  These  clusters  of  graves  usually  contain  family 
groups,  and  the  dead  are  brought  from  considerable  distances 
to  be  "  buried  with  their  fathers."f 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  influence  exerted  by 
the  nomadic  life  of  their  progenitors  upon  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Hebrews.  We  shall  hereafter  have  repeated  occa- 
sion to  refer  to  this  subject,  and  will  here  simply  remark  that 
all  the  people  dwelling  on  the  east  side  of  Jordan  depended 
for  their  subsistence,  through  all  their  historj^,  chiefly  upon  the 
flocks  an* !  herds  they  tended.  Their  country  was  better  adapt- 
ed to  pastoral  than  to  agricultural  pursuits.:}:  It,  moreover, 
lay  open  to  the  invasions  of  the  wild  tribes  of  the  desert. 
They  had,  indeed,  strongly-fortified  cities,§  comparatively  small 
in  size,  and  scattered  over  the  country,  which  served  as  places 
of  refuge  for  their  cattle,  as  well  as  for  their  "  wives  and  little 
ones,"  on  the  appearance  of  an  enemy.||  The  patriarch  Job 
dwelt  in  this  land,  and  his  wealth  consisted  of  immense  herds 
of  sheep,  cattle,  camels,  and  she-asses,  as  well  as  slaves  who 
were  engaged  in  keeping  them ;  yet  he  dwelt  not  in  tents,  but 
in  permanent  habitations,  together  with  his  numerous  house- 
hold, ^f  The  principal  wealth  of  the  Midianites  when  they 
were  destroyed  by  Moses  consisted  of  cattle  and  flocks.**  The 
Moabites  also  were  keepers  of  sheep  and  herds  ;tf  and  the  Idu- 
means  seem  to  have  been  engaged  in  similar  occupations,  as 
were  also  the  Amorites,  and  especially  the  inhabitants  of  the 
land  of  Bashan,  celebrated  for  its  fine  pastures,  and  proverbial- 
ly famous  for  its  fine  cattle.:}:^ 

*  Gen.  XXXV.,  20.  t  Gen.  xlix.,  29-31 ;  1.,  13.  J  Numb,  xxxii.,  4. 

§  1  Kings  iv.,  13.  ||  Numb,  xxxii.,  17,  26.  t  Job  •-,  h  10,  18,  19. 

•*  Numb,  xxxi.,  32-34.       t+ 2  Kings  iii.,  4.       Jt  I'sa.  xxii.,  12;  Amos  iv.,  1. 


THK   TENT,  AND   NOMAD   LIFE.  413 

All  this  "  east  country  "  was  overrun  by  the  Israelites  on 
their  way  to  Canaan,  from  Edom  on  the  south  to  the  border 
of  the  Syrian  province  of  Damascus  on  the  north.  They  cap- 
tured the  cities,  and  put  all  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword,  with 
the  exception  of  the  young  girls,  and  carried  off  all  their  spoil. 
The  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh, 
had  adhered  to  the  pastoral  habits  of  their  ancestors,  and  ob- 
tained permission  from  Moses  to  occupy  the  portion  of  the  con- 
quered country  lying  east  of  the  Jordan  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
on  account  of  its  being  better  adapted  to  their  mode  of  life  than 
the  land  which  lay  on  the  west.*  The  two  and  a  half  tribes 
continued  to  follow  pastoral  occupations,  dwelling  partly  in 
tents,f  and  extended  their  border — for  they  were  "  valiant  men, 
men  able  to  bear  buckler  and  sword,  and  to  shoot  with  bow, 
and  skillful  in  war  ":|:— on  the  north  to  Mount  Hermon,  and 
on  the  east  to  the  entering  in  of  "the  wilderness  from  the 
river  Euphrates,  because  their  cattle  were  multiplied  in  the 
land  of  Gilead,"§  until  their  removal  into  the  land  of  Assyria 
by  Tilgath-pilneser,  king  of  Nineveh.||  In  New  Testament 
times,  the  people  who  dwelt  in  the  same  regions  had  added  the 
keeping  of  swine  to  the  pastoral  occupations  of  their  predeces- 
sors ;^  and  the  Druses  of  the  Hauran,  and  other  Arabs  who  now 
inhabit  that  country,  depend  chiefly  for  their  subsistence  on  the 
flocks  and  herds  which  they  keep.  The  people  of  the  two  and 
a  half  tribes,  therefore,  may  well  be  compared  with  the  fierce 
Druses  of  the  Hauran,  or  with  other  semi-nomadic  tribes  of 
Western  Asia,  such  as  the  Koords  of  Koordistan,  or  the  Lesghies 
and  Circassians  of  Daghestan,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Caucasus, 
for  they  are  all  fierce  robbers,  cunning,  bold  even  to  rashness, 
so  that  "  one  of  the  least  of  them  can  resist  a  hundred,  and  the 
greatest  a  thousand.**  All  these  tribes  are  essentially  nomadic. 
The  tent  is  not  the  only  extemporized  shelter  spoken  of  in 
the  Scriptures;  booths  are  repeatedly  referred  to,  and  appear 
to  have  been  as  extensively  used  among  the  ancients  as  they 
are  at  present  in  Western  Asia.  They  are  constructed  of 
stout  branches  of  trees,  firmly  planted  in  the  ground,  united  by 
other  branches  at  the  top,  and  thus  supporting  a  roof  of  green 

*  Numb,  xxxii.,  33 ;  Josh,  xxii.,  4.      f  Josh,  xxii.,  4,  8.       t  1  Chron.  v.,  18. 
§  1  Chron.  v.,  9,  10.  ||  1  Chron.  v.,  26.        t  Matt,  viii.,  30. 

**  1  Chron.  xii.,  8, 14. 


4:14  BIBLE   LANDS. 

boughs.  Booths  are  of  all  sizes,  the  largest  being  built  for  the 
purpose  of  sheltering  the  herds  and  flocks  from  the  scorching 
rays  of  the  summer  sun  and  the  winter  rains.*  The  watchmen 
in  the  vineyards,f  and  in  the  melon  and  cucumber  patches,:}: 
dwell  in  booths  during  the  fruit  season.  These  are  erected 
on  the  highest  points,  and  support  a  shaded  platform,  which 
serves  as  a  post  of  observation.  The  inhabitants  of  villages 
situated  in  deep  valleys,  finding  their  winter-quarters  becoming 
hot  and  uncomfortable  as  spring  advances,  move  a  short  dis- 
tance up  the  mountain,  and  dwell,  each  family  under  its  own 
booth.  The  guards  posted  upon  the  road  to  watch  for  the 
safety  of  travelers,  the  cafejys  who  offer  refreshment  to  the 
passer-by,  and  many  other  classes  we  could  mention,  prefer  the 
shade  of  the  booth  to  the  closer  quarters  of  the  neighboring 
house.  The  Arab  is  often  driven  by  the  extreme  heat  to  strike 
his  tent,  and  erect  instead  a  booth  of  reeds  by  the  river-side, 
where  he  temporarily  adopts  amphibious  habits;§  and  in  mili- 
tary campaigns,  which  are  almost  invariably  undertaken  in  the 
summer  season,  the  ofl&cers,  and  even  the  troops  engaged  in  the 
siege  of  a  town,  do  not  fail  to  change  the  tent,  with  its  close 
heated  atmosphere,  for  the  breezy  booth. || 

The  Jews  were  commanded  to  erect  booths  or  "  tabernacles  " 
in  their  cities  at  a  particular  time  of  the  year,  and  to  dwell  un- 
der them  for  one  entire  week,  in  commemoration  of  their  forty 
years'  wanderings  in  the  wilderness.^  After  their  return  from 
the  captivity,  it  is  particularly  mentioned  that,  having  neglect- 
ed this  custom  since  the  days  of  Joshua,  the  son  of  Nun,  the 
people  with  great  zeal  once  more  observed  "  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles." They  "  went  forth  unto  the  mount,  and  fetched  olive- 
branches,  and  pine-branches,  and  myrtle-branches,  and  palm- 
branches,  and  branches  of  thick  trees,  and  made  themselves 
booths,  every  one  upon  the  roof  of  his  house,  and  in  their  courts, 
and  in  the  courts  of  the  house  of  God,  and  in  the  streets  and 
squares."**  The  modern  Jews  of  Western  Asia,  enduring  like 
misfortunes  with  the  returned  captives  from  Babylon,  generally 
observe  this  "  week  of  thanksgiving  "  with  a  fidelity  we  vainly 
look  for  in  the  annals  of  their  nation's  highest  prosperity. 

•  Gen.  xxxiii.,  17.      t  Job  xxvii.,  18.      %  Isa.  i.,  8.      §  Layard,  vol.  i.,  p.  116. 
II  2  Sam.  xi.,  11 ;  1  Kings  xx.,  16,  where  the  word  translated  "tents  "  and  "  pa- 
vilions'" properly  means  booths. 

t  Lev.  xxiii.,  33-43.  **  Neh.  viii.,  16. 


THE   TENT,  AND   NOMAD   LIFE.  416 

There  is  no  probability  that  the  military  tent  of  the  Israel- 
ites was  similar  to  those  of  the  nomadic  tribes,  which  are  ill 
adapted  to  the  formation  of  a  camp.  Indeed  it  is  highly  prob- 
able that,  in  their  primitive  simplicity,  the  Hebrews  went  to 
war  without  tents,  and  with  little  baggage  of  any  kind.  They, 
however,  must  subsequently  have  adopted  the  customs  of  neigh- 
boring nations,  who  often  displayed  the  greatest  magnificence 
in  their  camp  life.*  The  modern  military  tent  of  the  East  is 
made  of  canvas,  and  painted  green,  the  sacred  color  of  the 
Mohammedans.  It  is  circular,  and  supported  by  a  single  pole 
in  two  pieces.  The  tents  of  officers,  and  especially  that  of  the 
general,  are  often  large  and  of  fine  material,  divided  into  sev- 
eral apartments,  spread  with  carpets  and  rich  divans.  This  is 
more  particularly  the  case  when  the  sovereign  personally  heads 
a  military  expedition  or  pleasure  excursion.f 

Tent-making  constitutes  an  important  occupation  in  West- 
ern Asia  at  the  present  day.  In  all  the  larger  cities,  and  par- 
ticularly at  Constantinople,  there  is  a  portion  of  the  bazar,  or 
business  part  of  the  town,  entirely  devoted  to  this  branch  of 
industry.  Here  may  be  seen  men  engaged  in  cutting  and  sew- 
ing canvas,  in  constructing  or  finishing  off  tents  of  various 
forms  and  sizes,  in  mending  and  repairing  those  long  used,  or 
packing  them  up  for  their  customers.  This  is  what  we  have 
described  as  the  military  tent,  for  the  black  tent  of  the  nomads 
is  made  exclusively  by  themselves.  But  the  military  tent  is 
not  employed  solely  for  the  purpose  of  warfare.  The  civilian 
often  carries  it  with  him  on  his  journey,  and  pitches  it  at  night; 
it  is  frequently  seen  beside  some  hot  spring,  whose  sanitary 
waters  are  sought  to  mitigate  the  sufferings  of  the  sick;  and 
one  of  the  most  refreshing  sights  of  the  advancing  spring  is 
the  herds  of  horses  feeding  on  the  green  barley  sown  for  the 
purpose  in  the  neighborhood  of  every  town,  with  the  conical 
tents  of  their  keepers  scattered  here  and  there  over  the  valley 
or  plain.  The  apostle  Paul  was  a  tent-maker,:}:  and  the  tents  he 
constructed  were  doubtless  employed  by  the  Roman  soldiers; 
since  no  other  military  power  existed  in  his  day  in  the  lands 
where  he  wrought.  The  Roman  tent,  like  the  Grecian,  is 
probably  identical  with  the  tent  still  used  in  the  same  lands. 

*  2  Kings  vii.,  7,  8,  15,  16.  t  Jer.  xliii.,  10.  J  Acts  xviii.,  3. 


416  BIBLE   LANDS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PERMANEXT  HABITATIONS— THE  HOUSE  AXD   THE  TOWN. 

It  has  been  thought  by  many,  both  in  ancient  and  in  mod- 
ern times,  that  the  first  habitations  of  men  consisted  of  dens  and 
caves,  either  natural  or  artificial.  We  have  no  intention  to 
enter  the  field  of  prehistoric  inquiry,  much  less  to  carry  any 
inquiries  beyond  the  geographical  limits  we  have  set  for  our- 
selves. Thus  much,  however,  we  must  say :  that  the  lands  of 
the  Bible  contain  numerous  caves,  mostly  in  the  calcareous 
ranges  which  predominate,  many  of  which,  though  owing  their 
origin  to  natural  causes,  show  more  or  less  the  traces  of  man's 
work.  These  have  doubtless  been  occupied  by  human  beings, 
sometimes  permanently,  but  oftener  on  special  occasions;  and 
this  is  still  the  case  at  the  present  time.  Caves  were  resorted 
to  by  the  Israelites  in  times  of  public  danger,*  and  they  were 
even  wrought  by  the  hand  of  man  for  that  very  purpose.f  In 
the  Northern  countries  such  places  are  apt  to  be  damp  and  un- 
healthy, a  fact  which  is  attested  by  the  presence  of  stalactites 
and  stalagmites.  There  still  exist  extensive  rock  excavations, 
in  the  form  of  apartments,  indicating  not  only  advanced  ideas 
of  comfort,  but,  in  some  cases,  refinement  and  artistic  taste. 
The  finest  specimens  of  this  nature  are  to  be  found  in  Lycia, 
on  the  south-western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  in  the  city  of 
Petra,  in  the  land  of  Edom.  It  is  easy,  however,  for  the  most 
superficial  observer  to  perceive  that  an  extremely  small  por- 
tion alone  of  the  population  that  once  occupied  these  sites 
lived  in  rock  habitations.  They  chiefly  constituted  rock  tem- 
ples and  tombs,  of  which  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  in 
their  proper  place.  Besides  these,  several  other  localities  have 
long  been  noted  for  their  rock  excavations.  The  most  north- 
ern is  the  deep  and  warm  valley  of  Inkerman,  near  Sebastopol, 
in  the  Southern  Crimea.      So,  also,  the  innumerable  excava- 

*  1  Sam.  xxiii.,  29.  t  Judg.  vi.,  2. 


PERMANENT  HABITATIONS.  417 

tions  in  tufaceous  limestone  at  Uch-Hissar,  and  in  selenite  at 
Seidiler,  in  Asia  Minor,  were  doubtless,  many  of  them,  used  as 
habitations  at  a  remote  period  of  antiquity.  Here  the  rocks 
contain  an  entire  town  in  chambers  and  habitations,  respecting 
whose  early  history  nothing  positive  is  known,  but  many  of 
which  are  still  occupied  at  the  present  day.  There  is  on  the 
western  frontier  of  Persia  a  town  called  Sherazool,  not  far  from 
the  field  of  Arbela,  where  Darius  was  conquered  by  Alex- 
ander, which  is  mostly  dug  out  of  the  rock.  This  appears  to 
have  been  done  by  the  inhabitants  to  secure  themselves  against 
the  constant  incursions  of  predatory  Arabs  and  Koords,*  be- 
ing situated  upon  the  top  of  a  hill,  and  accessible  only  by  steps 
cut  in  the  rock.  It  appears,  however,  to  be  a  work  of  consid- 
erable antiquity. f 

Many  rock  excavations  were  used  during  the  ascetic  age  of 
Christianity  by  hermits  or  by  fraternities  of  monks,  and  there 
are  some  yet  occupied  for  that  purpose.  At  the  fountain  of 
the  Orontes  in  Coele-Syria,  and  at  A'in-Jidy  (Engedi)  on  the 
western  coast  of  the  Dead  Sea,  the  monks  only  enlarged  al- 
ready existing  strongholds.:};  There  are  many  excavations  in 
Upper  Egypt,  originally  inhabited  by  a  race  of  troglodytes, 
then  used  as  depositories  for  mummies,  and  later  still  occu- 
pied by  several  thousands  of  anchorites,  or  hermits,  while  at 
the  present  day  there  dwells  within  those  caves  a  tribe  of  ab- 
origines who  are  supposed  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Thebes. 

Few  of  the  caves  of  Western  Asia  are  now  occupied  as  per- 
manent places  of  abode ;  they  are  mostly  the  resort  of  shep- 
herds, who  make  them  the  stables  of  their  flocks.  It  not  un- 
frequently  occurs,  at  the  present  day,  that  a  people  oppressed 
by  war,  or  the  tyranny  of  their  rulers,  forsake  the  towns  and 
villages,  and  take  up  their  abode  for  a  time  in  these  wild  and 
solitary  places,  in  the  hope  of  escaping  from  their  oppressors.§ 
Fugitives  from  the  battle-field,  leaders  of  armies,  and  even 
princes  and  royal  personages,  have  repeatedly,  in  modern  as  in 
ancient  times,  concealed  themselves  from  their  pursuers  with- 
in these  dark  recesses. |      Bandits  and  outlaws  have  also  made 


*  Judg.  vi.,  2.  t  Tavernier,  p.  73.  t  1  Sam.  xxiii.,  14,  25,  29. 

§  1  Sam.  xiii.,  G.  '  Josh,  x.,  16;  1  Sam.  xxiv., :],  4. 


418  BIBLE   LANDS. 

these  caverns  their  abode,  whence  they  sallied  forth  to  commit 
robbery  and  murder;*  and  in  times  of  persecution  on  account 
of  religion,  men,  women,  and  even  children,  have  been  forced 
to  abandon  their  homes,  and  wait  for  better  times  in  "dens 
and  caves  of  the  earth."f  The  deacon  of  the  present  Evangel- 
ical Armenian  Church  of  Sivas,  in  Asia  Minor,  was  compelled 
to  leave  his  home  in  Divrik,  for  fear  of  death  on  account  of  his 
faith,  and  abode  for  several  months  in  a  cave  in  the  mountains, 
where  he  was  secretly  furnished  with  provisions. 

The  earliest  mention  of  human  dwellings  is  contained  by  im- 
plication in  Gen.  iv.,  17,  where  Cain  is  said  to  have  "  builded 
a  city."  Nothing,  however,  is  stated  in  this  passage  respecting 
the  form  or  materials  of  the  houses  of  which  it  was  composed. 
The  passage  quoted  would  seem  to  indicate  not  that  dwellings 
did  not  exist  before,  but  rather  that  Cain  was  the  first  to  erect 
"  a  city,"  a  fortified  place  of  abode,  wherein  he  could  defend 
himself  against  any  avenger  of  blood.:}:  The  first  mention 
made  of  the  materials  of  which  dwellings  were  constructed  is 
contained  in  the  following  account  of  the  earliest  migration  of 
the  descendants  of  Noah:  "And  it  came  to  pass,  as  they  jour- 
neyed from  the  east "  {in  the  land  lying  east  of  the  country 
where  Moses  was  when  he  wrote  this  account),  "  that  they  found 
a  plain  in  the  land  of  Shinar"  (generally  recognized  as  Baby- 
lonia, in  Lower  Mesopotamia);  "and  they  dwelt  there.  And 
they  said  one  to  another,  Go  to ;  let  us  make  brick,  and  burn 
them  thoroughly.  And  they  had  brick  for  stone,  and  slime" 
(bitumen)  "had  they  for  mortar.  And  they  said,  Go  to;  let 
us  build  us  a  city  and  a  tower."§  This  narrative  refers  to  the 
building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel.  There  are  at  present  the  re- 
mains of  three  stupendous  ruins,  each  of  which  is  claimed  by 
different  travelers  to  occupy  the  site  of  that  celebrated  pyra- 
mid;  either  of  these  structures  would  answer  our  purpose  by 
furnishing  an  illustration  of  the  first  building  materials  on 
record.  One  of  these  seems  particularly  likely  to  have  been 
the  Tower  of  Babel,  and  subsequently  the  Temple  of  Belus. 
"  It  is  an  oblong  mass,  composed  chiefly  of  unbaked  brick,  ris- 
ing from  the  plain  to  a  height  of  one  hundred  and  ten  feet,  and 


*  1  Sam.  xxii.,  1,  2.  +1  Kings  xviii.,  4 ;  Ileb.  xi.,  38. 

X  Gen.  iv.,  14.  §  Gen.  xi.,  2-4. 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS. 


419 


having  at  the  top  a  broad  flat  space,  with  heaps  of  rubbish. 
The  faces  of  the  mound  are  about  two  hundred  yards  in  length, 
and  thus  agree  with  Herodotus's  estimate.  Tunnels  driven 
through  the  structure  show  that  it  was  formerly  covered  with 
a  wall  of  baked-brick  masonry;  many  such  bricks  are  found 
loose,  and  bear  the  name  of  Nebuchadnezzar."*     These  bricks 


Babylonian  baked  Brick,  with  Nebuchadnezzar's  Name ;  12  inches  square  and 
3  inches  thick.    (Dan.  iv.,  30.) 

are  a  foot  square;  some  of  them  contain  long  inscriptions,  ar- 
ranged in  columns  in  the  arrow-headed  character,  supposed  to 
be  the  oldest  kind  of  writing.  Others  are  beautifully  enameled, 
an  art  not  wholly  lost  in  these  regions,  for  it  is  still  practiced 
in  -Persia,  whence  it  was  introduced  a  few  centuries  ago  into 
Turkey,  and  the  manufacture  established  at  Kutaya,  in  Asia 
Minor.  Such  bricks  are  now  dug  up  among  the  very  exten- 
sive ruins  in  the  plain  of  Babylonia,  and  taken  to  Bagdad  for 
building  purposes;  and  the  difficulty  of  identifying  the  site 
of  the  Babylon  of  Scripture  has  arisen  from  the  fact  that  the 
materials  of  which  it  was  built  have,  at  various  times,  been 
removed  for  the  construction  of  the  great  cities  which  have 
successively  replaced  it.  It  has,  indeed,  been  the  quarry  that 
has  furnished  the  materials  for  their  erection.  Nebuchadnezzar 
either  repaired  Babylon,  as  many  suppose,  or  built  it  anew  upon 
a  neighboring  site  with  the  remains  of  the  more  ancient  Ba- 
bel ;f  for  Babylon  has  several  times  been  changed,  and  within 


Rawlinson,  "Herodotus,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  477. 


t  Dan.  iv.,  30. 


•420  BIBLE   LANDS. 

a  comparatively  modern  period  Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon,  and 
still  later  Bagdad,  have  taken  its  place. 

The  extensive  excavations  made  among  the  ruins  of  Nin- 
eveh by  Messrs.  Layard  and  Botta  further  confirm  the  state- 
ment that  the  oldest  building  materials  were  sun-dried  bricks, 
cemented  with  mortar,  bitumen,  or  mere  clay.  The  splendid 
palaces  of  the  kings  of  Nineveh,  and  the  pyramid  which  bears 
the  name  of  Nimrood,  are  chiefly  constructed  of  these  apparent- 
ly frail  materials,  which  have,  nevertheless,  withstood  the  rav- 
ages of  time  better  than  marble  or  even  granite.  The  only 
difference  distinguishable  between  the  Babylonish  and  Nineveh 
structures  consists  in  the  former's  being  faced  with  burned  and 
even  glazed  bricks,  while  the  latter  presented  everywhere  a 
surface  of  stone,  whose  slabs,  obtained  in  the  neighborhood, 
were  of  gray  alabaster,  beautifully  carved.* 

We  might  refer  to  other  proofs  of  the  use  of  sun-dried  bricks 
during  the  early  periods  of  the  world's  history.  We  might  de- 
scribe the  innumerable  pyramids,  or  tumuli,  which  were  erected 
in  the  south-east  of  Europe  and  in  Western  Asia  as  tombs  of 
the  dead,  from  the  earliest  time  down  to  the  age  of  Mithridates, 
just  before  the  Christian  era;  and  we  might  particularly  men 
tion  the  vast  numbers  of  pyramids  of  clay  in  Upper  Egypt, 
above  Memphis.f  All  these  fiicts  agree  with  the  Mosaic  narra- 
tive, which  represents  the  children  of  Israel  during  their  Egyp- 
tian bondage  as  chiefly  engaged  in  making  brick  ;:{;  and  we  may 
infer  that  these  were  not  burned  in  the  kiln,  from  the  circum- 
stance that  straw  was  mixed  with  the  clay  in  their  manufacture, 
which  is  done  only  with  sun-dried  bricks.  The  statement, 
moreover,  that  the  Israelites  built  the  "  treasure  cities  Pithoni 
and  Raamses,"§  implies  that  sun-dried  bricks  were  the  chief 
material  employed  in  building  not  only  houses  and  public 
structures,  but  even  the  fortifications  and  walls  of  cities. 
Hewn  stone  probably  began  to  be  employed  at  a  later  period 
than  brick.  When  mankind  removed  to  mountainous  and 
rocky  regions,  where  clay  did  not  abound,  as  in  Mesopotamia 
and  Egypt,  they  used  as  building  material  for  their  public  edi- 
fices irregularly  broken  stones,  and  then  hewn  blocks,  the  lat- 

*  Layard,  vol.  ii.,  p.  201. 

t  Joscphus,  "Antiquities,"'  bk.  ii.,  ciiap.  ix.,  §  1 ;  Bruce,  vol.  i..  p.  .">4. 

t  Exod.  v.,  6-8.  §  Exod.  i.,  11. 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS.  421 

ter  of  which  alone  have  somewhat  resisted  the  influence  of 
time,  and  continue  to  tell  the  story  of  by-gone  ages* 

Modern  travelers  in  Western  Asia  have  ever  been  struck 
with  the  fact  that  almost  every  house  in  the  country  is  now 
made  of  crude  or  sun-dried  bricks.  One  occasionally  meets 
with  a  bridge,  a  khan,  a  church,  or  a  mosk  built  of  hewn  stone, 
to  which  may  be  added  some  half- dilapidated  structures,  and 
crumbling  walls  and  battlements  of  cities.  Nearly  every  block 
of  these  has,  in  all  probability,  been  brought  to  its  present  po- 
sition from  some  more  ancient  ruin,  which  has  now  disappear- 
ed. The  eye  becomes  used  to  the  patchwork  of  old  inscrip- 
tions turned  upside  down,  and  carved  stones  arranged  at  hap- 
hazard in  the  walls,  columns  of  various  materials  and  dimen- 
sions belonging  to  different  orders  of  architecture,  standing  in  a 
row,  and  forming  the  portico  of  a  mosk,  church,  or  bath.  But 
all  the  rest  of  the  dwellings  are  made  of  mud  bricks ;  and  this 
appears  to  have  been  the  case  as  much  anciently  as  now.  It 
should,  however,  be  remarked  that  where  light,  porous  lime- 
stone abounds,  it  is  cut  into  regular  blocks  with  a  coarse  saw, 
and  used  in  the  same  manner  as  bricks  in  the  erection  of  build- 
ings. This  is  particularly  the  case  along  the  coast  of  Syria,  on 
the  island  of  Rhodes,  and  in  the  centre  of  Asia  Minor,  about 
Mount  Argseus. 

The  manufacture  of  sun-dried  bricks  is  a  process  as  simple 
as  that  practiced  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  is  strikingly 
similar  in  its  details  to  the  pictorial  representations  carved  upon 
their  monuments.f  A  shallow  pit  is  employed  for  mixing  the 
mud  or  clay,  into  which  is  thrown  a  suitable  amount  of  fine- 
cut  straw.  The  manner  in  which  the  straw  is  cut  up  on  the 
threshing-floor  has  been  already  described,  and  the  mixing  is 
done  with  the  feet.:}:  The  mud  is  taken  up  with  the  hands 
or  a  wooden  shovel  and  thrown  into  a  hod,  which  is  then  car- 

*  Isa.  ix.,  9,  10.  Herodotus  speaks  of  the  houses  of  Sardis  as  being  made  of 
"reeds  and  mud;"  they  were  doubtless  the  common  class  of  dwellings;  and  by 
"mud"  is  meant  sun-dried  mud  bricks,  and  by  "reeds"  broken  reeds  from  the 
Hermus  and  Gyges,  in  alteniate  layers,  as  at  Babylon.  The  tomb  of  Hallyatis 
and  the  adjoining  pyramids  are  all  made  of  sun-burned  bricks,  as  are  all  the  houses 
of  that  region  to-day.  Those  of  Athens  are  said  to  have  been  built  of  wood,  by 
which  is  probably  meant  that,  as  now,  the  frame-work  is  of  wood  and  the  filling  up 
of  mud  bricks. 

t  Wilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  p.  196.  t  Nahum  iii.,  14. 


422  BIBLE   LANDS. 

ried  to  the  moulder.  The  latter  has  previousl}^  selected  a  spot 
of  ground,  smooth,  bare,  and  well  exposed  to  the  sun,  where 
his  bricks  will  dry  quickest.  The  mould  is  oblong  in  form, 
made  of  boards,  and  divided  into  compartments,  each  of  which 
will  mould  a  brick  about  eight  inches  long  by  four  in  width 
and  three  in  thickness.  One  of  these  compartments  is  often 
double  the  size  of  the  rest,  turning  out  a  larger  brick.  The 
mould  is  set  down  upon  the  ground,  and  the  mud,  of  the  con- 
sistency of  thick  paste,  poured  into  it,  and  smoothed  over  with 
a  mason's  trowel  or  with  the  palm  of  the  hand.  The  wooden 
frame  is  then  carefully  taken  up  and  set  down  again  empty  be- 
side the  newly-moulded  bricks,  ready  to  receive  and  turn  out  a 
new  complement  of  mud.  The  material  emploN'ed  is  not  clay, 
but  simple  moistened  earth.  The  bricks  are  often  cemented 
with  the  same  material  in  place  of  mortar,  and  walls  so  built 
are  easily  worn  away  by  the  action  of  the  rains.  When,  how- 
ever, united  with  lime  cement,  and  daubed  on  the  outside  with 
the  same  material,  they  are  very  enduring. 

The  ancients  appear  to  have  had  the  same  experience  as  the 
moderns  respecting  the  importance  of  a  solid  foundation  on 
which  to  erect  their  buildings.  In  all  Western  Asia  the  rains, 
though  comparatively  infrequent,  are  copious  and  heavy  while 
they  last.  The  uneven  and  often  abrupt  surface  of  the  coun- 
try, presenting  steep  mountain  heights  and  deep  valleys,  occa- 
sions during  a  storm  the  rapid  gathering  of  waters  to  a  single 
point,  so  that  mighty  torrents  suddenly  appear  rushing  along 
through  gorges  where  not  a  drop  of  )vater  trickled  a  moment 
before.*  These  pour  down  with  irresistible  force,  often  tear- 
ing away  rocks  and  trees,  and  sweeping  all  before  them. 
Houses  erected  near  their  track  are  in  imminent  danger  of  be- 
ing carried  away  by  the  angry  floods.  Should  there  be  any 
weakness  in  their  foundation,  the  rushing  waters  soon  work 
their  way  beneath,  and,  undermining  the  building,  bear  it 
away  bodily.f  No  danger,  however,  arises  from  the  frail  na- 
ture of  the  materials  of  which  the  house  itself  is  composed,  for 
they  have  only  to  resist  the  influence  of  the  descending  rain. 
Our  Saviour's  simile  contained  in  the  passages  cited  above 
doubtless  had  reference  to  the  "  floods  "  just  described  ;  it  will, 

♦  Job  xii.,  15.  t  Matt,  vii.,  24-27;  Luke  vi.,  48,  49. 


PERMANENT  HABITATIONS.  423 

however,  apply  almost  as  well  to  the  annual  inundations  of 
Mesopotamia,  and  especially  to  the  land  of  Egypt,  where  the 
only  way  to  preserve  towns  and  villages  and  public  buildings 
from  destruction  was,  and  is  at  the  present  day,  to  erect  them 
upon  elevations  of  great  strength.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
temples  and  palaces  of  ancient  Nineveh,  as  well  as  those  of 
Upper  Egypt,  were  all  built  upon  such  platforms  or  terraces.* 
The  arch  appears  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancients  as 
early  as  seventeen  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
which  is  the  period  when  the  Israelites  resided  in  Egypt.f 
Still  it  was  very  little  used  by  them,  and  the  dome  may  be 
called,  comparatively,  a  modern  invention.  In  forming  an  idea, 
therefore,  of  the  appearance  of  ancient  buildings  in  Palestine, 
while  we  allow  the  arch  to  remain  spanning  a  few  gate-ways, 
especially  in  large  cities,  we  must  strike  out  of  the  picture 
the  many  domes  that  constitute  so  important  a  feature  in  the 
Oriental  landscape  of  to-day.  Jerusalem  is  now  a  city  of  domes. 
The  Saracens  largely  adopted  this  form  of  architecture  in  all 
their  mosks,  mausoleums,  khans,  and  public  baths ;  and  the  heirs 
of  their  power  and  religious  faith  have  followed  their  example. 


Villi je  with  couital  Roofs,  neir  Aleppo 

There  is,  however,  a  simple  and  rude  form  of  dome,  met  with 
only  in  the  rural  districts,  which  seems  to  have  been  as  much  in 
use  anciently  as  now,  and  in  the  same  regions.  It  looks  like 
a  conical  chimney,  and  is  intended  for  the  escape  of  the  smoke 
from  the  fire-place,  which  stands  in  the  middle  of  the  room.  It 
is  built  of  mud,  bricks,  or  branches,  and  is  daubed  with  mud 
both  within  and  without.  There  is  an  entire  village  built  in 
this  style  in  the  neighborhood  of  Aleppo;  but  the  structure  is 

*  Layard,  "  Nineveh,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  200.  t  Ibid.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  205. 


424 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


Ancient  Assyrian  Huuse. 


mostly  confined  to  Armenia.  The  reader  can  not  fail  to  be  in- 
terested in  the  accompanying  sketches,  which  strikingly  illus- 
trate the  preservation  of  old  customs 
in  Western  Asia.  The  Assyrian  sculp- 
ture also  proves  that  the  spherical  dome 
was  known  to  that  people  at  least  750 
B.C. 

The  tiled  roof  was  not  more  common 
anciently  than  it  is  now.  It  is  a  curi- 
ous and  interesting  fact  that  the  tile  of 
baked  clay,  so  universally  adopted  in 
Southern  Europe,  has  never  met  with 
general  favor  in  Western  Asia,  any 
more  than  the  baked  brick  which  is 
discovered  only  among  the  ruins  of 
Babylon,  and  is  manufactured,  at  the 
present  day,  solely  as  a  paving-stone 
for  halls,  rooms,  etc.  Tiles  appear  to 
have  been  introduced  by  the  Greeks,  and  their  use  is  still  mostly 
confined  to  this  people  and  to  the  sea-port  towns  in  which  they 
reside,  for  the  wooden  or  log  houses  of  Northern  Asia  Minor 
are  covered  with  shingles.  The  sites  of  ancient  Greek  cities 
are  always  marked  by  fragments  of  tiles.  Their  very  temples 
were  often  roofed  with  them,  and  marble  imitations  of  them  are 
to  be  found  among  the  ruins  of  a  beautiful  odeon  at  Ephesus. 
But  Orientals  have  always  preferred  the  flat  roof  to  every 
other,  and  the  dome  itself  has  not  succeeded  in  supplanting  it. 
We  have  purposely  spoken,  first  of  all,  of  the  roof  of  the 
house,  because  upon  this  depends  the  form  of  the  rooms,  and 
indeed  the  shape  of  the  whole  building.  The  dome,  for  in- 
stance, makes  every  room  square,  while  the  tiled  roof  brings 
all  the  parts  composing  the  structure  into  one  regular  mass, 
over  which  such  a  roof  can  be  erected.  The  Oriental  roof,  on 
the  other  hand,  being  flat,  the  form  of  the  rooms  beneath  de- 
pends upon  the  means  available  for  supporting  its  great  weight. 
The  roofs  in  some  cases  anciently  consisted  of  long  slabs  of 
hewn  stone,  such  as  may  yet  be  seen  in  the  Hauran,  the  ancient 
Bashan.*     Other  instances  on  a  larger  scale  exist  in  Upper 


♦  Porter,  "Giant  Cities,"  p.  84. 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS.  425 

Egypt,  where  the  huge  temples  and  palaces  of  the  Pharaohs 
attest  an  age  of  despotism  scarcely  palliated  by  its  original  and 
lofty  conceptions.  The  rare  occurrence  of  such  remains  is  a 
proof  that  the  ancients  almost  universally  resorted  to  the  same 
means  as  the  moderns  to  support  the  roofs  of  their  houses. 
Trees,  tall  and  straight,  are  selected,  more  especially  the  pop- 
lar, which  is  grown  particularly  for  this  purpose.  The  cypress, 
too,  and  the  tall  Italian  or  stone-pine  are  thus  employed,  just 
as  the  ancients  used  the  cedar  in  Greece,  Italy,  and  Northern 
Africa,  in  the  temples  of  Ephesus  and  of  ancient  Nineveh. 
The  size  of  the  room,  therefore,  depends  now,  as  in  ancient 
times,  upon  the  length  of  the  timber  which  supports  the  roof 
The  latter,  however,  occasionally  rests  upon  pillars.  This  ex- 
plains the  fact  that  all  the  ancient  halls  and  temples  of  Nine- 
veh are  of  an  oblong  shape,  the  widest  of  them  being  not  more 
than  thirty-five  feet,*  and  many  of  them  showing  evidence  that 
the  roof  fell  by  the  burning  of  the  timbers  with  which  it  was 
formed.  The  construction  of  a  single  room,  therefore,  may  be 
described  in  a  few  words :  four  walls  are  raised  of  mud  bricks, 
bound  more  firmly  together,  where  timber  is  not  scarce,  by  a 
frame- work  of  wood  lying  within  thera  and  out  of  sight.  The 
corners  are  also  defended  with  timber,  being  the  parts  most  ex- 
posed and  likely  to  suffer.  The  form  is  square  or  oblong,  gen- 
erally the  latter.  In  constructing  the  roof,  beams  are  laid  across 
the  width  of  the  room,  and  these  support  smaller  pieces  of 
wood  placed  at  right  angles  upon  them  as  closely  as  possible. 
In  Egypt  and  Arabia,  the  trunk  of  a  single  palm-tree,  split  in 
two,  is  laid  across  the  length  of  the  room,  and  the  rest  of  the 
roof  support,  consisting  of  shorter  sticks,  extends  from  the  cen- 
tral beam  to  the  side  walls.  Above  the  wood  are  laid  mats  or 
a  thick  layer  of  furze  or  heather,  the  object  being  to  prevent 
the  earth  and  gravel  from  sifting  through  into  the  apartment 
below.  Lastly,  clay  is  laid  upon  the  top,  to  the  depth  of  about 
a  foot,  which  is  beaten  hard,  making  a  compact  mass,  and 
needs  to  be  rolled  with  a  stone  roller  whenever  it  rains,  espe- 
cially after  a  long  season  of  drought  has  cracked  the  surface  of 
the  roof  This  surface,  however,  is  sometimes  rendered  more 
impervious  to  the  rains  by  plastering  with  a  kind  of  cement 

*  Layard,  "Nineveh,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  204. 


426  BIBLE   LANDS. 

made  of  a  composition  of  clay  and  oil,  which  hardens  rapidly 
and  thoroughly. 

All  who  have  paid  any  attention  to  the  various  forms  as- 
sumed by  architecture  must  have  noticed  that  these  do  not  de- 
pend simply  upon  the  materials  at  hand,  but  also  upon  an  idea 
which  serves  as  a  guide.  Now  it  can  not  be  denied  that  the 
ideal  of  Oriental  architecture  is  the  tent,  which  is  represented 
by  the  room  just  described  as  a  unit,  or  by  two  rooms  contigu- 
ous to  one  another,  and  separated  by  a  partition  wall,  with  their 
entrance  on  the  side,  answering  to  the  portion  of  the  tent  oc- 
cupied by  the  men,  and  that  which  is  reserved  for  the  women. 
The  great  majority  of  the  houses  of  a  town  thus  consist  of  no 
more  than  one  or  two  apartments,  and  we  may  add  that  the 
idea  of  a  tent  is  carried  even  into  details.  The  form  of  the 
room  is  oblong,  and  the  floor  is  divided  into  a  square  with  the 
addition  of  a  parallelogram  at  the  end  next  the  door  ;  the  square 
area  is  raised  a  few  inches  above  the  other,  and,  when  complete- 
ly furnished,  contains,  like  the  tent,  a  divan  on  its  three  sides. 

But  when  the  means  of  the  owner  allow  him  to  expand  the 
dimensions  of  his  dwelling,  his  ideal  takes  the  form  of  a  no- 
madic "dowar,"  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made. 
A  number  of  rooms  are  now  built  side  by  side,  so  as  to  in- 
close an  oblong  court,  the  roof  being  continuous.  These  con- 
secutive rooms,  representing  as  many  tents  pitched  around  a 
common  space,  are,  however,  occupied  by  a  single  household. 
Some  of  them  are  store-rooms,  kitchens,  and  even  stables; 
others  continue  to  retain  the  form  of  the  original,  but,  being  oc- 
cupied by  subalterns,  lose  their  peculiar  furniture.  The  apart- 
ments of  the  head  of  the  household,  that  of  the  sit  (lady),  and 
those  of  their  children,  are  built  and  furnished  essentially  ac- 
cording to  the  model  described  above.  But  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  there  is  an  essential  and  radical  difference  between 
the  Western  and  Eastern  idea  of  architecture,  as  true  now  as 
anciently.  The  chief  aim  of  the  Occidental  is  to  obtain  beauty 
on  the  outside,  and  his  success  is  to  be  judged  by  a  general 
view  from  without;  to  this  is  to  be  sacrificed  much  of  the  com- 
fort of  those  who  live  within ;  rooms  have  to  be  of  inconven- 
ient sizes  and  shapes,  passages  awry,  and  windows  in  the  wrong 
places.  The  Oriental,  on  the  other  hand,  cares  little  for  the 
outward  appearance;  his  houses  are  usually  mere  agglomera- 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS. 


427 


tions  of  rooms.  Nothing  is  to  be  seen  outside  but  a  dead  wall, 
with  at  most  a  high  latticed  window.  But  the  show  begins 
when  you  enter  the  court,  which  is  regular,  and  set  with  veran- 
das or  windows.  The  most  important  spot  is  the  room  where 
alone  male  strangers  are  admitted,  and  called,  par  excellence,  the 
liwan,  or  raised  platform.  It  is  situated  directly  opposite  the 
door  of  entrance,  with  the  court  intervening,  and  is  still  more 
suggestive  of  a  tent  than  the  other  apartments,  being  entirely 
open  in  front.  Its  furniture 
consists  of  a  divan  arranged 
upon  three  sides  of  a  raised 
platform,  while  in  front  of 
the  latter  the  eye  is  some- 
times refreshed  by  a  basin 
of  water  or  a  jetting  fount- 
ain. There  is  often  an  ad- 
ditional story,  consisting  of 
one  or  more  apartments  built 
over  the  Uioan,  and  accessi- 
ble by  a  narrow  staircase 
leading  up  from  the  court. 
Rooms  are  frequently  built 
over  the  front  entrance  or 
gate-way  of  the  house,  with 
windows  overlooking  the 
street,  which  are  places  of 
particular  resort  when  any 
sight  is  to  be  seen  below. 
These  rooms  are  often  made 
to  project  for  a  distance  of 
three  or  four  feet  beyond 
the  lower  story,  and  the  windows  admit  the  cool  breeze  as  ii 
blows  through  the  narrow  street,  thus  introducing  it  into  the 
house.  The  divans  are  usually  so  arranged  as  to  enable  per- 
sons within  to  enjoy  this  refreshing  draught  as  well  as  the  street 
sights.  In  Egypt  the  upper  rooms  are  exclusively  occupied  by 
the  female  members  of  the  household ;  this  is  sometimes  the 
case  also  elsewhere,  and  the  windows  are  then  screened  with 
lattice -work  made  of  narrow  slats  of  wood,  arranged  diago- 
nally at  right  angles  with  each  other,  and  so  close  together 
28 


Piojectui^  Fioutb  ol  H( 


428 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


that  persons  within  can  see  without  being  seen,*  This  same 
kind  of  screen  is  used  for  the  windows  of  such  apartments 
below  as  are  occupied  by  women,  as  well  as  for  the  purpose 
of  partitioning  off  a  portion  of  the  court  and  house  which  is 
appropriated  to  the  women's  use.f  Sometimes  the  women's 
apartments  are  in  a  distinct  building  upon  the  court;  or  they 
are  erected  around  a  second  court,  accessible  by  a  door,  of 
which  the  master  keeps  the  key.  In  Palestine  and  Western 
Asia  generally  the  upper  and  more  airy  part  of  the  house  is 
resorted  to  in  the  summer  season  by  the  entire  family,  who  re- 
sume their  quarters  below  when  the  cool  weather  returns  ;  hence 
the  upper  part  of  the  dwelling  is  called  the  "summer  house" 


C'ouncil-cluunbiT  ut  Toe 


and  the  lower  the  "  winter  house."  In  an  apartment  of  the 
latter,  King  Jehoiakim  was  sitting  upon  a  divan  beside  the 
lire-place,  on  whose  hearth  a  fire  of  wood  was  burning,  when 
Jeremiah's  roll  was  brought  to  him.  After  listening  to  the 
reading  of  three  or  four  leaves,  the  king  cut  it  up  with  the 
sheath-knife  which  he  carried  in  his  belt,  and  cast  it  into  the 
fire.:}:  The  accompanying  sketch  will  give  some  idea  of  the 
furniture  of  such  apartments.  It  is  the  council-chamber  of  the 
Governor  of  Tocat,  in  Asia  Minor,  where  that  dignitary  sits 
the  day  long  and  transacts  all  his  official  business,  Ilis  usual 
place  is  at  the  right-hand  corner  of  the  divan ;  a  fire  of  wood 


Judg.  v.,  28, 


t  Cant,  iif,  9. 


t  Jer,  xxxvi,,  22,  23. 


Inner  Court  of  a 


louse  ill  Diimasciii*.     o-J  Sam.  xvii.,  18.) 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS.  431 

is  lighted  on  the  hearth  whenever  the  weather  is  cold,  and  the 
walls  are  hung  with  bags  of  cotton  cloth  filled  with  documents, 
each  bearing  the  date  of  a  separate  year. 

The  court  of  an  Eastern  house  has  often  a  variegated  pave- 
ment of  stone,  marble,  or  pebbles,  tastefully  designed.  A  tank 
or  fountain  occupies  the  centre,  surrounded  by  a  little  garden 
filled  with  fragrant  flowering  shrubs,  and  shaded  by  orange, 
lemon,  or  citron  trees.  There  is  often  a  well  in  the  court,  or 
both  a  well  and  a  fountain.*  In  some  localities,  what  appears 
to  be  a  well  is  the  mouth  of  a  cistern  which  lies  beneath  the 
court. f  A  pillared  veranda  sometimes  runs  along  the  front  of 
the  rooms  on  both  sides  of  the  court,  upon  which  open  all  the 
windows  of  the  lower  apartments.  These  windows  contain  no 
glass,  and  are  closed  at  night  with  solid  single  shutters  of  wood 
held  fast  on  the  inside  with  an  iron  hook.  These  shutters  are 
mostly  made  of  the  large  walnut-tree,  which  abounds  in  the 
country.  The  doors  are  usually  of  the  same  material,  though 
oak,  pine,  or  other  wood  is  often  employed,  as  it  is  also  in 
other  parts  of  the  building.  When  a  room,  however,  is  much 
frequented  during  the  day,  as  is  the  case  with  the  business 
place  of  an  official,  or  his  principal  reception-room,  in  win- 
ter a.  perdeh,  or  curtain,  is  hung  before  the  door.  It  consists 
of  a  heavy  rug  or  carpet,  fastened  by  three  hooks  to  the  top 
of  the  door,  with  slats  of  wood  sewed  in  across  the  width  and 
at  the  bottom,  which  keep  it  stretched  and  in  its  place  before 
the  door.  This  is  also  placed  at  the  doors  of  mosks  and 
churches.  When  a  person  of  consequence  is  about  to  enter, 
the  perdeh  is  lifted  and  held  up  on  both  sides.  There  may 
be  a  reference  to  this  custom  in  Psa.  xxiv.,  7.  Such  was  the 
hanging  of  the  tabernacle  door.;}:  The  ancients  sometimes  had 
doors  and  even  shutters  of  solid  stone.  These  are  now  found, 
we  believe,  only  in  the  stone  cities  of  Bashan,  the  modern 
Hauran,  where  even  the  city  gates  are  often  of  a  single  block 
of  basalt  nine  or  ten  feet  long,§  and  in  the  inclosures  of  some 
gardens  of  Ooroomia,  in  Persia.f  These  doors  have,  instead 
of  hinges,  a  projection  above  and  below  fitting  so  nicely  into 
holes  in  the  stone,  and  so  highly  polished,  that  they  can  be 


2  Sam.  xvii.,  18.  t  Neh.  ix.,  25,  margin.  t  Exod.  xxxix., 

Burkhaidt,  "Travels  in  Syria,"  p.  00.  ||  Perkins,  p.  147 


432 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


opened  and  shut  by  a  push  with  the  finger.  Locks  are  both 
of  iron  and  of  wood ;  the  key  of  the  latter  consists  of  a  piece 
of  wood  nine  inches  or  a  foot  long,  with  pegs  at  one  end  near 
the  extremity.  It  is  not  inserted  in  a  key-hole,  but  there  is  an 
opening  at  the  side  of  the  door  large  enough  to  introduce  the 
hand.*  When  the  key  is  applied  to  the  wooden  bolt  within, 
its  pegs  fit  into  corresponding  holes,  and,  by  displacing  an- 
other set  of  pegs,  enable  one  to  draw  the 
bolt  aside,  and  thus  unfasten  the  door.f 
The  manner  of  carrying  this  key  is  to 
fasten  it  to  a  string  or  cord  worn  around 
the  neck  or  attached  to  the  girdle,  when 
it  is  thrown  over  the  shoulder,  where  it 
hangs  all  day.:}:  When  several  persons 
need  to  use  the  same  key,  they  agree  to 
hide  it  under  a  stone  or  in  some  crevice 
in  the  wall  near  by. 

The  gates  of  the  rich  and  the  doors 
of  caravanserays  and  other  large  build- 
ings have  a  knocker  made  of  a  bent  bar 
of  iron,  hung  by  a  hinge,  so  as  to  strike 
upon  a  broad -headed  nail.  Otherwise 
there  is  always  a  ring  set  in  the  door, 
by  which  it  is  pulled  to,  and  this  is  used  as  a  knocker  by  strik- 
ing it  against  the  door  with  the  open  palm.  Officers  of  justice 
rap  on  the  doors  with  the  ends  of  their  staves  of  office,  and  some 
people,  impatient  of  delay,  try  to  make  more  noise  by  striking 
the  door  with  a  stone.  The  sleep  of  Orientals  is  proverbially 
heavy,  and  loud  and  repeated  knockings  at  doors  are  sometimes 
heard  at  the  dead  of  night,  accompanied  by  the  reiterated 
shouts  of  some  belated  traveler,  re-echoed  by  the  narrow  streets, 
and  arousing  all  the  barking  curs  of  the  neighborhood;  then  a 
parley  ensues,  the  gate  opens  to  admit  the  stranger,  and  the 
street  is  again  hushed  and  silent.§  Several  Scripture  passages 
allude  to  the  ordinary  mode  of  knocking.! 

Tlje  terraced  roof  of  one  house  is  often  contiguous  to  those 
adjoining  it,  so  that  it  is  easy  to  pass  from  roof  to  roof,  a  means 


A  Man  carrying  his  Keys. 
(Isa.  xxii.,  22.) 


*  Cant,  v.,  4.  +  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  24. 

§  Cant,  v.,  2;  Luke  xii.,  .S;   Acts  xii.,  1.3-lG. 
II  Matt,  vii.,  7,  3,  Luke  xiii.,  2.5;  Rev.  iii.,  20. 


t  Isa.  xxii.,  2i 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS.  433 

of  escape  of  which  fugitives  frequently  avail  themselves.  Our 
Saviour,  speaking  to  his  disciples  of  the  calamities  which  would 
come  upon  Jerusalem,  warned  them  to  leave  the  city  on  the 
first  appearance  of  the  Romans.  "And  let  him  that  is  on  the 
house-top  not  go  down"  the  staircase  into  the  house,  "neither 
enter  therein  to  take  any  thing  out:"*  let  him  not  go  into  the 
street  already  crowded  with  the  peasantry  seeking  refuge  with- 
in the  city  walls,  but  let  him  flee  from  terrace  to  terrace,  and 
thus  escape  from  the  city  before  the  enemy  shall  compass  it 
round  about,  and  the  gates  be  shut  against  him.  Thus  at  the 
great  earthquake  of  Aleppo,  in  1822,  the  few  that  escaped  with 
their  lives  happened  to  be  upon  the  house-tops,  and,  not  going 
down  into  the  houses  or  into  the  narrow  streets,  fled  from  roof 
to  roof  till  they  reached  the  fields  outside  the  city. 

These  flat  roofs,  or  terraces,  are  sometimes  inclosed  with  a 
low  parapet  of  masonry  or  a  higher  one  of  lattice-work,  sup- 
ported by  wooden  frames,  which  screen  the  women  of  the 
household  from  the  inquisitive  gaze  of  the  neighborhood.f 
Rarely  do  any  windows  appear  on  the  outside  of  the  dwell- 
ing, except  as  already  mentioned,  in  the  rooms  over  the  gate- 
way; for  no  window  is  allowed  to  be  opened  where  it  looks 
upon  such  parts  of  a  neighbor's  premises  as  are  frequented  by 
the  women.  The  houses  of  the  rich  usually  have  a  garden  at- 
tached, which,  among  the  Muslims,  is  connected  with  the  harim, 
or  women's  apartments.  Rooms  adjoining  this  garden  have 
windows  opening  upon  it,  and  are  favorite  resorts  of  the  in- 
mates. 

There  is  little  in  the  streets  of  Eastern  cities  besides  an  oc- 
casional gate-way  or  door,  to  break  the  dull  monotony  of  the 
continuous  walls  of  stone  or  sun-dried  brick.  In  houses  of  the 
wealthy  the  apartments  are  adorned  with  tessellated  pavements 
and  wainscotings  of  variegated  marble,  with  niches,  alcoves, 
pilasters,  and  other  ornaments,  elaborately  carved  in  marble 
and  alabaster.  There  are  houses  in  Damascus  where  a  single 
apartment  thus  ornamented  has  cost  no  less  than  ten  thousand 
dollars.     In  parts  of  the  country  where  gypsum  abounds  the 

*  Mark  xiii.,  15. 

t  It  is  an  indication  of  the  merciful  character  of  the  Mosaic  laws  that  they 
specially  enjoin  the  making  of  hnttlements  for  the  roof,  "that  thou  bring  not 
blood  upon  thine  house,  if  any  man  fall  from  thence." — Deut.  xxii.,  8. 


434 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


walls  are  plastered  with  it,  and  alcoves  and  ceilings  are  orna- 
mented with  beautiful  designs,  skillfully  wrought  with  the  hand 
and  trowel,  without  either  model  or  moulding.  Even  the  floors 
are  sometimes  composed  of  the  same  material ;  but  with  the 
poorer  classes,  large  baked  bricks,  square  or  hexagonal  in 
shape,  are  used ;  and  among  the  very  poorest  and  in  all  villages 

the  floors  are  of  beaten 
clay  or  the  bare  earth. 
The  chief  ornament 
of  a  room,  on  which 
the  chief  expense  is 
laid  out,  is  the  ceiling; 
hence  in  the  Scriptures 
this  class  of  dwellings 
are  called  "ceiled 
houses."*  The  favor- 
ite ceiling  is  made  of 
wood,  carved  in  intri- 
cate and  graceful  ara- 
besque figures,  painted 
in  brilliant,  gorgeous 
colors,  and  sometimes 
extremely  beautiful. 
The  ceiling  of  a  kiosk 
in  the  old  Palace  of 
the  Sultans,  at  Adrian- 
ople,  built  about  four 
hundred  years  ago,  is 
greatly  admired,  and 
has  often  been  copied 
by  European  travelers. 
A  favorite  color  for 
ceilings  in  Asia  Minor, 
^_  is  vermilion,  also  used  by  the 
ancients  for  this  purpose.f 

The  walls  of  the  rooms  are  usually  plastered,  and  sometimes 
painted  with  representations  of  flowers  and  fruit,  or  pictures 
of  the  temple  of  Mecca,  the  Seraglio  Point,  or  some  rural  kiosk. 


Gypsum  Alcove. 

and  one  of  the  most  endurinj 


Haggai  i.,  4. 


+  Jer.  xxii.,  14. 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS. 


435 


or  with  an  inscription  in  gilt  letters,  running  around  just  below 
the  ceiling.  Sentences  from  the  Koran  are  framed  and  hung 
upon  the  walls,  instead  of  pictures. 


Ceiling  Ornament  in  Gypsum. 

Among  the  Persians,  despite  the  prohibition  of  the  Koran, 
the  finest  rooms  in  the  Shah's  palaces  are  decorated  with  highly- 
colored  frescoes  of  hunting  and  battle  scenes,  in  which  the  Per- 
sians always  come  off  victorious.  Their  religious  creed  has 
been  unable  to  prevent  their  adoption  of  this 
custom  of  Nineveh,  Babylon,  and  Persepolis. 
In  the  houses  of  the  Jews  passages  from  their 
law  are  hung  on  the  wall;*  and  they  often 
nail  to  their  door-posts  a  small  tin  case  con- 
taining a  copy  of  the  Decalogue,  which  they 
seem  to  regard  as  an  effectual  protection 
against  the  evil  eye,  and  as  a  talisman.  Tliis 
is  the  form  mostly  used  in  the  East.  In  Egypt 
most  of  the  houses  have  some  writing  over 
the  door;  but  in  Western  Asia  the  word 
Mashallah,  or  simply  Allah,  is  inscribed  upon 
several  prominent  portions  of  the  outer  wall   The  Law  on  the  Door- 

^        f  ,1  .  T   1  1  ^  .     .         post.    (Deut.  vi.,  9.) 

or  of  the  open  court,  and  has  the  effect,  it  is 

supposed,  of  warding  off  the  deleterious  influence  of  the  "evil 

eye."     The  Christians  use,  in  their  own  languages,  the  words 


Deut.  vi.,  9. 


436  BIBLE    LANDS. 

"A  Gift  to  God,"  or  others  of  a  similar  import,  with  the  same 
end  in  view. 

The  greatest  expense  is  usually  lavished  upon  the  reception- 
room,  or  liwan;  nor  is  the  gate-way  opening  upon  the  street  less 
carefully  decorated.  Christians  are  allowed  to  have  only  in- 
significant gates,  scarcely  wide  enough  to  admit  a  loaded  mule. 
But  the  ruling  race  take  great  pride  in  their  fine  and  lofty 
gates,*  whose  double  doors  stand  open  all  day  long,  revealing 
the  refreshing  shade  within  of  the  peacock-tree  and  other  va- 
rieties of  the  acacia,  the  citron,  and  the  jasmine,  together  with 
many  other  odoriferous  and  flowering  shrubs.  On  the  carved 
benches,  each  side  of  the  gate,  lounge  the  gayly-clad  retainers 
of  the  great  man.f  He  himself  often  takes  his  seat  here,  and 
receives  his  guests  or  transacts  business,:}:  where  the  atmos- 
phere is  refreshed  by  the  cooling  breeze,  and  enlivened  by  the 
cheerful  twitter  of  the  swallows  flitting  in  and  out 

Every  house  has  a  back  door,  small,  and  usually  in  the 
harim,  when  the  latter  occupies  the  lower  floor.  Under  Asi- 
atic despotism  and  misrule,  such  a  door  is  a  ready  means  of 
escape  from  a  mob,  the  police,  creditors,  robbers,  or  murderers. 
When  there  is  a  garden,  this  door  leads  into  it;  and  there  is 
another  door  in  the  garden  wall  opening  upon  a  back  lane  or 
into  the  open  fields,  or  a  part  of  the  wall  is  so  arranged  as  to 
enable  the  family  to  escape  over  it.  When  the  police  are 
dragging  a  man  by  the  hair,  or  otherwise  taking  him  through 
the  street,  he  usually  tries  to  make  a  dash  into  an  open  door, 
and  is  often  helped  to  escape  over  the  flat  roofs  and  through 
the  back  doors.  § 

Men  of  wealth,  under  the  peculiar  influence  of  Islam,  occupy 
two  houses  of  this  kind,  built  side  by  side,  one  of  which  is  ap- 
propriated to  the  use  of  the  men,  while  the  other,  which  i.s 
usually  the  finer  of  the  two,  is  occupied  by  the  women  of  the 
household.  A  door  of  communication  connects  the  two,  but 
the  street  entrance  of  the  harim,  or  "house  of  the  women, "|  is 
kept  closed,  and  the  windows  of  the  upper  chambers  opening 
upon  the  street  are  latticed.  A  lattice  placed  along  the  edge  of 
the  roof  often  screens  the  terrace  of  this  part  of  the  building. 


*  Prov.  xvii.,  19.      t  Esth.  ii.,  19,  21.       X  Prov.  xiv.,  Kt;  Ezek.  xxxiii.,  30. 
§  Jer.  xxxix.,  4.       ||  Esth.  ii.,  13. 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS.  437 

Polygamy  was  not  generally  practiced  by  the  Hebrews. 
Their  social  institutions  resembled  those  of  the  Egyptians, 
who,  according  to  Herodotus,  understood  "women's  rights" 
better  than  any  other  nation  of  antiquity,  and  his  testimony 
is  fully  confirmed  by  the  home  and  social  scenes  pictured  upon 
their  monuments.  Yet  the  Hebrew  people  fully  felt  the  in- 
fluence of  the  manners  of  the  Chaldeans,  from  whom  they  had 
sprung,  and  who  carried  polygamy  and  the  separation  of  the 
sexes  to  the  utmost  extreme.* 

They  did  not,  however,  like  the  Chaldeans,  usually  divide 
their  dwellings  into  apartments  appropriated  exclusively  to 
men  or  women,  as  is  done  by  their  Mohammedan  successors. 
There  is,  indeed,  no  doubt  that  polygamy  in  its  worst  form 
was  practiced  by  the  kings,  though  positively  forbidden, f  and 
by  the  chief  men  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  concubinage  was 
very  prevalent,  being  a  natural  consequence  of  the  system  of 
slavery.:]:  But,  with  these  exceptions,  the  people  generally 
made  an  approach  toward  the  condition  of  society  now  prev- 
alent among  Oriental  Christians. 

King  Solomon  built  a  house  for  Pharaoh's  daughter,  whom 
he  had  taken  to  wife.§  Among  the  Persians,  who  inherited 
the  vices  of  the  Babylonians,  the  palace  of  King  Ahasuerus 
comprised  two  distinct  harims,  one  of  which  probably  corre- 
sponded to  the  palace  of  the  Seraskier's  Court  at  Constanti- 
nople,  in  which,  when  a  sultan  dies,  his  wives  and  concubines 
are  supported  at  the  expense  of  his  successor.| 

We  must  now  pass  in  review  some  Scripture  passages  which 
are  explained  by  our  description  of  Oriental  houses. 

In  the  account  of  the  terrible  end  of  Jezebel,  the  infamous 
widow  of  King  Ahab,  there  are  several  particulars  which  de- 
serve attention.  Naboth,  with  his  sons,  had  been  stoned  to 
death  at  Samaria,  that  the  king  might  take  possession  of  his 
vineyard,  which  adjoined  bis  palace  in  that  city.  But  divine 
vengeance  did  not  long  delay  to  overtake  this  wicked  race. 
Ahab's  blood  was  licked  by  the  very  dogs  that  licked  the 
blood  of  Naboth  and  his  sons,  at  the  Pool  of  Samaria.^ 

The  latter  possessed  also  "a  field,"  or  "flat  of  ground,"  out- 


*  1  Sam.  i.,  1,  2.         +  Deut.  xvii.,  17.  t  2  Sam.  v.,  1,3;  1  Kings  xi.,  13. 

§  1  Kings  vii.,  8.         ||  Esth.  ii.,  14.  ^  1  Kings  xxii.,  37,  38. 


438  BIBLE   LANDS. 

side  of  Jezreel,  his  native  town,  and  here  occurred  another 
tragedy  in  the  death  of  Jehoram,  son  and  successor  of  the- 
wicked  Ahab. 

The  king's  chief  palace  was  in  Samaria,  the  capital,  but  he 
had  in  Jezreel  a  fine  residence  built  by  Ahab,  his  father,  as 
an  agreeable  retreat  from  the  cares  of  state,  which  was  highly 
esteemed  on  account  of  the  salubrity  of  the  place.  There  the 
proud  Jezebel  permanently  resided,  and  hither  had  her  son 
Jehoram  repaired  "to  be  healed  of  his  wounds,"  where  he  was 
joined  by  his  nephew,  Ahaziah,  the  companion  of  his  defeat 
at  Ramoth-gilead.*  Jezreel  and  its  "tower"  were,  moreover, 
an  advanced  post  of  observation,  whence  the  allied  kings 
could  best  watch  any  further  movements  of  the  victorious 
Syrians;  and  their  anxiety  upon  this  subject  is  fully  illus- 
trated by  the  effect  produced  upon  their  minds  when  the  rapid 
approach  of  Jehu  was  announced  by  the  sentinel.f  The  king's 
palace  at  Jezreel,  now  wholly  occupied  by  the  queen -mother, 
appears  to  have  been  erected,  not  against  the  city  wall,  as  some 
have  supposed — a  position  of  which  we  have  no  example  ei- 
ther in  ancient  or  modern  times,  and  which  does  not  fulfill  the 
conditions  of  this  tragical  narrative — but  just  within  the  city 
gate,  upon  an  open  square,  or  "void  place,"  similar  to  that 
which  existed  at  Samaria.:}:  The  windows  of  the  upper  story 
were  probably  a  habitual  resort  of  the  queen,  who,  as  is  cus- 
tomary with  Oriental  rulers  of  the  present  day,  sat  here  upon 
the  divan  to  divert  herself  with  the  sights  of  this  public  thor- 
oughfare. Women  of  her  age  and  station  are  not  very  scru- 
pulous in  the  use  of  the  veil,  and  dispense  with  the  lattice.  She 
was,  however,  attended  still  by  her  eunuchs,  those  pliant  tools 
of  Oriental  despotism.  § 

The  progress  of  Jehu  toward  Jezreel  had  been  w^itched  from 
the  tower,  which  commanded  a  view  of  the  valley  road  leading 
eastward  for  a  distance  of  six  miles,||  and,  bis  approach  excit- 
ing anxiety,  the  two  kings  went  forth  to  meet  him.  Provi- 
dence brought  it  about  that  Jehoram  should  be  slain  upon  the 


*  2  Kings  viii.,  28,  29. 

t  We  adopt  in  this  narrative  the  version  of  the  Scptuagint. 

J  1  Kings  xxii.,  10;  Stanley,  "Jewish  Chinch,"  vol.  ii.,  lect.  xxx.,  p.  349. 

§  2  Kings  ix.,  30,  31. 

II  "  The  Land  and  the  Book,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  183. 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS.  439 

highway  which  passed  by  Naboth's  field,  and  that  his  dead 
body  should  be  cast  upon  that  soil,  where  it  was  devoured  by 
the  fowls  of  the  air.*  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  nephew  of  Je- 
horani,  and  grandson  of  the  wicked  Jezebel,  had  been  visit- 
ing his  uncle,  and  had  accompanied  him  to  meet  Jehu,  He 
now  fled  in  his  chariot,  not  back  to  Jezreel,  but  southward  to 
his  own  country.  He  went  by  the  road  which  led  through 
(among)  the  vineyards,  past  the  garden-house,  built  perhaps 
by  Ahab  upon  a  portion  of  the  field  of  Naboth  the  Jezreelite. 
But  he  was  overtaken  and  slain.f 

These  events  had  somewhat  detained  Jehu,  and  meantime 
the  attendants  of  the  discomfited  king  had  fled  to  the  city,  and 
spread  terror  among  the  adherents  of  royalty.  The  high-spir- 
ited Jezebel  seems  to  have  entertained  no  doubt  that  she  could 
frown  the  rebel  into  a  return  to  his  allegiance.  She  arrayed 
herself  scrupulously  in  all  the  insignia  of  royalty,  painted  her 
eyebrows,  and,  accompanied  by  her  chief  eunuchs,  hastened  to 
take  her  place  in  the  projecting  upper  window  where  she  and 
her  son  had  been  accustomed  to  lounge  upon  the  divan,  and 
divert  themselves  with  the  ever -shifting  scenes  of  the  open 
square  which  lay  between  the  palace  and  the  city  gate.  There 
she  stood,  unscreened  by  any  lattice,  as  Jehu  passed  under  the 
arch  of  the  gate  and  drove  toward  the  palace.  The  threaten- 
ing words  uttered  by  the  haughty  queen  did  not  frighten  the 
bold  captain.  He  ordered  her  eunuchs  to  throw  her  out  of  the 
projecting  window,  trod  her  under  his  horses'  feet  and  chariot- 
wheels,  drove  on  into  the  palace,  and  there  feasted  upon  her 
dainties. 

In  the  general  consternation  the  dead  queen  was  forgotten, 
and  the  street  dogs  devoured  her  body  by  the  wall  of  Jezreel, 
or,  as  Jehu  renders  the  prophecy,  "in  the  portion  of  Jezreel " 
— an  expression  which  here  has  the  force  of  "  within  the  limits 
of  Jezreel." 

We  have  explained  that  the  sun-dried  brick  is  the  material 
of  which  the  moderns,  like  the  ancients  before  them,  erect  their 
dwellings.  When  thieves  desire  to  introduce  themselves  into 
a  house,  they  find  the  doors  and  windows  barred  within,  and 
the  material  of  which  they  are  made  too  hard  to  be  cut  through 


1  Kings  xxi.,  24.  t  2  Kings  ix.,  27. 


440  BIBLE    LANDS. 

with  their  simple  tools.  But  a  sword,  a  knife,  or  even  a  stick 
can  be  worked  into  the  wall  so  as  to  make  a  hole,  which  is 
speedily  enlarged  with  the  hands,  and  enables  the  thief  or  rob- 
ber to  introduce  himself  into  the  house  with  little  noise.  This 
mode  of  gaining  access  to  a  dwelling  is  practiced  by  thieves  all 
over  Western  Asia  wherever  the  walls  are  not  built  of  stone, 
and  our  Saviour's  reference  to  it*  could  not  fail  to  be  readily 
understood. 

We  have  referred  to  the  plastering  of  the  house  with  lime 
mortar  both  within  and  without,  as  was  done  by  the  ancients.f 
When  the  mortar  is  not  well  tempered,  its  adhesive  power  is 
soon  impaired,  and  the  rain  causes  it  to  swell  out,  when  the  de- 
tached mortar  cleaves  off  and  falls  to  the  ground,  thus  expos- 
ing the  wall  to  destruction  by  the  action  of  the  elements.:}: 

Our  description  of  the  flat  roofs  of  the  houses  will  also  serve 
to  explain  several  passages  of  Scripture.  During  the  summer 
the  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  Lower  Mesopotamia 
habitually  sleep  upon  the  house-tops.  These  are  chiefly  occu- 
pied in  the  cities  by  the  families,  while  the  servants  mostly  lay 
down  their  bedding  in  the  court  below.  The  poor  sleep  in  the 
streets,  the  open  squares,  and  the  courts  of  the  mosks,  rolling 
themselves  in  a  coverlet,  and  careful  to  screen  their  faces  from 
the  baneful  influence  of  the  moon's  rays.  In  Persia  the  pun- 
ishment of  death  is  visited  upon  the  man  who  ventures  to  gaze 
from  his  terrace  upon  any  part  of  his  neighbor's  premises  where 
the  women  are  exposed  to  view.§  It  was  thus  that  King  David 
was  led  into  sin  ;||  nor  is  there  such  an  apolog}-  for  him  as  might 
be  claimed  for  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  who  has  the  right  to  require 
every  woman  to  unveil  herself  in  his  presence. 

The  flat  roof  is  very  convenient  for  such  operations  as  re- 
quire the  heat  of  the  sun.  Here  the  washed  wheat  is  spread 
to  dry,  as  well  as  flax  and  various  vegetables  and  fruits,  to  be 
stored  as  winter  provisions.  Wool  and  cotton,  when  washed, 
are  spread  out  upon  the  roof,  and  here  the  clothes  are  hung, 
llahab  hid  the  spies  sent  by  Joshua  with  the  stalks  of  flax 
which  she  had  "laid  in  order  upon  the  roof  to  dry."^ 


*  Ezek.  viii.,  7,  8  ;  Matt,  vi.,  19,  20.     Where  thieves  "  break  through  "  is,  liter- 
ally, dig  through  in  the  Greek. 

"t  Lev.  xiv.,  42.  |  Ezek.  xiii.,  10-15.  §  Perkins,  p.  !.').■.. 

II  2  Sam.  xi.,  2.  f  Josh,  ii.,  G. 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS.  441 

When  any  thing  of  public  interest  is  occurring  in  the  streets, 
the  poorer  houses  having  no  upper  story  with  windows,  the 
men  and  boys  rush  out  and  line  the  thoroughfares,  while  the 
veiled  women  and  girls  are  seen  ranged  along  the  edges  of  the 
terraced  roofs,  or  leaning  over  parapets.  When  successive  shots 
are  heard  in  the  town,  announcing  an  accidental  conflagration, 
or  the  breaking  in  of  a  cruel  foe  whose  progress  is  marked  by 
fire  and  sword,  men,  women,  and  children  hasten  to  the  house- 
tops, and  gaze  in  anxious  groups  as  long  as  the  danger  lasts.* 
So,  also,  the  house-top  is  resorted  to  as  a  place  of  prayer,  for  it 
is  usually  the  most  isolated  and  quiet  spot  in  the  house.f  There 
the  rug  is  spread  by  the  devout  of  every  sect  who  seek  com- 
fort and  consolation,  rather  than  a  display  of  their  own  piety.:}: 
On  the  occurrence  of  a  death  in  the  dwelling,  mourners,  espe- 
cially priests,  are  stationed  upon  the  house-tops,  and  attract 
public  attention  by  their  lamentations.§  And  a  proclama- 
tion is  often  made,  as  well  as  an  address  to  the  people,  from 
the  flat  roof  of  a  government- house  which  looks  down  upon 
the  meidan,  or  public  square,||  Even  the  call  to  prayer  is 
proclaimed  from  the  house-top,  where  there  is  no  minaret  or 
church-bell. 

It  is  erroneously  supposed  by  many  that  when  the  bearers  of 
the  "  sick  of  the  palsy  "  sought  to  lay  him  at  Jesus's  feet,  they 
bored  a  hole  through  the  flat  roof  of  the  house.  Such  a  work 
would  have  been  no  easy  task,  and  all  within  would  have  run 
away  to  escape  injury.  There  is  a  simpler  and  more  probable 
explanation:  Luke  distinctly  says  that  "they  let  him  down 
through  the  tiling,"  Sia  rwy  Kifyafxiov,  literally,  through  the 
tiles.^  The  roofs  are  not  covered  with  tiles;  but  there  is  oft- 
en a  veranda  running  round  the  court,  and  this  is  shaded  by 
boards,  which  would,  according  to  the  Greek  and  the  Eoman 
fashion  then  prevailing,  be  covered  with  tiles.  The  court  was 
evidently  full  of  people,  and  Jesus  spoke  seated  on  the  veranda, 
which  was  higher.  The  men  quietly  took  off  the  tiles  over- 
head, as  is  frequently  done  in  order  to  re-arrange  them,  and  let 
down  the  man  along  the  edge  of  the  veranda  without  even  re- 
moving a  board. 


*  Isa.  xxii.,  1.  t  Prov.  xxi.,  !).  J  Acts  x.,  0. 

§  Isa.  XV.,  3;  Jer.  xlviii.,  ;38.      ||  Matt,  x.,  27;  Luke  xii.,  3.     J  Luke  v.,  11). 


442  BIBLE    LANDS. 

The  staircase  of  stone  or  wood,  which  leads  to  the  flat  roof, 
is  usually  upon  the  outside  of  the  house,  and  starts  from  the 
central  court.  Tame  pigeons  or  doves  are  fond  of  building 
their  nests  in  the  "secret  places"  underneath  these  stairs.* 
The  room  which  the  Shunamite  woman  induced  her  husband 
to  build  on  the  wall  for  the  "holy  man  of  God,"  Elisha,j-  was 
doubtless  erected  over  the  liwan  of  the  house,  as  is  done  at  the 
present  day,  and  was  accessible  by  an  outer  staircase  leading 
up  from  the  central  court.  Similar  was  the  "  loft  where  abode  " 
the  prophet  Elijah  with  the  widow  of  Zarephath ;  and  we  can 
see  the  correctness  of  the  expression,  "Elijah  took  the  child 
and  brought  him  down  out  of  the  chamber  into  the  house.":}: 
Such,  likewise,  was  the  "  upper  chamber  "  in  Joppa,  in  which 
they  laid  the  body  of  Dorcas.§  Sometimes  these  upper  cham- 
bers are  large  and  well  furnished,  and,  on  account  of  their  air- 
iness, are  reserved  for  festive  occasions.  This  is  particularly 
common  in  Egypt,  at  Cairo,  where  it  is  called  "  kaah,"  and  is 
the  largest  and  finest  room  in  the  house,  often  containing  two 
divans,  and  being  provided  with  a  latticed  recess,  which  is  oc- 
cupied by  a  female  singer  on  occasion  of  an  entertainment.!! 
Such  was  the  "upper  room"  in  which  our  Lord  partook  of 
the  Last  Supper  with  his  disciples.^  In  a  similar  apartment 
were  assembled  about  a  hundred  and  twenty  disciples**  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  when  the  new-born  Church  of  Christ  was 
baptized  with  the  Holy  Ghost.ff  We  can  easily  picture  to 
ourselves  the  scene  presented  on  that  day  when,  the  news  of 
the  miracle  of  tongues  having  spread  through  Jerusalem,  de- 
vout men  from  all  the  nations  among  which  the  Jews  were 
scattered  were  gathered  in  the  central  court  of  the  house.  As 
there  were  three  thousand  converts,  at  least  twice  that  num- 
ber must  have  heard  the  Word  preached  that  day;  and  they 
doubtless  not  only  filled  the  court,  but  also  covered  all  the 
surrounding  adjacent  terraces,  and  stood  in  all  the  windows 
and  doors,  while  Peter  and  the  disciples,  occupying  a  promi- 
nent position  upon  the  terrace,  or  in  an  upper  window,  preach- 
ed Christ's  resurrection. 

The  picture  we  have  drawn  of  an  Oriental  house  will  also 


*  Cant,  ii.,  14.  t  2  Kings  iv.,  9, 10.  %  1  Kings  xvii.,  19- 

§  Acts  ix.,  .37-39.  ||  Lane,  "  Modern  EgAptians,"  vol.  i.,  p.  20. 

1  Mark  xiv.,  14,  15.  *♦  Acts  i.,  Vi,  IT..  tt  Acts  ii.,  1-4. 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS.  443 

enable  us  to  form  a  more  definite  idea  of  the  scene  of  Peter's 
denial  of  his  Master,  portrayed  by  the  pen  of  an  eye-witness.* 
The  place  was  the  palace  of  the  high -priest,  not  his  ofiicial 
residence  or  place  of  business,  but  his  private  dwelling,  as  is 
proved  by  the  presence  of  maid-servants  ;f  the  gate  was  not  left 
wide  open  as  in  the  day-time,  but  was  ajar,  and  under  the  watch- 
ful care  of  the  servants,  both  men  and  women.  Peter,  after 
lingering  outside  the  door  a  while,  slipped  in,  being  introduced 
by  his  fellow-disciple.  The  crowd  had  advanced  toward  the 
liwan^  where  the  high-priest  occupied  the  seat  of  honor  in  the 
corner  of  the  divan,  while  the  members  of  the  council  sat 
around.  Jesus  stood  upon  a  lower  platform,  in  the  place  of 
the  accused,  in  full  sight  both  of  the  council  and  of  all  the 
outer  court,  to  whom  his  back  was  turned.  Peter,  impelled 
by  his  anxious  curiosity,  and  yet  restrained  by  fear,  joined  a 
group  of  servants  who  stood  or  sat  upon  little  stools  around  a 
brazier  filled  with  burning  charcoal.  Here  he  could  catch,  by 
snatches,  the  questions  of  the  high -priest  and  the  replies  of 
Jesus;  here  he  repeatedly  denied  his  Master,  moved  each  time 
by  his  fright  at  the  questions  put  to  him  to  change  his  position 
between  the  group  of  servants  and  the  gate ;  and  here  he  was 
when  the  cock  crew,  and  his  Master,  unmindful  of  his  own 
peril,  turned  completely  round  and  cast  a  glance  of  pity  and 
rebuke  upon  his  erring  disciple.  Peter  then  withdrew,  slip- 
ping out  at  the  gate,  and  wept  bitterly  in  the  dark  and  solitary 
street.:}; 

The  "summer  parlor"  which  Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  had  "for 
himself  alone,"§  corresponds  in  every  respect  to  what  the 
Turks  call  a  keushk  (kiosk).  It  consists  of  a  small  room  built 
by  itself  on  the  roof  of  the  house,  having  many  windows  to 
catch  the  breeze.  Kiosks  are  now  rarely  seen  in  Palestine 
or  Sj-ria,  but  are  common  farther  north  and  in  the  islands.|| 
Where  there  is  a  large  garden,  such  a  room  is  sometimes  built 
apart  from  the  house,  perhaps  by  a  stream  or  basin  of  water, 
and  shaded  by  trees.  These  are  both  favorite  resorts  on  a  hot 
summer's  day;^  but  it  is  the  rich  alone  who  can  afford  to 

*  John  xviii.,  18,  25-27.  t  John  xviii.,  16, 17.  J  Luke  xxii.,  56-62. 

§  Judg.  iii.,  20.  II  Stanley,  "Jewish  Church," vol.  i.,  p.  349. 

1  The  expression  "to  cover  the  feet"  derives  its  aptness  from  the  form  of 
Oriental  garments  and  the  position  they  take.     See  Judg.  iii.,  24 ;  Sam.  xxiv.,  3. 

29 


444  BIBLE    LANDS. 

have  such  retreats,  and  not  many  even  of  these  are  willing  to 
run  the  risk  of  being  thought  so  wealthy  as  to  possess  such 
a  luxury.  Many  elegant  and  costly  buildings  in  the  suburbs 
of  Constantinople  are  called  the  sultan's  kiosks,  because  he 
uses  them  in  no  other  way.  The  finest  of  these  are  located  at 
the  "sweet  waters"  of  Europe,  and  those  of  Asia.  There  is  a 
kiosk  similar  to  that  of  King  Eglon  standing  a  few  rods  from 
the  palace  of  Cheragan,  on  the  edge  of  the  Bosphorus,  which 
was  a  favorite  resort  of  the  late  sultan.  Near  this  spot  stood, 
a  few  years  ago,  another  kiosk,  built  on  the  precise  model  of 
one  belonging  to  the  Shah  of  Persia,  in  Teheran,  being  or- 
namented within  and  without  with  enameled  tiles,  similar  to 
those  still  found  among  the  ruins  of  Babylon,  and  described 
by  Herodotus  as  adorning  the  interior  and  exterior  of  the 
buildings  of  that  city. 

It  has  already  been  remarked  that  farms  are  not  scattered 
about  the  country  as  in  lands  blessed  with  a  firm  and  stable 
government.  The  inhabitants  everywhere  cluster  together  for 
their  mutual  protection,  and  their  houses  form  groups  called 
towns,  villages,  or  cities,  according  to  their  size.  As  cities, 
however,  are  usually  built  upon  sites  favorable  to  agriculture, 
they  are  generally  surrounded  with  well -hedged  or  walled 
gardens,  vineyards,  and  orchards,  whose  owners  occupy  slight- 
ly built  "cottages,"  or  "summer-houses,"  within  their  pre- 
cincts during  the  hot  season.  Where  timber  is  dear,  they 
are  built  of  mud  or  stone,  like  the  city  houses;  but  there 
are  districts  where  the  rich  have  summer  residences  built 
mostly  of  wood,  usually  the  pitch-pine  of  the  country,  as  the 
cedar  was  used  in  Solomon's  day.*  As  a  specimen  of  this 
kind  of  structure,  we  offer  the  reader  the  sketch  of  the  coun- 
try house  of  the  mufti  of  Tocat.  In  front  is  a  platform 
commanding  a  splendid  view,  and  having  a  tank  of  running 
water. 

There  is  generally  a  great  difference  in  the  appearance  of 
the  city  and  village  houses,  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  latter 
are  constantly  liable  to  be  plundered,  both  by  the  government 
officials  and  by  marauders  and  lawless  characters.f  Their 
dwellings  are  rude  by  reason  of  real  or  feigned  poverty,  being 

*  2  Sam.  vii.,  2,  7.  t  Esth.  ix.,  15). 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS. 


445 


A  Summei -house  ot  Wood  al  locat.     ^Amos  in.,  Vo.) 

built  of  rough  stones  cemented  with  mud,  or  of  sun-dried 
bricks.  The  site  preferred  is  the  sloping  side  of  a  hill,  into 
which  are  dug  the  foundations  of  the  dwelling,  so  that  one 
end  of  its  flat  roof  is  on  a  level  with  the  ground.  As  the 
houses  are  often  built  one  above  another,  it  frequently  hap- 
pens that  the  flat  roof  of  one  constitutes  a  platform  in  front  of 
the  next  above.  These  simple  dwellings  consist  of  a  single 
apartment,  separated  by  a  railing  from  an  inner  stable  occu- 
pied by  cattle.  Light  is  admitted  through  an  opening  in  the 
roof,  which  lies  directly  over  the  fire-place;  the  latter  consists 
of  a  slight  depression  in  the  ground  in  the  middle  of  the 
apartment,  filled  with  ashes,  where  wood  or  charcoal  is  burn- 
ed in  the  mountainous  districts,  replaced  by  the  dried  manure 
of  cattle  or  camels  in  the  lower  countries.  Many  of  these 
dwellings,  however,  have  no  opening  in  the  roof,  and  the  smoke 
has  to  find  its  way  out  as  it  can.  In  some  portions  of  West- 
ern Asia  each  village  house  has  its  chimney  wide  enough  to 
give  light  to  the  apartment;  here  wood  is  burned,  the  sticks 
not  being  laid  horizontally,  but  set  upright  against  the  back 
of  the  fire-place.  There  is  no  window,  but  sometimes  a  nar- 
row opening  is  made  in  the  wall,  which  is  blocked  up  in  cold 
weather,  and  the  very  chimney  is  covered  at  night  with  a 
stone  slab,  in  defiance  of  the  principles  of  ventilation.  The 
stable  is  the  most  extensive  part  of  the  establishment,  and  the 
roof  of  a  village  house  covers  a  considerable  area.     It  is  verv 


446  BIBLE   LANDS. 

leaky  in  winter,  and  the  cylindrical  stone  on  the  roof  has  to 
be  rolled  from  time  to  time,  and  fresh  earth  laid  on.  Grass, 
and  even  wild  flowers,  are  also  apt  to  grow  upon  it,  especially 
around  the  edges,  at  this  season,  and,  as  their  roots  can  not 
sink  deep  into  the  hard  soil,  a  few  days'  warm  sunshine  suf- 
fices to  dry  them  up.  There  is  nothing  that  the  village  house- 
wife prefers  for  starting  the  fire  in  her  oven  to  this  dry  grass, 
so  easily  accessible  and  so  slightly  rooted.*  These  roots  are 
apt  to  decay,  and  the  unwary  stranger  is  in  danger  of  breaking 
through  and  of  landing  upon  the  horns  of  the  cattle  beneath. 
The  flat  roofs  of  the  village  houses  are  almost  as  much  fre- 
quented by  the  inhabitants  as  the  apartments  below.  There 
the  industrious  housewife  spreads,  for  drying,  the  various  vege- 
tables and  fruits  which  constitute  her  winter  stores.  The  roof 
is  sometimes  entirely  covered  with  the  cakes  of  manure  drying 
in  the  sun  for  fuel,  as  it  is  often  their  only  resource.  Villages 
that  are  situated,  as  is  common,  upon  the  top  or  the  slope  of 
a  hill  catch  the  summer  breezes,  and  escape  the  malaria  which 
infects  the  plains  and  lowlands.  They  command  an  extensive 
view,  and  some  people  are  always  upon  the  roofs,  apparently 
enjoying  in  quiet  the  prospect  or  the  breeze,  but  in  reality 
casting  their  eyes  over  the  valley  and  the  hills,  watching  the 
flocks  and  the  herds  feeding  in  the  plain,  and  ready  to  catch 
the  distant  sight  of  a  marauding  Arab  or  of  the  still  more 
dreaded  tax-gatherer  and  government  official.  The  frail  ma- 
terials of  which  the  houses  are  built  would  lead  one  to  sup- 
pose that,  when  abandoned,  the  storms  of  a  winter  or  two 
would  obliterate  them.  When,  however,  a  house  is  built  of 
stone,  especially  of  hewn  stone,  these  materials  are  usually  car- 
ried off",  and  thus  have  the  traces  of  many  ancient  cities  disap- 
[jeared ;  but  no  one  is  tempted  to  steal  the  mud-bricks  of  a  vil- 
lage dwelling.  The  roof  decays  and  disappears,  the  long  rank 
grass  grows  on  the  floor  of  the  stable,  which  becomes  a  hiding- 
place  for  wild  animals  or  serpents ;  but  the  four  walls,  though 
washed  by  many  a  winter's  storm,  long  stand,  in  gradually  di- 
minished height,  to  tell  of  by-gone  rural  life. 

Fortifications  seem  to  have  been  erected  in  ancient  times 
around  every  town  of  considerable  size;  indeed,  walls  consti- 

*  Psa.  cxxix.,  G  ;  Isa.  xxxvii.,  27. 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS.  447 

tilted  the  distinction  between  city  and  country.^  The  great 
empires  of  Assyria  and  Egypt  possessed  many  a  fortified  town, 
which  served  to  defend  them  against  an  invader,  and  to  fasten 
the  yoke  upon  the  people.  But  in  mountainous  countries  his- 
tory, both  sacred  and  profane,  informs  us  that  most  cities  of  any 
size  and  strength  possessed  an  independent  king  or  ruler  of 
their  own. 

These  petty  independent  sovereignties  have  also  had  their 
representatives  in  Western  Asia  during  the  Middle  Ages,  when 
they  bore  the  name  of  khans,  and  until  quite  lately  the  sys- 
tem was  exemplified  in  the  persons  of  the  "dereh  beys."  The 
Ottoman  empire  has,  however,  succeeded  in  rooting  out  every 
authority  except  its  own — a  result  obtained  chiefly  by  the  gen- 
eral ruin  of  the  country  ;  and  one  of  the  signs  of  this  universal 
decay  may  be  seen  in  the  now  crumbling  walls  of  what  were 
but  lately  deemed  impregnable  fortresses.  St.  Jean  d'Acre, 
which  had  effectually  resisted  the  genius  and  power  of  Napo- 
leon at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  fell,  thirty  years  ago,  aftei- 
a  few  hours'  bombardment  by  an  English  fleet,  and  its  fortifi- 
cations have  not  since  been  repaired.  Even  the  famous  walls 
of  Constantinople  are  mostly  fallen,  and  some  of  them  purposely 
removed  to  make  way  for  city  improvements.  In  many  parts 
of  the  country,  indeed,  it  would  be  a  useless  expenditure  of  the 
public  money  to  repair  fortifications  which  were  only  intend- 
ed to  protect  a  garrison  against  bows  and  arrows,  or,  at  most, 
against  the  common  musket  and  pistol  of  a  later  age.  Still  these 
plain  walls  are  fully  able  to  defend  the  inhabitants  against  the 
incursions  of  the  Bedawy  Arabs,  and  a  town  not  thus  defend- 
ed lies  completely  at  their  mercy.  Fortifications  built  of  sun- 
dried  bricks  may  be  seen  in  various  parts  of  Mesopotamia,  and 
even  in  Asia  Minor  ;f  but  the  walls  of  cities  are  usually  of 
stone,  the  hewn  blocks  of  which  may  safely  be  put  down  as 
wrought  many  centuries  ago.  Many  walls  have  quite  a  his- 
tory transcribed  upon  their  surface.  Those  of  Smyrna,  for  in- 
stance, tell  a  tale  which  has  long  passed  away  from  the  page  of 
history.  Several  towers,  shaped  somewhat  like  the  prows  of 
ships,  with  intervening  walls  and  battlements,  are  built  of  large 
blocks  of  porphyry,  and  date  back  to  Lysimachus,  one  of  Alex- 


Lev.  XXV.,  29-31 ;  1  Sam.  vi.,  18.  t  Ussher,  p.  197. 


448 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


ander's  generals,  the  original  foundations  of  which  may  be 
traced  around  the  entire  fortifications.  Other  portions  of  the 
wall  indicate  a  later  Greek  origin,  while  several  towers  are 
attributable  to  the  Roman  period.  We  can  also  trace  the 
work  of  Byzantines,  point  out  the  Gothic  arch  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  clearly  identify  the  workmanship  of  the  Saracen 
and  the  Turk.  Many  of  these  ruins  have  been  leveled  by  the 
hand  of  time,  but  the  marks  of  hard-fought  struggles  are  also 
plainly  visible.     Near  one  tower  the  progress  of  the  battering- 


W  \11  of  Jirmnlem      (Nth   iv  ,  b  ) 

ram  was  evidently  arrested  by  the  erection  of  an  inner  wall, 
and  yonder  a  solid  tower  of  stone  presented  an  insurmountable 
obstacle  after  the  besiegers  had  pierced  almost  through  the 
entire  wall.  You  can  see  how  several  towers  and  the  curtain 
of  the  out-works  were  leveled  with  the  ground,  and  there  is  the 
wide  and  gaping  breach  through  which  the  enemy  finally  en- 
tered the  citadel. 

The  walls  of  Jerusalem  are  about  forty  feet  high,  and  stone 
steps  lead  to  the  top.  where  there  is  room  for  the  soldiers  to 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS. 


449 


Stand  behind  the  turreted  parapet  and  fire  upon  the  enemy; 
the  towers  are  a  little  higher.  There  is  usually  one  tower 
more  lofty  than  the  rest,  and  occupying  a  more  commanding 
position,  which  serves,  as  anciently,  for  a  sentinel's  post,  espe- 
cially in  time  of  war.  Some  of  these  towers  were  celebrated  for 
their  height,  solidity,  and  beauty.  The  tower  of  Jezreel  com- 
manded an  extensive  view  over  the  plain,  stretching  eastward 
to  the  Jordan.  Josephus  minutely  describes  the  tower  of  Pse- 
phinus,  occupying  the  north-west  corner  of  the  fortifications 


iu,.Cl     „.     l.aul,^...        V-    i^i'I.US   iX.,  17.) 

of  Jerusalem.  It  was  one  hundred  and  five  feet  in  height,  and 
afforded  from  its  summit  a  prospect  of  Arabia  at  sunrising,  as 
well  as  of  the  utmost  limits  of  the  Hebrew  possessions  to  the 
sea  westward.*  Thevenot  (page  123)  describes  the  ancient 
towers  of  Alexandria,  as  he  saw  them,  in  1652,  before  their 
demolition ;  they  were  built  by  the  Ptolemies,  and  contained 
large  marble  halls,  supported  by  pillars  of  red  granite;  each 
tower  was  provided  with  cisterns,  and  was  large  enough  to  con- 


*  "Jewish  "War,"  bk.  v.,  ch.  iii. 


450  BIBLE    LANDS. 

taia  a  garrison  of  two  hundred  men.  Every  traveler  notices 
the  high  tower  of  Beirut,  as  well  as  the  lofty  square  minarets 
of  Damascus,  from  whose  summit  is  sung  in  chorus  the  Muslim 
call  to  prayer.  Similar  to  these,  but  loftier  still,  are  the  Teras- 
kier's  and  Galata  towers  of  Constantinople.  There  is  another 
tower  standing  within  the  inclosure  of  the  old  seraglio,  or  Palace 
of  the  Sultans,  which  contains  beautiful  chambers,  and  a  large 
apartment  at  the  summit  surrounded  with  windows,  and  cov- 
ered with  a  pointed  roof.  It  is  an  excellent  point  of  observa- 
tion, commanding  as  it  does  not  only  a  great  part  of  the  city, 
but  all  the  approaches  by  sea,  and  the  entire  region  from  the 
mountains  of  Bithynia  to  the  entrance  of  the  Black  Sea.  The 
town  of  Eamleh,  the  ancient  Arimathea,*  in  Palestine,  still 
contains  a  fine  specimen  of  these  towers,  of  purely  Oriental  ar- 
chitecture, which  may,  to  the  Bible  student,  stand  as  an  illus- 
tration of  the  tower  of  Jezreel.f  Similar  towers  are  found  in 
many  fortified  towns  of  Western  Asia;  they  are  now  used 
mostly  as  signal  towers,  an  old  cannon  being  kept  there,  and 
fired  during  the  festival  of  Eamadau  for  the  purpose  of  an- 
nouncing the  moment  of  sunset,  when  the  faithful  may  break 
their  fast,  or  intimating  the  occasional  arrival  or  departure  of 
some  pasha. 

The  gate- ways  of  cities  are  usually  arched  overhead,  and  the 
gates  are  guarded  and  closed  at  night.  They  are  large,  mass- 
ive, and  two-leaved,:}:  built  of  heavy  timber  plated  with  iron.§ 
A  strong  iron  bar,  hooked  at  one  end,  hangs  from  a  heavy 
ring  of  the  same  metal,  made  fast  in  a  strong  post  built  into 
the  wall  behind  each  fold  of  the  gate.  When  the  gate  is  closed, 
the  hooks  are  set  into  other  iron  rings  on  the  back  of  its  folds, 
enabling  the  gate  to  resist  a  very  heavy  pressure  from  without. 
The  lock  is  massive,  and  of  wrought  iron,  and  the  long- han- 
dled, ponderous  key  is  carried  by  the  keeper  of  the  gate  in  his 
belt,  or  hung  from  a  nail  in  his  little  room  close  by.  It  re- 
quired the  strength  of  a  Samson  to  tear  off  the  gates  of  Gaza 
from  their  hinges  with  the  two  posts,  "bar  and  all,"  and  carry 
them  up  to  "the  top  of  a  hill  that  is  before  Hebron. "1|  There 
is  always  a  tower,  sometimes  two,  flanking  the  gate,  and  bench- 


*  Matt,  xxvii.,  57.  t  2  Kings  ix.,  17.  J  Isa.  xlv.,  1. 

§  Acts  xii.,  10.  II  Judg.  xvi.,  3. 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS. 


451 


es  are  fixed  on  each  side  of  the  entrance,  often  occupied  by 
guards,  who  live  in  rooms  opening  upon  the  porch.  This 
porch  is  the  favorite  resort  of  the  citizens,  especially  of  the 
wealthier  class,  who  are  attracted  thither  by  the  cool  breeze 
blowing  through  the  shaded  gate- way,  and  diverted  by  the 
constant  passing  to  and  fro  of  man  and  beast.  There  is  always 
a  cafe  near  by.  Here  they  sip  their  coffee,  smoke  their  nargi- 
lehs,  and  discuss  the  events  of  the  day.     Here  the  officer  of 


j^jjlllm,. 


'"I,  'Sff'' 

'I 


I     ,- .  J I   V.       -'-i  y 
I'    '.  Ji     I  1  '    .      ' 


The  Jaffa  Gate  (anciently  the  Fish  Gate)  at  Jerusalem.    (2  Chron.  xxxlii.,  14.) 

customs  also  takes  his  stand,  and  thrusts  his  sharp  iron  spike 
into  sacks  of  grain,  or  other  merchandise  with  which  the  camels 
are  laden,  in  search  of  contraband  goods.  The  judges  and  even 
the  governor  often  transfer  to  this  spot  their  most  important 
business,  and  civil  and  criminal  cases  are  often  tried  here,  and 
decided.  In  patriarchal  times,  when  the  art  of  writing  was  little 
known,  and  no  title-deeds  secured  to  a  man  the  possession  of  his 
real  estate,  important  transactions,  such  as  purchases  of  land  or 
the  decision  of  claims,  took  place  at  the  city  gate,  at  an  hour  of 


452  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  day  when  many  influential  citizens  were  there  assembled, 
and  thus  became  witnesses  of  the  transaction  *  City  gates  are 
closed  at  sunset,  or  soon  after.  Some  of  them  contain,  in  one 
of  their  folds,  a  small  door,  which  is  left  open  for  an  hour  or 
more  after  sunset,  to  accommodate  foot-passengers  accidentally 
delayed  outside  the  walls  or  in  the  town ;  and  it  can  be  open- 
ed even  later  with  a  bakshish.  But  animals  have  to  remain 
outside,  and  belated  travelers  are  thus  frequently  forced  to 
camp  without  the  walls  when  they  fail  to  reach  the  gate  be- 
fore sunset.  The  little  door  we  have  just  described  is  still 
more  common  in  the  gates  of  the  bazars.  It  is  thought  by 
some  that  an  allusion  is  made  to  these  small  doors  in  the  words, 
"  It  is  easier  for  a  camel  to  go  through  the  eye  of  a  needle,  than 
for  a  rich  man  to  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God."f  It  is  stated 
in  confirmation  that  the  little  door  already  described  is  called 
"the  eye  of  a  needle"  by  the  Arabs  of  the  present  day.  We 
have  not  met  with  the  expression,  but  it  seems  not  improba- 
ble that  it  has  sometimes  been  used  to  denote  the  smallness  of 
the  opening.  Nor  have  we  ever  heard,  as  some  have  asserted, 
that  camels  are  sometimes  made  to  pass  through  this  little  door 
upon  their  knees  after  their  load  and  pack-saddle  have  been 
taken  off,  which  is  deemed  emblematic  of  the  humility  and 
freedom  from  worldly  cares  requisite  to  enable  us  to  enter  in 
at  the  "strait  gate."  The  fact  is,  a  camel  could  never  pass 
through  such  a  door,  for,  besides  being  small  and  low,  its 
threshold,  which  consists  of  the  lower  part  of  the  great  gate,  is 
a  foot  and  a  half  or  two  feet  in  height.  We  prefer  to  under- 
stand the  language  of  our  Saviour  as  applied  to  an  Oriental 
needle,  not  the  fine  steel  instrument  manufiictured  by  modern 
Europe,  but  the  piece  of  burnished  iron  which  varies  from  two 
to  five  inches  in  length,  or  the  large  tape-needle  whose  ancient 
specimens  in  ivory  are  yet  found  among  the  ruins  of  old  cities. 
The  proof  of  the  correctness  of  our  rendering  is  found  in  the 
language  of  our  Lord,  that  "with  men  this  is  impossible,  but 
with  God  all  things  are  possible."  We  like  to  look  at  these 
curious  little  doors,  and  imagine  that  when  our  Lord  uttered 
those  memorable  words :  "  Enter  ye  in  at  the  strait  gate ;  for 
wide  is  the  gate,":}:  etc.,  he  had  in  his  mind  these  two  gates — 

♦  Gen.  xxiii.,  10-18 ;  Ruth  iv.,  1-12.      t  Matt,  xix.,  24.       t  Matt,  vii.,  13, 14. 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS. 


453 


i 


the  one  wide,  easy, 
and  traversed  by  the 
multitude  in  broad 
daylight,  and  the  oth- 
er narrow,  high  in  the 
step,  to  be  found  in 
the  dark,  and  sought 
amidst  danger  by  a 
few  anxious  travelers. 

Besides  the  gates  in 
the  city  wall,  streets 
are  also  sometimes 
closed  with  gates,  for 
the  greater  security 
of  the  inhabitants.  A 
watchman  is  there 
stationed  through  the 
night,  who  lets  proper 
persons  pass  through 
for  a  small  present. 

The  streets  of  towns  and  cities  are  universally  winding  and 
narrow,*  and  a  cool  shade  is  thus  obtained,  and  a  draught  se- 
cured, which  is  very  refreshing  in  the  summer  season.  They 
do  not  present  the  lively  scenes  of  European  streets.  All  who 
tread  these  narrow  ways  seem  intent  on  business,  and  when- 
ever the  ladies  make  their  appearance  they  are  closely  veiled. 
The  houses  on  either  side  usually  present  a  dead  wall.  Here 
and  there,  however,  an  open  gate -way  gives  the  passer-by  a 
peep  into  the  porch  of  some  great  man's  house,  and  thence  into 
an  open  court  adorned  with  trees  and  fragrant  flowers.  In  an 
upper  story,  over  the  gate- way,  are  a  few  windows,  sometimes 
latticed,  and  often  projecting  into  the  street.  When  there  hap- 
pens to  be  a  similar  projection  on  the  other  side,  the  two  are 
brought  so  near  to  each  other  that  a  man  could  step  from  his 
own  window  into  that  of  his  neighbor  opposite.  But  this  is 
never  seen  among  Muslims. 

The  streets  are  paved  with  irregularly-shaped  flat  stones,  in- 


The  Stiait  &Ue     (Matt  \ii    14) 


*  According  to  Aristotle,  this  was  also  the  case  in  ancient  times,  even  in  Greece. 
—Gillies,  "Ancient  Greece," vol.  i.,  chap,  ix.,  p.  393. 


454  BIBLE   LANDS. 

dining  toward  the  middle,  find  forming  a  sort  of  gutter,  where 
rains  produce  a  running  stream  which  carries  oft' the  filth.  Un- 
derneath the  pavement  runs  the  common  sewer,  and  whenever 
this  is  opened  for  repairs  the  narrow  street  is  completely  block- 
ed up,  so  that  men  and  animals  must  go  round  by  some  other 
way.  Sidewalks  of  any  sort  are  rare,  and  the  narrowness  of 
the  streets  makes  one  liable  to  be  crushed  against  the  wall  by 
a  loaded  camel,  while  two  horsemen  can  hardly  pass  each  other. 
In  some  towns  of  Asia  Minor  the  identical  pavement  of  ancient 
times  is  found — the  high  but  narrow  sidewalks,  with  occasion- 
al stepping-stones  for  crossings,  made  with  blocks  on  the  pre- 
cise model  of  the  streets  of  the  exhumed  Pompeii.  At  night 
the  darkness  and  solitude  are  complete,  for  the  gate  of  every 
house  is  closed  and  barred,  and  no  one  ventures  into  the  street 
without  a  lantern,  under  penalty  of  being  arrested  as  a  robber. 
The  lone  guard  keeps  himself  awake  by  answering  the  whis- 
tle of  his  nearest  colleague,  or  by  causing  the  street  to  resound 
with  an  occasional  thump  of  his  heavy  club  upon  the  pave- 
ment. The  street  dogs,  that  seem  to  sleep  all  day,  are  now 
wide  awake,  and  keep  up  a  concert  of  answering  howls.  The 
earliest  human  sound  is  the  call  of  the  church  beadle  on  feast- 
days,  accompanied  by  successive  rappings  with  his  cane,  soon 
after  which  is  heard  the  cry  of  the  muezzin  calling  the  Mus- 
lims to  prayer.  The  narrowness  of  Oriental  streets  has  fre- 
quently been  complained  of  by  the  inhabitants  of  colder  lati- 
tudes as  gloomy  and  unwholesome,  but  the  difi'erence  of  climate 
and  manners  should  be  borne  in  mind.  Oriental  houses  are 
rarely  more  than  two  stories  high ;  broad  streets,  even  though 
shaded  with  trees,  would  be  intolerable  in  the  summer  heat. 
In  Europe  the  city  houses  are  compact,  and  obtain  all  their 
ventilation  from  the  street,  while  in  the  East  the  street  is  only 
a  thoroughfare,  the  ventilation  and  the  light  being  furnished 
by  the  large  court  within.  In  Europe  the  street  is  used  for 
the  display  of  pageants,  fine  horses,  handsome  carriages,  and 
rich  clothing;  but  in  Oriental  towns  this  is  all  done  in  the  mei- 
dan,  or  public  square,  or  just  without  the  city  walls. 

No  plan  seems  to  have  been  followed  in  the  laying  out  of 
most  Oriental  towns.  They  seem  to  have  grown  from  the  ac- 
cidental and  gradual  agglomeration  of  houses.  A  city  built 
on  a  river  or  by  the  sea,  for  instance,  has  most  of  its  streets  par- 


s^. 


A  Street  in  Daiiuibcus.    (ZecU.  v.ii.,u-) 


PERMANENT   HABITATIONS.  457 

allel  to  the  bank  of  the  stream  or  sea-shore,  or  at  right  angles 
with  it.  This  is  not,  however,  always  the  case.  Some  towns 
still  retain  traces  of  an  original  plan,  even  where  this  plan  did 
not  depend  upon  the  natural  conformation  of  the  ground. 
Damascus,  which  retains  its  elliptical  form,  and  whose  walls, 
doubtless,  occupy  their  original  foundations,  was  once  traversed 
from  its  east  gate  to  its  western  by  a  street  that  was  "called 
Straight"  —  a  noble  thoroughfare,  a  hundred  feet  in  breadth, 
which  is  still  used  over  a  great  part  of  its  original  site.  It 
was  divided  by  Corinthian  colonnades  into  three  avenues,  of 
which  the  central  was  used  by  footmen,  while  the  other  two 
were  traversed  by  horsemen,  chariots,  and  beasts  of  burden, 
proceeding  respectively  either  eastward  or  westward.*  A  sim- 
ilar street  seems  to  have  existed  in  the  city  of  Palmyra,  or 
"Tadmor  in  the  Wilderness,"  if  we  may  judge  from  its  four 
long  rows  of  columns,  sixty  feet  in  height,  which,  commencing 
on  the  east  at  a  splendid  triumphal  arch,  stretch,  in  a  straight 
line,  through  the  centre  of  the  city  for  a  distance  of  nearly  a 
mile,  forming  a  central  avenue  and  two  side  ones,  one  or  all  of 
which  were  once  covered,  and  led  to  the  Temple  of  the  Sun. 
Traces  of  such  streets  and  colonnades  may  still  be  seen  at  Ge- 
rasa,  Samaria,  Bozrah,  and  Apamea.  Something  of  the  kind  ex- 
ists in  the  modern  city  of  Bologna,  in  Italy,  where  the  church 
of  La  Madonna  di  San  Luca,  standing  on  a  hill  three  miles  from 
the  city,  is  connected  with  it  by  a  continuous  colonnade. 

The  public  squares  of  the  East  are  not,  like  those  of  Europe, 
of  a  regular  shape,  surrounded  by  fine  residences,  well  paved, 
and  ornamented  with  fountains  or  statuary;  nor  have  they 
well -shaded  parks  or  gardens  for  the  use  of  the  public.  The 
meidan,  or  "open  place,"  is  large,  and  usually  of  an  irregular 
form.f  It  is  used  for  military  displays,  for  the  game  of  the 
jerid,  or  javelin,  on  horseback,  and  as  a  camping -ground  for 
camels  and  other  beasts  of  burden ;  hence  it  is  never  paved. 
Meidans  are  not  numerous.  Few  cities  can  boast  more  than 
one,  and  they  are  usually  situated  in  front  of  the  king's  or  the 
governor's  palace,  before  the  principal  mosk,  or  the  largest 
khan  (caravanseray).  An  open  place  also  often  surrounds  one 
of  those  beautiful  fountains,  whose  inimitable  architecture  is  so 

*  Porter.  "Damascus,"  vol.  i.,  p.  47.       f  1  Kings  xxii.,  10;  2  Chron.  xviii.,  0. 


458  BIBLE   LANDS. 

much  admired  bj  travelers  in  the  East.  These  structures  are 
of  various  shapes,  some  of  them  having  as  many  as  four  or  six 
faces,  each  of  which  has  a  faucet  and  a  marble  basin.  The 
fountains  are  often  shaded  by  a  projecting  roof,  and  highly  or- 
namented with  gilt  inscriptions  and  marble  carvings.  Some 
of  them  are  inclosed  within  a  handsome  apartment,  the  sills  of 
whose  ample  windows  are  supplied  with  brass  drinking-cups, 
constantly  filled  with  fresh  water  for  the  use  of  the  public  by 
a  dervish,  who  thus  accumulates  merit  for  some  devout  patron 
either  living  or  dead.  Orientals  set  the  highest  value  upon 
water,  whether  for  drinking  or  for  purposes  of  ceremonial  puri- 
fication, and  it  is  often  conveyed  great  distances  by  means  of 
pipes  of  baked  clay  laid  under-ground.  When  a  town  is  well 
supplied  with  this  important  element,  every  house  has  its  own 
constantly  flowing  fountain,  whose  water  fills  a  large  stone 
trough,  pours  through  a  dent  in  the  rim,  and,  running  down 
the  side  into  the  paved  court,  finds  its  way  to  a  stone  gutter, 
by  which  it  is  carried  to  the  nearest  stream.  At  this  fountain 
is  done  all  the  washing  of  the  family,  not  only  of  dishes  and 
clothing,  but  also  the  daily  personal  ablutions.  The  garden 
tanks,  as  well  as  the  jetting  fountains  which  ornament  the 
house,  are  supplied  from  this  source. 

An  Eastern  city  is  divided  into  distinct  quarters,  occupied 
by  different  sectaries.  It  is  an  abomination  for  a  man  of  one 
religion  to  dwell  among  people  of  another.  His  senses  must 
be  offended  by  sights,  sounds,  and  even  odors,  suggestive  of  a 
faith  he  abhors.  There  is  also  danger  of  proselytism  through 
social  intercourse,  and  still  more  of  intermarriage,  which  always 
implies  a  change  of  foith.  The  ruling  race,  the  Muslim,  never 
fails  to  appropriate  to  itself  the  most  agreeable  and  healthful 
portion  of  the  town ;  the  Jews  are  doomed  to  the  worst ;  but 
in  many  walled  towns  no  Christian  is  admitted,  and  the  Jews 
alone  of  all  the  subject  races  are  allowed  the  privilege  of  dwell- 
ing within  the  walls,  in  memory  of  their  having  betrayed  their 
Christian  masters  when  the  place  was  captured  by  the  Muslims. 

The  business  portion  of  the  town  is  distinct  from  the  dwell- 
ings. There  are,  here  and  there,  indeed,  shops  for  the  sale  of 
eatables,  such  as  butchers',  bakers',  and  grocers' ;  but  all  arti- 
cles of  wear  or  of  merchandise  are  sold  in  a  place  called  the 
bazar,  which  will  be  fully  described  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 


THE   FUKNITURE   OF  THE   HOUSE.  459 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  FURNITURE   OF  THE  HOUSE. 

We  have  in  the  preceding  chapter  described  Oriental  houses, 
and  agglomerations  of  them  into  villages,  towns,  and  cities. 
We  now  propose  to  reverse  the  process,  and  examine  the  in- 
terior of  the  dwelling,  its  furniture,  and  arrangements.  We 
shall  in  a  subsequent  chapter  consider  the  people  who  occupy 
it,  their  personal  appearance,  their  names,  and  their  garb. 

We  have  already  remarked  that  the  houses  of  the  poor  oft- 
en consist  of  a  single  room,  so  small,  perhaps,  as  not  even  to 
contain  a  chimney,  the  little  cooking  they  can  afford  being 
done  out-of-doors,  where  three  stones  form  a  rude  fire-place, 
whose  smoke  has  blackened  the  mud -wall  against  which  it  is 
erected.  A  saucepan  or  two,  a  few  wooden  spoons,  and  some 
basins  or  bowls  of  the  coarsest  earthenware,  scrupulously  clean, 
are  carefully  set  in  a  corner,  or  ranged  along  upside  down* 
upon  a  shelf  of  wood  built  into  the  walls  about  six  feet  from 
the  floor. 

The  furniture  consists  of  a  coarse  carpet  or  mat,  covering 
the  entire  floor,  or  simply  of  black  goat's-hair  cloth,  a  yard  in 
width,  spread  at  one,  two,  or  three  sides  of  the  room  next  the 
wall.  Bits  of  carpeting  of  a  better  quality,  a  rug,  and  some- 
times a  small,  thin  cotton  mattress  are  placed  upon  it,  in  imi- 
tation of  a  divan,  and  a  straw -filled  cushion  or  two,  perhaps,  is 
set  against  the  wall.  In  a  corner  of  the  room,  carefully  folded 
and  piled,  is  the  bedding  of  the  family,  covered  with  a  large 
white  or  colored  towel.  It  is  unrolled  and  spread  out  upon 
the  floor  every  evening,  to  be  again  folded  and  piled  up  in  the 
corner  in  the  morning. 

The  apartments  of  the  wealthy  are  far  better  furnished.  We 
have  already  stated  that  every  room  is  of  an  oblong  shape,  and 
divided  into  two  parts,  one  a  perfect  square,  raised  six  or  eight 
inches  above  the  other,  and  the  latter  a  parallelogram  fronting 


Kings  xxi.,  13. 

30 


460 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


the  door.  The  highly  ornamented  ceiling  is  divided  in  the 
same  manner,  and  often  on  the  line  of  division,  a  few  feet  from 
the  wall  on  either  side,  a 
handsome  pillar  rises  to 
the  ceiling,  and  forms  a 
graceful  arch.  The  raised 
square  area  has  a  divan 
on  its  three  sides,  resting 
against  the  walls,  which 
consists  of  a  permanent 
wooden  frame  about  a 
foot  high  and  a  yard  in 
width,  upon  which  are 
laid  mattresses  stuffed 
with  wool.  They  are  oft- 
en, however,  filled  with 
hay  or  straw,  upon  the 
top  of  which  is  laid  a  thin 
cotton  coverlet.  Over  the 
mattresses  is  spread  a 
covering  of  chintz,  broad- 
cloth, or  even  richer  stuff, 
the  color  preferred  being 
a  deep  scarlet  or  crimson,  and  its  edge  often  trimmed  with 
long  silk  fringe  interwoven  with  gold  thread.  Even  Cashmere 
shawls  sometimes  cover  the  divans  of  the  rich. 

Against  this  wall  lean  large  cushions,  a  yard  in  length  and 
half  a  yard  in  width,  which  are  stuffed  with  wool  which  yields 
to  the  pressure  of  the  bodv.  One  of  these  is  placed  at  each 
end  of  the  divan,  resting  against  the  light  balustrade  between 
the  pillars  and  the  wall. 

These  cushions  are  covered  with  stuff  differing  both  in  ma- 
terial and  color  from  the  divan  itself.  It  is  often  of  carpeting 
woven  expressly,  or  of  some  rich  material  elaborately  wrought 
in  quaint  patterns,  by  the  women  of  the  household.  At  one 
or  both  corners  of  the  divan  is  often  spread  upon  the  floor  a 
light  mattress,  with  two  low  cushions,  where  the  inmates  of  the 
house  sometimes  prefer  to  sit.  The  general  furniture  of  the 
apartment  is  completed  by  an  Egyptian  mat,  and  in  the  winter 
Rea.S()ri  a  Koordish,  Turkish,  or  Persian  carpet,  which  covers 


Plan  of  an  Oriental  Room. 


THE    FURNITURE    OF   THE   HOUSE. 


461 


the  entire  floor  of  the  raised  portion  of  the  room.  Chairs  are 
almost  wholly  unknown  to  Orientals.  They  have  a  low  stool,* 
chiefly  employed  in  the  cafes;  and  a  rude  kind  of  chair  is  oc- 
casionally seen,  with  a  seat  made  of  thick  twine,  a  stiff  back, 
and  one  or  two  arms ;  but  it  is  never  used  in  the  house,  the 
people  preferring  to  sit  with  their  feet  gathered  up  under  them. 


Oriental  Chairs  aud  Stool.    (1  Kiugs  ii.,  19;  2  Kings  iv.,  10.) 

The  same  custom  seems  to  have  prevailed  in  ancient  times. 
The  Egyptians,  indeed,  used  chairs  often  wrought  in  curious 
and  beautiful  patterns.  They  were  probably  introduced  thence 
into  Greece  and  the  Asiatic  colonies.  There  is,  however,  no 
evidence  that  the  custom  was  ever  extensively  adopted  by  Ori- 
entals. 

The  seat  of  honor,  generally  occupied  by  the  master  of  the 
house,  is  in  the  corner  opposite  the  door,  where,  upon  the  usual 
cushions,  is  set  a  smaller  one,  against  which  he  may  rest  his 
head  and  take  a  nap.  He  has  often  by  his  side  a  box,  or 
small  chest,  containing  drawers,  with  writing  materials  ar- 
ranged upon  it.f 

A  room  is  thought  to  be  cheerful  in  proportion  to  the  num- 
ber of  its  windows,  and  this  is  certainly  the  case  where  the 
house  has  a  garden  of  its  own  which  they  command,  though 
the  view  into  the  central  court  is  often  not  without  its  attrac- 
tions. Orientals  are  fond  of  being  out-of-doors,  and  when  in 
the  house  they  get  all  the  light  and  fresh  air  they  can.     They 


2  Kings  iv.,  10. 


t  W^ilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  p.  176,  fig.  416. 


462 


BIBLE    LANDS, 


like  open  halls  and  verandas,  and  the  windows  of  an  apartment 
often  occupy  one  of  its  entire  sides,  being  separated  from  each 
other  only  by  the  thickness  of  a  post. 

Glass  was  first  made  by  the  Phoenicians  at  Tyre,  and  speci- 
mens are  not  unfrequently  found  among  ancient  ruins,  yet 
Orientals  are  little  acquainted  with  window-glass,  which  is  not 
manufactured  in  the  country.  It  is  extensively  used  only  in 
the  sea-board  towns,  the  breakage  to  which  it  is  liable  in  over- 
land transportation  making  it  an  article  of  luxury  in  the  in- 
terior. Windows  are  low,  and  closed  with  solid  shutters  alone. 
This  is  always  done  at  night,  and  in  the  day-time,  when  the 
weather  is  cold,  or  the  rain  beats  in,  and  in  the  greatest  heat 
of  summer.  Between  these  windows  and  the  ceiling  are  other 
smaller  ones,  intended  to  admit  the  light  when  the  lower  win- 

dows  must  be  shut.     They  contain 

a  sash  of  fanciful  design,  into  which 
are  set  bits  of  glass,  sometimes  col- 
ored, instead  of  which  the  poor  use 
oiled  or  plain  paper,  or  a  piece  of 
white  cloth.  In  Egypt  and  other 
hot  countries  these  upper  windows 
are  used  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of 
ventilation,  being  left  open  or  screen- 
ed with  lattice.  This  system  of 
double  windows  is  in  general  use 
in  Western  Asia,  and  appears  to 
have  been  introduced  at  a  very  ear- 
ly age,  for  it  is  known  to  have  ex- 
isted among  the  ancient  Egyptians.* 
It  will  naturally  be  inferred  that 
Oriental  houses  are  not  very  tight, 
and  but  poorly  adapted  for  cold  weather.  It  must,  however, 
be  remembered  that  the  people  depend  for  keeping  warm  not 
so  much  upon  external  means  as  upon  the  garments  they  wear, 
as  we  shall  explain  farther  on.  This  accounts  for  their  ability 
to  sit  all  day  long  in  the  coldest  weather  on  the  platforms  of 
their  open  shops,  warming  their  feet  by  sitting  upon  them,  and 
saving  their  hands  from  being  frost-bitten  by  keeping  them  in 


An  Upper  Window. 


*  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  14. 


THE   FURNITURE   OF   THE   HOUSE.  468 

their  bosoms.  Wood  is  used  as  fuel  in  mountainous  districts, 
and  wherever  it  can  be  easily  procured  chimneys  are  common. 
The  fire-place,  a  picture  of  which  may  be  seen  on  page  428,  is 
on  one  side  of  the  room,  where  the  place  of  the  divan  is  occu- 
pied by  a  hearth,  flanked  on  either  side  by  slabs  of  stone  or 
marble,  which  answer  the  purpose  of  a  fender.  The  villagers 
use  no  andirons,  but  set  the  wood  upright  against  the  back  of 
the  chimney.  In  the  cities  a  single  andiron  is  often  used,  as 
is  represented  above.  The  wood  rests  upon  it  at  one  end, 
and  comes  in  contact  with  the  coals  at  the  other.  The  projec- 
tions noticed  in  the  upright  are  not  mere  ornament,  but  are 
used  in  roasting  the  favorite  kebabs,  which  is  done  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  Bits  of  meat  about  an  inch  square  are  strung 
upon  a  thin  iron  spit  about  a  yard  in  length;  there  is  a  hole  in 
the  side  of  the  chimney  large  enough  to  receive  the  end  of  the 
spit,  while  the  other  rests  upon  one  of  the  projections  of  the 
andiron ;  several  spits  are  sometimes  used  at  once.  In  the 
northern  parts  of  the  country,  particularly  in  Armenia  and 
Koordistan,  where  fuel  is  scarce,  the  only  means  for  procur- 
ing warmth  is  the  "  tandoor."  The  oven  we  have  already  de- 
scribed (page  88)  is  built  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  so  that 
its  top  rises  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  earthen  floor.  Here 
the  family  bread  is  baked  at  least  once  a  day,  and  as  soon  as 
the  operation  is  completed  the  orifice  is  closed  with  a  stone 
slab;  a  low  table  is  then  set  over  the  oven,  and  over  that  a 
thick  coverlet  is  spread,  the  borders  of  which  extend  a  consid- 
erable distance  over  the  floor.  The  rude  villager's  family  squat 
themselves  down  around  this  table,  drawing  the  coverlet  over 
the  lower  portion  of  their  bodies.  Here  they  eat  their  meals 
in  the  coldest  weather;  and  when  night  comes  the  mattresses 
are  spread  around,  and  every  one  sleeps  with  his  feet  toward 
the  oven.* 

The  ordinary  tongs  of  the  East  are  a  man's  fingers,  and  it 
is  wonderful  to  see  how  a  human  being  can  handle  a  live  coal 
without  harm.  Still,  a  pair  of  iron  tongs  of  primitive  work- 
manship may  occasionally  be  found  in  the  blacksmith  shop, 
and  in  the  dwelling  of  the  wealthy.f  As  may  be  seen  on 
page  466,  they  have  no  hinge,  and  the  bar  across  the  arms  is 

*  Smith,  vol.  ii.,  p.  40;  Perkins,  p.  156.  t  Exod.  xxv.,  38 ;  Isa.  xliv..  12. 


464 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


intended  to  prevent  their  flying  open  too  far.  There  is  also  a 
smaller  kind  of  tongs,  chiefly  used  for  lighting  a  pipe,  made 
and  sold  by  the  wandering  gypsies ;  and  many  of  the  police  or 
guards  carry  a  still  smaller  one  inside  of  the  steel  ramrod  for 
their  pistols,  which  is  set  in  their  belt.  Charcoal  is,  however, 
used  much  more  extensively  than  wood  for  both  warming  and 
culinary  purposes.  Its  small  bulk  and  weight  make  it  easy 
of  transportation,  and  its  use  is  as  universal  as  that  of  miner- 
al coal  in  other  lands.  When  employed  simply  for  heating  an 
apartment,  a  pan  of  earthenware  is  used,  narrow  at  the  bottom, 
and  spreading  out  at  the  top,  where  it  is  above  eighteen  inch- 
es in  diameter.  The  wealthy,  however,  use  a  brazier,  or  stand 
of  brass  or  copper  (mmigal),  two  feet  in  height,  in  the  centre 
of  whose  upper  surface  is  set  a  chafing-dish  of  like  material, 
which  contains  the  fire.  This  was  doubtless  the  pan  contain- 
ing a  "fire  of  coals"  at  which  Peter  stood  and  warmed  him- 
self in  the  court  of  the  high- 
priest's  house,  and  denied  his 
Master.*  The  accompanying 
illustration,  therefore,  will  not 
be  without  interest  to  the  read- 
er. The  pan  is  first  filled  with 
ashes,  upon  which  the  servant 
lays  the  charcoal  and  lights  it, 
always  in  the  open  air,  whether 
in  the  court,  or  on  the  veranda. 
There  it  is  gradually  kindled 
b}''  the  breeze,  or  by  the  brisk 
use  of  a  coarse  feather  fan.  It 
is  not  brought  into  the  room 
until  thoroughly  lighted.f 
Charcoal  is  also  chiefly  depended  on  for  cooking  purposes. 
The  poor  burn  it  between  three  stones,  set  up  to  support  the 

*  John  xviii.,  18. 

t  Gell,  in  his  description  of  the  "house  of  Pansa,"  in  the  exhumed  Pompeii, 
says :  "  It  may  be  observed  that  no  fire-place  exists,  nor  do  any  fines  remain  by 
which  tlie  house  could  have  been  warmed  by  means  of  a  stove ;  for  this  purpose, 
in  all  probability,  only  braziers  were  used  with  charcoal,  as  they  are  frequently 
found.  The  Koman  remains  in  Euf^laiid  show  this  method  of  warminR  houses  to 
have  been  common  in  a  colder  climate  and  later  age." — Gkll's  "  Pompeiann," 
p.  134,  edit.  1852. 


Maugal,  or  Chafing-dish,  for  Charcoal. 
(John  xviii.,  18.) 


THE   FURNITURE   OF   THE   HOUSE. 


465 


cooking  utensils.  But  most  houses  have  a  kitchen  with  a 
broad  chimney,  within  whose  arched  recess  is  built  a  wide 
bank,  or  range,  of  stone  or  brick,  about  three  feet  high,  sup- 
plied with  circular  holes  to  receive  the  charcoal,  which  is  sup- 
ported by  an  iron  grating  and  fanned  from  an  opening  under- 
neath, while  the  pots  and  saucepans  are  set  upon  the  holes  or 
upon  trivets  which  raise  them  above  the  fire. 


Oriental  Kitchen-rauge.    (Lev.  xi.,  35.) 

Charcoal  is  so  much  esteemed  for  cooking  purposes  that 
travelers  generally  manage  to  carry  some  of  it  along  with 
them  on  their  journeys,  packed  in  a  bag  or  basket,  and  a  fire 
of  coals  is  not  an  uncommon  sight  in  the  open  country.*  The 
inhabitants  of  the  desert  are  generally  deprived  of  this  valua- 
ble commodity,  which  they  sometimes  make  in  the  Hauran,  or 
steal  from  their  more  favored  neighbors.  They  bake  their 
bread  with  the  grass  of  the  field, f  and  have  only  dried  camel's 
manure  for  their  fuel.  The  inhabitants  of  Upper  Egypt  and 
many  parts  of  Mesopotamia  and  Syria  never  taste  of  any  cooked 
food  besides  bread.  But  charcoal  is  burned  in  abundance  on 
all  the  mountains  of  Asia  Minor,  in  Mount  Lebanon  and  Anti- 
lebanon,  and  in  the  Hauran ;  and  the  supply  of  this  article  seems 
to  be  as  abundant  as  in  ancient  times,  for  it  is  made  not  only 
of  trees  cut  down  for  the  purpose,  but  the  roots  of  bushes  and 
shrubs  are  even  preferred.  Charcoal  is  conveyed  by  sea  to  all 
the  ports  of  the  Levant,  and  carried  through  the  interior  on 
the  backs  of  mules  and  camels,  being  packed  in  tall  and  nar- 
row baskets. 


John  xxi.,  9. 


t  Matt,  vi.,  30. 


'i66 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


The  cooking  utensils,  of  various  sizes  and  depths,  with  their 
covers,  are  always  made  of  whitened  copper.  This  mineral  is 
obtained  in  large  quantities  and  of  the  best  quality  from  the 


Kitchen  Utensils.    (Lev.  vii.,  9.) 


mines  in  Armenia,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Euphrates, 
which  are  worked  exclusively  by  Greeks,  and  seem  to  be  in- 
exhaustible, though  they  have  doubtless  yielded 
their  treasures  to  man  from  time  immemorial. 
Copper  and  brass  are  manufactured  in  several  cit- 
ies of  Asia  Minor  and  in  Constantinople,*  and 
have  become  so  common  throughout  the  East  as 
to  be  often  used  instead  of  iron,  the  casting  of 
which  is  unknown  to  Orientals. 

Besides  utensils  used  for  cooking,  there  are  oth- 
ers which  are  considered  indispensable  in  a  well- 
ordered  household.  If  you  look  about  the  kitch- 
2.  modern.'^'^^V  ^H,  you  will  uot  fail  to  scc  the  hand-mill  described 
chron.  iv.,11.)  q^  page  87,  unless  it  has  been  brought  out  into 
the  court,  and  two  women  are  seated,  turning  it  round  and 
grinding  the  wheat  of  the  household  into  flour,  or  "boorgool." 
So  necessary  is  this  hand-mill,  even  to  the  poorest,  that  the  law 
of  Moses  forbade  its  being  taken  as  a  security  for  debt.f  The 
sound  of  the  hand-mill  is  a  familiar  one  in  the  East,  and  its 
cessation  is  aptly  mentioned  by  the  prophets  as  one  of  the  signs 
of  utter  desolation.:}:    The  expression  to  hang  a  millstone  about 


•  2  Tim.  iv.,  14. 


t  Deut.  xxiv.,  6.  t  Jer.  xxv.,  10;  Rev.  xviii.,  22. 


THE    FURNITURE   OF   THE   HOUSE. 


467 


a  man's  neck  and  cast  him  into  the  sea*  is  not  an  uncommon 
one  even  now,  for  old  millstones  of  various  sizes  are  frequently 
met  with  which  have  been  thrown  away  as  worn  out,  cracked, 
or  broken,  and  so  become  unserviceable,  and,  being  perforated, 
they  are  easier  to  fasten  securely  than  a  common  stone.f  A 
well-appointed  kitchen  is  also  provided  with  a  small  brass 
mortar  and  pestle  for  pounding  spices,  as  well  as  a  much  larger 
one  of  stone  for  coffee,  rice,  and  coarser  grains.  In  a  small 
village,  however,  the  people  use  in  common  a  huge  mortar, 
usually  placed  near  the  public  fountain  or  well,;};  often  made 
of  an  ancient  pillar,  a  capital,  or  an  old  heathen  altar.  There 
are,  however,  many  articles,  such  as  coffee,  spices,  and  drugs, 
which  in  the  cities  are  bought  in  a  pulverized  state  at  the  gro- 
cer's; they  are  prepared  in  special 
factories  upon  a  large  scale,  and 
are  pounded  in  huge  mortars  by 
two,  three,  or  four  men  at  once, 
as  we  see  it  represented  upon 
the  Egyptian  monuments.  The 
kneading-trough  is  usually  one 
of  a  set  of  shallow  copper  basins, 
the  larger  of  which  are  appro- 
priated to  the  washing  of  clothes, 
the  largest  being  half  a  foot  in 
depth,  and  a  yard  or  more  in 
diameter.  Among  the  Bedawin, 
however,  as  well  as  in  the  houses  of  the  poor  generally,  the 
kneading-trough  is  about  six  inches  in  -depth,  and  three- 
quarters  of  a  yard  in  diameter,  and  made  of  an  oblong  piece 
of  wood  dug  in  the  shape  of  a  shallow  basin. §  A  circu- 
lar board  is  used  for  rolling  out  pastry  or  shaping  dough 
into  loaves;  and  the  rolling-pins,  two  of  which  are  often  used 
at  once,  are  no  thicker  than  a  man's  finger,  and  about  three 
feet  in  length. 

Water  for  the  washing  of  clothes  is  boiled  in  a  large  kettle 
or  caldron,  set  at  one  side  of  the  kitchen-fire,  or  in  the  court 
near  the  fountain  or  well,  and  the  clothes,  which  are  always 


Two  Men  pouiidiug  in  cue  Mortar. 
Egyptian  Sculpture.    (Numb,  xi.,  S.) 


*  Matt,  xviii.,  6. 

t  Numb,  xi.,  8;  Prov.  xxvii. 


22. 


t  Judg.  ix.,r>3. 

§  Exod.  viii..  3:  xii..  34. 


468 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


washed  a  few  at  a  time,  are  hung  to  dry  upon  the  branches  of 
a  tree,  or  are  spread  upon  a  railing  or  the  balustrade  of  the 
terrace. 

The  list  of  household  utensils  may  be  completed  by  the  enu- 
meration of  the  jezveh,  or  common  water-kettle ;  the  coffee-pots, 

of  various  sizes ; 
the  brass  or  silver 
tray  provided  with 
tiny  coffee  -  cups 
of  foreign  impor- 
tation, with  other 
cups,  called  zarf^ 
of  the  same  metal, 
within  which  the 
former  are  placed ; 
small  metal  plates 
for  sweetmeats,  and 
little  spoons  to  match.  A  set  of  pipes,  of  number  and  quality 
according  to  the  means  of  the  master,  stands  in  one  corner  of 
the  principal  room,  and  several  nargilehs  are  kept  in  an  alcove 
or  cupboard.  There  are  various  braziers,  or  chafing-dishes,  for 
burning  charcoal,  and  the  wealthier  classes  have  perfume-cens- 
ers, often  exquisitely  wrought  in  silver  or  gold  filigree  and  or- 
namented with  precious  stones,  and  graceful  bottles  to  match, 
for  rose-water,  which  is  sprinkled  upon  guests  from  a  minute 
orifice  at  the  top  of  the  long  and  slender  neck. 

Sweeping  is  done  with  a  broom  like  our  own,  excepting  the 
long  wooden  handle.  It  requires  a  person  to  stoop  low,  hence 
lost  articles  of  small  size  are  frequently  found  in  the  process 
of  sweeping.*  It  is  the  common  practice  thus  to  search  a  room. 
Broom-corn  is  grown  in  all  parts  of  Turkey.  Coarse  brooms, 
made  of  a  kind  of  mountain  furze,  and  having  a  long  handle  of 
wood,  are  used  in  stables  and  courts. 

The  various  kinds  of  earthen  vessels  for  water  have  already 
been  described.  Some  are  pointed  at  the  bottom,  as  anciently.f 
Two  or  three  of  the  size  carried  to  the  fountain  usually  stand 
in  a  well-shaded,  cool  corner  of  the  court.  Similar  jars  alst) 
serve  as  receptacles  for  the  stores  of  a  household,  always  kept 


Luke  XV.,  8. 


t  Pococke,  vol.  i.,  p.  87. 


THE   FURNITUKE   OF   THE   HOUSE.  469 


Eaithen  Jais  and  Water-pots.    (Maik  vu  ,  4.) 

under  lock  and  key  in  the  store-room.  They  consist  chiefly 
of  oil,  wine,  honey,  grape -sirup  {dibs),  olives,  vinegar,  pickles, 
as  well  as  flour,  wheat,  rice,  and  other  grains,  with  dried  vege- 
tables and  fruits.*  The  cooked  dishes  of  Orientals 
generally  seem  to  be  overdone  to  an  Occidental  taste. 
Little  meat  is  used,  and  this  is  cut  up  in  small  bits,  or 
chopped  very  fine,  and  serves  to  flavor  the  gourds, 
egg-plants,  cabbages,  tomatoes,  ochras  (bamiah),  etc., 
with  which  it  is  cooked.  It  is  also  prepared  with 
quinces,  apples,  apricots,  prunes,  chestnuts,  and  other  """'"""""'• 
fruits.  Potatoes  are  unknown.  Orientals  are  very  fond  of 
stews  thickened  by  long  simmering  over  the  fire,  and  they 
largely  flavor  their  food  with  onions,  garlic,  and  spices.  They 
not  only  make  very  palatable  dishes  of  garden  vegetables, 
but  cook  in  like  manner  a  variety  of  wild  plants.  These 
are  made  into  soups,f  or,  being  thoroughly  boiled,  are  eaten 
with  vinegar  and  oil  as  a  salad.  Oil  enters  largely  into  their 
cookery,  and  is  chiefly  used  as  an  article  of  food.  The  poor 
are  particularly  fond  of  these  soups,  which  not  only  form  the 
principal  dish  of  their  evening  meal,  but  are  preferred  to  any 

*  2  Sam.  xvii.,  28,  29.  There  is  in  the  Cesnohx  Collection,  at  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  in  New  York,  a  very  ancient  jar,  of  curious  form,  with  two  spouts :  the 
identical  jar  is  still  manufactured  in  Cyprus,  and  is  used  for  bringing  milk  to 
market.  t  2  Kings  iv.,  38^0. 


470  BIBLE    LANDS. 

thing  else  on  a  cold  winter  morning.  The}'  are  flavored  with 
a  variety  of  aromatic  herbs,  and  thickened  with  leben  (sour 
curds),  or  with  flour  or  small  bits  of  paste.  A  very  palatable 
and  nourishing  kind  of  soup  or  pottage  is  made  of  lentils,  and 
flavored  with  chopped  onions.  This  was  doubtless  the  tempt- 
ing dish  of  pottage  which  cost  Esau  his  birthright.*  They  mix 
rice  with  a  certain  proportion  of  chopped  meat,  well  seasoned 
with  pepper  and  salt,  onions,  and  some  favorite  herb,  and  with 
this  preparation  they  fill  small  gourds,  like  cucumbers,  egg- 
plants, or  tomatoes,  cored  for  the  purpose,  and  then  boil  them ; 
sometimes  they  roll  up  small  portions  of  the  mixture  in  new 
and  tender  grape  or  cabbage  leaves.  To  this  favorite  dish  the 
Arabs  give  the  name  of  "mah-shi"  (stuffed),  and  the  Turks 
"dolma."  The  Orientals  like  their  dishes  damp  with  gravy, 
into  which  they  dip  their  bread,  and  so  fond  are  they  of  sweet- 
ened food  that  they  often  flavor  meat  stews  with  honey  or 
grape-juice  {dibs).  They  are  also  very  skillful  in  the  preparation 
of  various  kinds  of  pastry,  which  are  not  only  made  for  home 
use,  but  find  such  a  ready  market  among  them  that  there  are 
shops  in  which  a  single  kind  of  pastry  is  manufactured  through- 
out the  year:  some  kinds  are  hawked  about  the  streets,  being 
kept  hot  on  a  portable  brazier.  The  lady  of  the  house  gener- 
ally prides  herself  on  her  skill  in  these  matters,  doing  the  work 
with  her  own  hands,  instead  of  leaving  it  to  a  servant  or  slave, 
and  she  teaches  her  daughters  the  same  accomplishment.f  Va- 
rieties of  pastry  are  always  prepared  with  butter,  oil  from  the 
olive,  or  the  sesame -seed.  They  are  usually  sweetened  with 
honey,  and  flavored  with  pounded  walnuts  or  almonds. 

The  frequent  reference  in  the  Scriptures  to  sweet  cakes  and 
oil  cakes  is  an  evidence  that  the  same  tastes  were  indulged  in 
anciently  as  now.:}:  They  were  included  among  the  offerings 
required  to  be  presented  upon  the  altar  of  Jehovah,  as  indeed 
was  the  case  with  the  offerings  to  idol  gods.§ 

Fowls,  lambs,  or  kids  are  roasted  whole  upon  a  spit,  or 
baked,  being  cooked  so  tender  that  they  are  readily  torn 
in  pieces  by  the  hand,  a  knife  being  rarely  used  for  the  pur- 
pose. 


*  Gen.  XXV.,  29-34.  t  2  Sam.  xiii.,  8,  f). 

X  1  Kings  xvii.,  12,  13.  §  Lev.  ii.,  5 ;  Jer.  vii.,  18. 


THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  HOUSE.  471 

We  shall  not,  probably,  have  a  better  opportunity  to  speak 
of  the  practice  of  eating  the  flesh  of  animals  not  raw  only,  but 
living^  a  practice  which  still  exists  in  Abyssinia,  and  comes, 
therefore,  within  the  limits  of  this  work.  It  is  hard  to  believe 
that  the  custom  existed  among  the  polished  Greeks  and  Eo- 
raans ;  yet  there  is  ample  evidence  that  it  was  practiced  at  their 
"  Bacchanalian  feasts."*  We,  moreover,  learn  from  its  prohi- 
bition by  Moses  that  it  was  practiced  by  the  Jews.f  It  was 
forbidden  also  under  the  patriarchal  dispensation.;]:  An  instance 
of  it  is  particularly  related  in  1  Sam.  xiv.,  31,  32  :  Saul,  wish- 
ing to  put  a  stop  to  it,  obliged  his  soldiers  to  bring  the  oxen 
to  him,  that  he  might  see  their  throats  cut  upon  a  stone,  and 
make  sure  that  the  animals  were  dead  before  the  people  ate 
them ;  he  evidently  made  no  attempt  to  prevent  their  eating 
the  flesh  raw  or  uncooked.  There  is  now  no  doubt  that  this 
horrid  custom  still  exists  among  the  nominally  Christian  people 
of  Abyssinia,  for  it  is  fully  attested  by  reliable  eye-witnesses,§ 
from  whom  we  learn  that  it  consists  in  making  an  incision  in 
the  back  of  a  living,  struggling  ox,  tearing  off  a  portion  of 
the  skin,  and  cutting  away  the  throbbing,  bleeding  flesh,  which 
is  immediately  devoured,  and  washed  down  with  hydromel. 
When  the  bellowing  animal,  exhausted  by  the  loss  of  blood, 
drops  on  the  ground,  his  flesh  is  thought  no  longer  fit  to  eat. 
Though  this  cruel  practice  has  fortunately  long  disappeared 
from  all  other  parts  of  the  East,  certain  practices  of  the  present 
day  may  certainly  serve  to  remind  us  of  it.  The  Muslims  pro- 
fess a  great  horror  of  blood,  which  makes  them  ceremonially 
unclean,  and  are  very  careful  to  wash  it  all  from  the  flesh  they 
eat;  the  sportsman  invariably  cuts  the  throat  of  every  bird  or 
animal  he  shoots  ;||  and  the  Jews  never  eat  flesh  which  has 
not  been  butchered  by  their  rabbis,  claiming  that  no  other  is 
wholly  free  from  blood. 

Modern  Orientals  cook  the  flesh  of  an  animal  as  soon  as  it 
is  slain,  without  waiting,  like  Europeans,  for  that  incipient  de- 
composition which  makes  it  more  tender  but  less  fresh  to  the 


*  Arnobius,  "Adv.  Gent.  Sextus  Impiricus,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  25;  and  Selden,  "  De 
Jur.  Nat.  and  Gent.,"  vol.  i.,  p.  7. 

+  Lev.  xvii.,  10, 11 ;  Deut.  xii.,  23.  %  Gen.  ix.,  4. 

§  Bruce,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  630-633;  Krapf,  p.  377.  ||  Perkins,  p.  270. 


472 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Common  Table  aud  Tray 


(Psa.  cxxviii.,  3.) 


taste.     Examples  occur  in  the  Scriptures.*     It  was  also  the 
practice  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.-]- 

The  Oriental  manner  of  eating  differs  essentially  from  ours. 

The  table  is  small,  about 
two  feet  high,  eighteen 
inches  wide,  and  often 
beautifully  carved,  or  in- 
laid with  mother-of-pearl. 
Such  was  the  table  com- 
monly used  anciently  in 
Eg3'pt  as  now.  They 
had,  indeed,  chairs  and 
tables  to  fit ;  but  their 
use  was  limited  to  the 
—  wealthiest.:):  In  Assyria 
__  also  we  meet  with  chairs, 
but  they  were  rare ;  and 
one  picture  represents  at 
once  the  couch  and  the  chair  as  used  at  tab]e.§  But  they  were 
foreign  importations,  as 
was  the  mode  described 
in  the  New  Testament. 
The  table  is  set  in  the 

middle  of  the  floor,  or  -i^-^i^tM^LL'--.-i.'  -,o>^^, .,,  "-^- .. 
against  the  angle  of  the  ^^.-eiu.-^  "^i^jS-y 
sofa,  a  crumb-cloth  being  viiia-e  Tabic. 

first  spread  upon  the  floor,  and  a  large  circular  tray  of  whitened 

copper  is  set  upon  it.  The 
master  of  the  house  gen- 
erally sits  at  the  corner  of 
the  divan,  while  his  com- 
panions take  their  places 
around  upon  the  mat  or 
carpet.  In  the  harim, 
the  wife  or  a  female  slave 
waits  upon  her  lord,  who 

CoUaliou  wicker  Table.  gfitg   aloUC,  Or  with  his  cld- 


*  Gen.  xviii.,  7;  xliii.,  16;  Acts  x.,  13,  etc. 
+  Wilkinson,  "Ancient  Egypt,"  vol.  i.,  p.  174. 
§  Bonomi,  p.  401. 


t  Ibid.,  p.  179. 


THE   FURNITURE   OF  THE   HOUSE.  473 

est  son.  The  position  when  sitting  on  the  floor  is  with  the 
right  knee  up,  so  as  to  support  the  right  hand  which  "dippeth 
in  the  dish."* 

In  some  parts  of  the  country,  and  particularly  in  the  desert, 
a  bag  is  first  spread  out,  made  of  a  single  circular  piece  of  leath- 
er, whose  edges  are  gathered  together  with  a  thong.  This  bag 
serves  to  receive  crumbs  or  fragments  of  food,  which  it  is  thought 
sinful  to  tread  upon  by  allowing  them  to  drop  on  the  floor.  After 
the  meal  is  finished  the  bag  is  taken  up,  and  its  contents  thrown 
to  the  poultry  or  the  street  dogs.f  The  care  with  which  Orient- 
als avoid  wasting  bread  illustrates  our  Lord's  command  to  his 
disciples  to  "take  up  the  fragments"  after  lie  had,  on  two  oc- 
casions, miraculously  fed  great  multitudes  of  people.:}:  The 
bag  is  closed  by  drawing  the  thong  inserted  in  the  edges,  and 
is  then  hung  up  on  a  peg  of  the  tent-pole,  or  on  a  nail  in  the 
wall.     It  is  often  carried  by  a  traveler  as  a  provision-bag. 

When  about  to  eat,  many  roll  up  their  sleeves  and  wash 
their  hands  for  the  purpose  of  cleanliness,  and  not  from  a  su- 
perstitious idea,  as  the  Pharisees  of  old.§  After  sitting  down 
to  the  table,  each  one  privately  exclaims  ^^Bismillahr  ("In 
the  name  of  God  "),  or  he  repeats  a  short  form  of  prayer  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  own  faith.  When  a  Christian  or  a  Muslim 
priest  happens  to  be  present,  he  recites  a  longer  prayer.  This 
accords  with  the  custom  both  of  the  ancient  Egyptians]!  and 
of  the  devout  Hebrews.^  Each  one,  meanwhile,  tucks  his 
sleeves,  fastens  a  towel  under  his  chin,  and  spreads  it  out  on 
his  knees,  or  makes  use  of  a  long  towel  which  reaches  all 
around  the  table.  Slices  of  leavened  bread  or  rolls  of  thin  cakes 
are  set  before  eacb  person  on  the  edge  of  the  tray,  and  some- 
times bunches  of  green  onions  or  garlic  with  them.  The  din- 
ner is  served  by  bringing  in  the  dishes  one  at  a  time ;  they  are 
set  in  the  middle  of  the  tray,  and  are  all  eaten  with  the  hand, 
except  soup,  rice,  and  lehen  (sour  curds),  which  are  eaten  with 
a  peculiarly-shaped  wooden  spoon.  The  manner  in  which  the 
dishes  are  brought  by  the  scullion  from  the  kitchen  to  the 

*  Mark  xiv.,  20.  t  Matt,  xv.,  27 ;  Luke  xvi.,  21. 

X  Mark  viii.,  17,  19,  20;  John  vi.,  12.  §  Matt,  xv.,  2,  20. 

II  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  186. 

^  Josephus,  "Antiquities,"  bk.  xii.,  chap,  ii.,  §  12  ;  Mark  viii.,  G  ;  John  vi.,  23  : 
Acts  xxvii.,  3.5. 


474  BIBLE    LANDS. 

dining-room  is  well  expressed  in  the  accompanying  picture, 
copied  from  the  sculptures  of  ancient  Thebes.  The  poor, 
who  have  no  spoons,  use  their  fingers  for 
eating  pilaw,  and  pieces  of  bread  for  the 
soup  and  lehen.  The  pilaw  is  a  national 
dish,  usually  made  of  boiled  rice,  seasoned 
with  butter,  or,  more  frequently,  with  the 
fat  of  the  sheep's  broad  tail,  and  some- 
times tinged  with  saffron  a  delicate  yel- 
low, and  flavored  with  pease  or  a  few  bits 
of  mutton.  It  is  served  in  a  shallow  dish, 
in  which  it  is  piled  high  in  the  shape  of  a 
cone,  and  each  one  eats  from  the  side  near- 

Servant  bringing  Dishes.  ,  .  .  . 

est  him.  Leben  is  sometimes  served  at  the 
same  time  with  the  pilaw  in  a  small  side-dish  or  bowl,  each  one 
dipping  his  spoon  into  it,  or  mixing  a  little  with  his  pilaw  in 
the  principal  dish. 

The  platters  in  which  the  food  is  served  are  all  of  whitened 
copper,  no  earthenware  being  manufactured  in  the  country 
except  that  which  is  made  of  red  clay,  and  no  other  is  found 
among  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities.  China  dishes  now  used  in 
the  country  are  of  foreign  manufacture.  The  oldest  of  these 
are  found  in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  and  were  the  property  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John.  They  are  supposed  to  have  been  made 
in  Persia,  while  their  large  brass  platters  or  trays  were  brought 
from  Europe,  as  is  evident  from  the  German  mottoes  they  bear. 

It  can  not  be  doubted  that  the  practice  of  eating  with  the 
hand  out  of  a  common  dish  was  universal  throughout  "Western 
Asia  in  Scripture  times.  This  was  evidently  the  case  in  the 
days  of  Ruth,  when  Boaz  invited  her  to  come  and  sit  beside 
the  reapers  in  the  field,  and  dip  her  bread  with  the  rest  in  the 
salad  or  pickle,  which  is  still  a  favorite  with  those  engaged  in 
gathering  the  harvest.*  So,  likewise,  the  Saviour  refers  to  the 
same  custom  in  connection  with  the  treachery  of  Judas.f 

Water  is  not  set  upon  the  table,  but  is  given  by  a  servant  to 
those  who  call  for  it  in  a  shallow  drinking -cup,  usually  of 
brass,:}:  the  attendant  first  looking  into  it  to  see  that  the  water 

*  Ruth  ii.,  14.  t  Matt,  xxvi.,  23. 

X  This  was  the  case  probably  to  an  equal  extent  among  tlie  ancient  Egyptians. 
— Rawlinson,  "  Herodotus,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  52,  and  note. 


THE   FURNITURE   OF  THE   HOUSE. 


475 


is  perfectly  clear.  Some  persons  take  wine  or  shorbei  instead 
of  water ;  the  latter  drink  consists  of  water  flavored  with  some 
acid  sirup,  or  with  a  few  drops  of  orange  -  flower  water.  The 
cup  is  sometimes  of  silver,  and  inscribed  with  mottoes  or  the 
name  of  the  owner.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  cup 
used  in  divination.*  The  form  of  the  cup  in  the  annexed  fig- 
ure is  universally  used  in  all 
parts  of  the  country ;  indeed 
the  natives  manufacture  no 
other.  It  is,  moreover,  found 
in  Egyptian  tombs.f  The 
manner  of  holding  it  is  well 
represented  in  an  Assyrian 
picture  of  the  king  and  his  queen,  and  is  correctly  described  by 
Xenophon,  who  says,  "Immediately  Cyrus  is  equipped  as  a 
cup-bearer,  and  advancing  gravely,  with  a  serious  counten- 


The  Oriuutal  Cup.    i,Matt.  xsvi.,  27.) 


The  Assyrian  Cap. 

ance,  a  napkin  upon  his  shoulder,  and  holding  the  cup  nicely 
with  three  of  his  fingers,  he  presented  it  to  the  king."  This 
was  probably  the  form  of  the  cup  used  at  the  institution  of 
the  Lord's  Supper.     All  who  now  sit  together  at  table  drink 


'  Gen.  xliv.,  5. 


t  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  180,  pi.  193,  figs.  2,  3. 
31 


47( 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


out  of  the  same  cup  after  the  meal,  which  is  filled  for  each  in 
turn.* 

After  eating,  every  one  washes  his  hands  and  rinses  his  mouth 
with  soap  and  water ;  the  slave,  the  servant,  or,  when  these  are 
wanting,  the  son  or  daughter,  or  the  wife  of  the  host,  presents 
the  basin  of  whitened  copper,  which  rests  upon  their  left  hand, 
and  pours  water  from  a  ewer  held  in  the  right.  The  basin  has 
a  perforated  cover,  shaped  at  top  like  a  cup,  which  holds  the 
ball  of  perfumed  soap.     The  attendant  carries  a  napkin  over 


Basin  and  Ewer.    (Matt,  xxvii.,  24. ) 

his  shoulder,!  which  is  used  in  wiping  the  hands  and  mouth. 
This  napkin  is  white,  and  often  embroidered,  as  anciently ;  an- 
other of  dark  blue,  striped  with  red,  is  often  worn  about  the 
loins,  like  an  apron,  or  tucked  into  the  girdle  by  any  person 
performing  menial  duties,  especially  washing  the  feet.:|:  This 
manner  of  washing  the  hands  is  in  use,  not  only  after  a  meal, 
but  at  any  other  time  in  the  day,  particularly  when  there  is  no 
running  fountain  in  the  house ;  and  even  in  this  latter  case  the 
master  of  the  house  and  his  guests  are  always  waited  upon  in 
the  manner  above  described.  Hence  the  fact  that  Elisha  wait- 
ed upon  Elijah  as  a  body-servant  is  expressed  by  saying  that 
he  "poured  water  on  the  hands  of  Elijah. "§ 

After  dinner  the  long  pipe,  or  the  nargileh,  a  contrivance 


*  Gen.  xlii.,  2  ;  2  Sam.  xii.,  3;  Matt,  xxvi.,  27. 
t  Luke  xix.,  20 ;  John  xiii.,  4. 


t  Layard,  vol.  i.,  p.  125. 
§  2  Kings  iii.,  11. 


THE   FURNITURE   OF   THE   HOUSE.  477 

by  which  the  smoke  is  made  to  pass  through  water  before 
reaching  the  mouth,  is  considered  indispensable.  Coffee  is  like- 
wise served,  though  in  entertaining  strangers  it  is  also  passed 
round  before  dinner. 

It  now  seems  impossible  to  ascertain  how  early  coffee  began 
to  be  used  by  man.  There  appears  to  be  no  allusion  to  it  in 
the  works  of  ancient  writers.  It  is  well  known,  however,  that 
the  berry  grows  wild  in  the  middle  portions  of  Africa  as  far 
north  as  Abyssinia,*  whence  the  Arabs  have  a  tradition  that 
it  was  introduced  into  the  province  of  Yemen,  which  now  pro- 
duces the  best  coffee,  bearing  the  name  of  Mocha,  after  the 
name  of  the  city  from  which  it  is  exported.  Coffee  was  un- 
known in  Europe,  however,  till  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century;  for  Thevenot,  who  visited  Constantinople  in  1655,  mi- 
nutely describes  the  berry,  its  use,  and  effects,  in  a  manner  that 
clearly  indicates  the  novelty  of  the  information  he  was  impart- 
ing, yet  he  refers  to  its  universal  use  in  all  parts  of  Turkey. 

Orientals  take  two  regular  meals  a  day :  the  one  early  in  the 
morning  before  going  to  their  business,  which  mainly  consists 
of  the  remains  of  their  evening  meal ;  the  other,  and  principal 
meal,  when  they  return  home  at  sunset.  About  noon,  how- 
ever, they  partake  of  an  informal  luncheon,  consisting  of  the 
fruits  of  the  season,  dried  fruits,  olives,  or  cheese,  etc.,  with  plen- 
ty of  bread.  The  latter  is,  indeed,  the  staff  of  life  with  all  Ori- 
ental nations.  They  consume  it  in  large  quantities,  and  the 
poor  seldom  complain  if  they  have  a  good  supply  of  bread.  In 
all  the  languages  of  the  East  bread  is  a  synonym  for  food ;  so 
that  to  speak  of  eating  bread  at  a  man's  house  signifies  to  be 
entertained  by  him  at  dinner,f  and  a  famine  or  an  abstinence 
from  all  food  is  called  a  lack  of  bread.:}:  As  soon  as  it  is  dark 
the  poor  go  at  once  to  bed.  In  villages  the  only  light  at  night 
is  from  the  blazing  fire  on  the  hearth,  or  a  stick  of  pitch-pine, 
which  is  carried  about  in  the  hand  or  set  in  a  chink  in  the 
wall.§ 

We  have  spoken  of  the  lamps  in  which  olive-oil  is  burned 
in  olive-producing  districts  (see  page  132).  But  even  there 
the  common  tallow -candle  is  much  used,  and  preferred  for 


*  Bruce,  vol.  ii.,  p.  411.  t  2  Sam.  ix.,  13. 

t  Exod.  xxxiv.,  28;   2  Kings  xxv.,  3.  §  Jiulg.  vii.,  16;  Zech.  xii., 


•i78 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


lighting  the  rooms  in  which  they  sit  of  an  evening  *  Candles 
are  made  of  mutton-tallow,  and  have  a  thick  cotton  wick  which 
is  snuffed  with  the  fingers,  or  with  a  small  tongs  used  in  light- 
ing a  pipe  with  a  burning  coal.  Snuffers  of  brass  are  occa- 
sionally seen,  so  constructed  as  to  be  more  easily  cleaned  than 
our  own.     Candles  are  set  upon  candlesticks  of  brass,  silver, 


Caudlcsilicks.    (2  Kiugs  iv.,  10.) 

or  gold,  never  having  more  than  a  single  stem.f  The  largest 
of  these  are  four  feet  high,  and  are  set  in  the  middle  of  the 
floor.:}:  The  common  size,  however,  is  about  a  foot  in  height, 
and  is  set  upon  the  little  table  used  for  the  family  meals.§  The 
table  in  the  little  room  prepared  for  Elisha  by  the  good  Shu- 


*  Luke  XV.,  8. 
t  Matt,  v.,  15. 


t  Clmidin,  vol.  iii.,  p.  IGG. 
§  2  Kings  iv.,  10. 


THE   FURNITURE   OF  THE   HOUSE.  479 

namite  was  simply  designed  to  set  the  candlestick  upon,  for  it 
would  be  contrary  to  all  usages  of  Oriental  society  that  the 
prophet  should  take  his  meals  elsewhere  than  at  the  table  of 
his  host.  Many  people  keep  a  light  burning  all  night,  and  not 
a  few  would  consider  their  lot  a  hard  one  to  bear 
if  obliged  to  pass  the  night  in  total  darkness.* 
A  glass  cup  is  suspended  by  a  wire  passing 
around  its  rim  from  the  ceiling  at  one  corner 
of  the  room.  It  is  filled  with  water  and  oil, 
and  a  small  floating  wick  gives  light  enough 
for  moving  about  at  night.  This  little  lamp  is 
kept  burning  by  superstition  at  the  tombs  of 
Hanging  Lamps.     Muslim  and  Christian  saints,  and  constitutes 

(Prov.  sx.,  20.)  i?  -n         •      4.-  •    i       t    • 

the  means  oi  lUummation  on  special  religious 
festivals.  This  kind  of  lamp  was  used  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians in  their  illuminations,  particularly  during  the  feast  of 
Minerva,  but  the  cup  was  generally  of  earthenware  instead  of 
glass.f  The  salt  in  the  oil  doubtless  constituted  it  a  sacrifice.:}: 
It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that  oil  must  always  be 
salted,  or  it  would  not  keep. 

The  lanterns  of  the  present  day,  both  the  large  kind,  which 
is  permanently  hung,  and  the  small  portable  kind  carried  about 
at  night,  are  made  of  a  frame  of  tin  set  with  glass ;  but  the 
ancient  type  is  still  in  use,  consisting  of  two  circular  pieces  of 
perforated  copper  for  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  lantern,  the 
latter  having  a  tallow  candle-end  set  in  its  centre,  while  the 
sides,  which  give  it  a  cylindrical  form,  are  of  waxed  cloth, 
parchment,  or  even  common  paper,  folded  in  rings  or  kept  in 
shape  by  means  of  wire.  The  handle  is  at  the  top,  and  the 
whole  folds  down  into  a  very  small  space.  This  was  doubtless 
the  kind  of  lantern  used  by  the  servants  of  the  high-priest  when 
led  by  the  traitor  Judas  into  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane.^ 
Torches  are  sometimes  used  for  the  purposes  of  illumination  on 
occasions  of  marriage  or  other  festivities,  being  held  aloft  by 
the  hand  or  fixed  in  the  ground.  These  are  called  "  meshal," 
and  have  already  been  described  in  connection  with  night 
fishing  (page  70). 


*  Job  xviii.,  5,  6.  t  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  298. 

t  Lev.  ii.,  13.  §  John  xviii.,  3. 


480  BIBLE    LANDS. 

There  is  a  kind  of  torch  which  is  used  by  the  police  of  Cairo, 
and  is  called  "shealeh,"  and  may  throw  some  light  upon  the 
means  employed  by  Gideon  and  his  three  hundred  men  to 
terrify  the  Midianites  and  overthrow  them.'^  It  burns  without 
a  flame,  except  when  waved  through  the  air,  which  causes  it  at 
once  to  burst  into  a  blaze.  Its  burning  end  is  covered  with  a 
small  earthen  jar,  or  "  pitcher,"  and  it  thus  answers  the  purpose 
of  a  dark  lantern ;  but  experienced  thieves  are  set  upon  their 
guard  by  the  small  light  it  emits.f 

There  remains  a  portion  of  the  furniture  of  the  house  of  a 
man  in  comfortable  circumstances  which  we  have  not  yet  de- 
scribed. The  dining-room  and  sitting-room  are  identical,  as  we 
have  already  seen  ;  and  so  is  the  bedroom.  In  that  portion  of 
the  apartment  already  described  as  lying  nearest  the  door,  and 
as  being  several  inches  lower  than  the  raised  square  around 
which  is  the  divan,  a  large  cupboard  or  closet  is  built  in  the 
wall,  where  the  bedding  of  the  night  occupants  of  the  chamber 
is  stowed  away.:]:  The  bed  is  spread  at  night  in  the  raised  por- 
tion of  the  room ;  but  in  cold  weather  the  bed  is  made  in 
the  closet  itself.  The  mattress  is  stuffed  with  wool,  which  lies 
loose  in  its  bag-like  cover,  and  is  shaken  and  smoothed  each 
time  the  bed  is  spread.  Over  it  is  laid  a  sheet,  one  of  the  sofa 
cushions  being  often  placed  at  the  head  to  support  the  pillow, 
which  is  narrow  and  flat,  and  is  filled  with  wool  or  cotton.  It 
is  often  covered  with  gay -colored  silk  or  satin,  usually  red. 
The  pillow-case  leaves  the  pillow  uncovered  at  both  ends,  and 
has  a  broad  wrought  edge  through  which  the  bright  shade  of 
the  silk  is  seen.  The  coverlet,  thickly  wadded  with  wool  or 
cotton,  which  makes  it  stiff  and  heavy,  is  covered  with  flowered 
chintz,  or  with  crimsoned  silk,  satin,  or  brocade.  The  upper 
sheet  is  not  spread  upon  the  bed,  but  is  sewed  to  the  "chaf," 
or  coverlet,  every  time  it  is  changed,  by  turning  back  and  slight- 
ly stitching  its  edges.     No  night-dress  is  used,  and  of  the  cloth- 


*  Judg.  vii.,  IG,  19.  t  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  l.')2  ;  Bruce,  vol.  iv.,  p.  009. 

t  This  closet  is  probably  alluded  to  in  2  Kings  xi.,  2,  and  2  Chron.  xxii.,  11 ; 
it  would  certainly  be  an  excellent  place  of  concealment.  It  is  called  a  cafess,  or 
cage,  by  the  Turks  (Stanley,  "Jewish  Church,"  vol.  ii..  p.  4n0) :  but  the  Egyp- 
tians call  cn/ess  the  wicker  mattress  on  wliich  tliey  spread  their  beds  in  warm  wcatli- 
er,  a  custom  they  have  derived  from  their  ancestors. — Uawlinson's  "  Herodotus, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  55,  note. 


THE    FURNITLTRE   OF   TUE   HOUSE.  481 

ing  worn  through  the  day  only  the  outer  garments  are  laid 
aside;  but  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  country,  and  in  the 
summer  season,  many  people  take  off  all  their  clothes  at  night, 
and  sleep  under  a  slight  covering,  unless  tjiey  can  lie  out-of- 
doors.  The  turban  is  carefully  taken  off,  and  laid  upon  a  chair 
or  stool  never  used  for  any  other  purpose,*  and  a  simple  cotton 
skull-cap  is  worn  in  its  stead.  The  lower  classes,  however, 
undo  the  turban  every  night  and  make  it  up  again  in  the 
morning,  while  the  women  wear  that  same  head-dress  night 
and  day,  never  re-arranging  it  except  at  the  bath.  It  may 
here  be  remarked  that  the  people  of  Western  Asia  transgress 
in  one  particular,  as  even  they  themselves  acknowledge,  the 
principles  of  hygiene,  for  they  keep  their  heads  bundled  up 
and  warm,  while  their  feet  and  even  lower  limbs  are  often  quite 
bare  and  cold;  this  is  very  commonly  the  case  in  sleep,  for 
they  draw  up  the  heavy  coverlet  over  their  heads,  while  they 
leave  their  feet  exposed,  and  often  resting  upon  the  cold  floor, 
a  practice  peculiarly  dangerous  for  the  sick,  who  are  often  left 
to  themselves  during  the  entire  night.  The  custom  of  sleeping 
in  the  clothes  worn  through  the  day  seems  to  date  as  far  back 
as  the  time  of  Moses,  as  we  may  infer  from  Exod.  xxii.,  26,  27. 
Men,  when  working  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  throw  off  their 
outer  garments,  and  put  them  on  again  when  they  are  done; 
and  often  the  only  night  covering  of  the  poor  is  their  day- 
clothing.  In  all  the  languages  of  the  East  a  person  is  said  to 
be  "  naked  "  when  he  is  simply  divested  of  his  outer  garments, 
and  wears  nothing  but  his  drawers  and  his  shirt,  which  hangs 
over  them.  It  was  in  this  sense  only  that  Peter  was  "naked" 
when  our  Lord  appeared  to  him  and  the  other  disciples  on  the 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret.f  Absolute  nudity  is  consid- 
ered a  disgrace  to  which  no  one,  with  the  exception  of  children 
and  youth,  voluntarily  submits.:]:  The  narrative  contained  in 
Mark  xiv.,  51,  refers  to  the  practice  of  sleeping  almost  or  en- 
tirely unclad,  as  at  the  present  day  in  Palestine  and  Egypt,  in 
the  house.  The  covering  consists  of  a  single  sheet,  known  as 
an  article  of  commerce  by  the  Arabic  name  heram.%  When 
we  read  that  Saul  "lay  down  naked  "  among  the  prophets  "all 


*  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  43.  tJohnxxi.,7.  t  2  Sam.  x.,  4. 

§  Lane,  "Modern  Egyptians,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  7. 


482  BIBLE   LANDS. 

that  day  and  all  that  night,"  we  understand  that  he  threw  off 
his  outer  garments.*  So  with  the  ironical  language  of  Michal 
to  David :  "  How  glorious  was  the  king  of  Israel  to-day,  who 
uncovered  himself  to-day  in  the  eyes  of  the  handmaids  of  his 
servants,  as  one  of  the  vain  fellows  shamelessly  uucovereth 
himself  !"f  for  it  is  distinctly  stated  that  the  king  "  was  girded 
with  a  Hnen  ephod"  when  Michal  saw  him  through  a  window 
or  lattice  (verse  16).  The  expression  "  walking  naked,"  in 
Isa.  XX.,  2,  is  explained  by  Jonah  iii.,  6,  which  refers  to  the 
custom  of  wearing  the  sackcloth  over  the  under-garments.  The 
same  mode  of  expression  existed  among  the  Greeks ;:{:  and  we 
have  heard  a  woman  apologize  for  "  appearing  naked  "  when 
she  was  surprised  in  her  working  garb.§ 

Parents  sleep  in  the  same  apartment  with  their  children,! 
unless  the  parents  are  wealthy,  and  can  leave  them  in  the  care 
of  servants.^  We  have  known  a  mother  to  sleep  in  the  same 
bed  with  her  five  little  children,  and  this  fact  alone  proves  that 
beds  must  have  been  spread  on  the  floor  in  ancient  times  as  at 
the  present  day.**  It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  bed  is  often  spread  upon  a  permanent  platform,  built  of 
wood  at  one  corner  of  the  room,  with  a  low  railing  around  it. 
We  have  repeatedly  seen  this  in  the  colder  climates  of  the 
higher  regions  of  Western  Asia;  and  even  in  Egypt  the  closet 
in  which  the  bedding  is  kept,  which  is  generally  raised  a  foot 
or  two  from  the  floor,  is  used  during  the  winter  as  an  alcove, 
which  is  a  warmer  place  to  sleep  in.ff  The  expression  to  come 
down  from  a  bed  or  to  go  up  to  it  seems  to  indicate  the  preva- 
lence of  a  similar  custom  in  Bible  times.:}:^  We  have  already 
referred  to  the  custom  of  keeping  a  jar  of  water  near  the  head 
of  the  bed  for  drinking  in  hot  weather,  and  particularly  for  the 
use  of  the  children. §§  It  should  also  be  added  that  Orientals 
go  early  to  bed,  sitting  up  but  a  short  time  after  candle-light- 
ing, and  always  rising  with  the  dawn.  They  do  sometimes  sit 
up  till  a  late  hour  of  the  night  when  entertaining  guests,  or 
meeting  with  old  friends  from  whom  they  have  been  long 
separated. 

*  1  Sam.  xix.,  24.  t  2  Sam.  vi.,  20.  |  Plutardi,  '"Lives," Lye.  21. 

§  Job  xxii.,  G.  II  Luke  xi.,  7.  1  Exod.  ii.,  9. 

**  Matt,  ix.,  6.  tt  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  22. 

XI  2  Kings  i.,  4.  §§  Matt,  x.,  42. 


THE   FURNITURE    OF   THE   HOUSE.  483 

lu  the  summer  season  the  favorite  sleeping -place  is  the 
flat  roof  or  terrace  where  the  bedding  is  spread  in  the  open 
air.  In  the  mountain  villages,  particularly  of  Koordistan,  plat- 
forms are  erected,  supported  by  four  upright  posts,  and  used  as 
summer  sleeping -places,  the  better  to  secure  the  cool  night- 
breeze,  as  well  as  to  escape  the  vermin  and.  mosquitoes  which 
infest  the  huts  at  that  season  of  the  year.  In  Lower  Meso- 
potamia, in  Mossul  and  Bagdad,  the  houses  are  furnished  with 
cellars  of  solid  masonrj^,  in  which  the  inmates  spend  the  hot- 
test hours  of  the  day. 

Our  picture  of  the  interior  of  an  Oriental  house  would  not 
be  complete  without  a  description  of  what  is  usually  called  the 
"  Turkish  bath,"  but  which,  as  is  now  well  known,  was  only 
adopted  by  them  when  they  conquered  Western  Asia.  It  does 
not  exist  in  the  country  whence  they  came,  and  was  evident- 
ly known  both  to  the  Greeks  and  the  Eomans  as  having  been 
introduced  from  the  East.  This  system  of  bathing  probably 
originated  with  the  Babylonians,  whom  the  earliest  historical 
records  represent  as  employing  it  with  a  degree  of  refinement 
scarcely  reached  at  the  present  day.  Yet  we  find  undoubted 
references  to  it  in  very  old  Egyptian  sculptures.*  The  houses 
of  the  rich  frequently  contain  a  bath  of  their  own  of  smaller 
dimensions  than  the  public  bath,  and  connected  with  the  ha- 
rim,  or  women's  apartments,  and  the  fair  inmates  are  extreme- 
ly fond  of  whiling  away  their  time  and  enhancing  their  per- 
sonal charms  by  its  frequent  use.f  The  public  bath  is  a  stone 
structure  of  great  solidity,  erected  by  the  munificence  of  per- 
sons who  seek  thus  to  atone  for  their  crimes  and  appease  divine 
justice,  or,  as  is  more  frequently  the  case,  as  a  profitable  source 
of  income.  The  number  of  these  baths  in  Oriental  cities  is 
often  very  great :  Cairo,  for  instance,  with  a  population  of  not 
over  two  hundred  thousand  souls,  possesses  some  seventy  or 
eighty.:}: 

There  is,  properly  speaking,  no  wood- work  about  a  bath ;  it 
is  wholly  built  of  stone  or  brick,  and  is  therefore  fire -proof. 
As  many  towns  in  Turkey  are  occasionally  destroyed  by  con- 

*  See  the  details  in  fig.  479  of  Wilkinson's  "Ancient  Egypt,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  349 
{Harper),  which  represents  with  remarkable  accuracy  the  processes  peculiar  to  the 
Turkish  or  Oriental  bath. 

t  Esth.  ii.,  12.  X  Lane,  vol.  ii..  p.  3G. 


484 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


flagration,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  the  street  becomes  raised 
each  time  higher  than  before,  so  that  the  floor  of  the  bath  not 
unfrequently  occupies  a  lower  level  than  the  street.  The  plan 
of  the  building  differs  somewhat,  according  to  the  water  sup- 
ply and  other  causes;  yet  there  is  a  general  uniformity,  to 
which  we  shall  confine  our  description,  omitting  all  unimpor- 
tant and  varvins;  details. 


Plan  of  an  Oriental  public  Bath.     (Ezek.  xxiii.,  40.) 

The  floors  of  the  bath  proper  are  built  upon  vaults  which 
contain  fire-places  and  caldrons  {hazneh)  for  heating  the  water 
which  supplies  the  fountains.  The  floor  and  walls  of  the 
bath  contain  pipes  of  burned  clay,  terminated  at  the  roof  by 
others  made  of  tin  or  lead,  which  carry  off  the  surplus  steam. 
By  this  means  the  floor  and  walls  of  the  main  building  are  so 
heated  that  they  can  not  be  touched  with  the  hands  or  feet, 
while  the  steam  frequently  escapes  through  the  cracks  and 
crevices.  The  interior  of  the  bath  varies  little  in  form ;  there 
is  a  central  area,  either  square  or  octagonal,  in  the  midst  of 
which  is  a  basin  of  tepid  water  three  feet  deep,  or  in  its  stead 
a  platform  of  smooth  marble,  two  feet  higher  than  the  floor. 
This  area  is  covered  by  the  principal  dome  of  the  bath,  lined 
on  the  outside  with  lead,  and  admitting  the  light  by  means  of 
concentric  circles  of  holes,  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  tight- 
ly fitted  with  a  cap  of  thick  bottle-glass.  Around  the  central 
are  four  small  apartments  occupying  the  corners  of  the  square 
building,  each  covered  with  its  own  little  dome,  perforated  in 
like  manner,  and  supplied  with  its  fountain.      Three  of  the 


97--BiA!iiVvVis 


^ 


Interior  of  au  Orieutal  Bath. 


THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  HOUSE.  487 

spaces  which  lie  between  these  four  rooms  resemble  large  al- 
coves, being  called  Uiuans,  and  are  each  provided  with  a  fount- 
ain, consisting  of  a  marble  basin  against  the  wall,  with  two 
faucets  for  hot  and  cold  water.  The  number  of  the  fountains, 
however,  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  bath.  The  fourth  space 
is  occupied  by  a  small  wooden  door,  which  shuts  with  a  slam 
whenever  pushed  open,  having  a  weight  attached  to  the  end 
of  a  rope  which  passes  over  a  pulley ;  it  leads  to  an  anteroom. 
Another  similar  door  opens  thence  into  the  dressing -room. 
The  anteroom  between  the  dressing-room  and  the  bath  is  of 
medium  temperature.  There  bathers  often  sit  a  while  before 
going  within,  or  where  they  may  cool  off  after  their  bath,  and 
wrap  themselves  in  dry  towels.  It  is  provided  with  latrines. 
We  have  now  reached  the  dressing-room,  proceeding  from  the 
interior  of  the  bath  outwardly ;  it  is  in  reality  the  first  apart- 
ment entered  from  the  street,  and  forms  a  sort  of  vestibule  or 
anteroom  to  the  bath.  It  is  sometimes  built  in  as  solid  a  style 
as  the  bath  itself,  but  more  commonly  contrasts  with  it  in  light- 
ness of  material  and  plainness  of  architecture. 

Entering  from  the  street  into  this  dressing-room,  the  most 
noticeable  object  is  a  platform  on  the  right  and  left,  raised 
several  feet  from  the  floor,  upon  which  are  the  couches  of  the 
bathers,  each  spread  upon  its  own  slightly  raised  wooden  frame, 
arranged  in  a  row  with  the  head  against  the  wall.  The  centre 
of  this  antechamber  is  occupied  by  a  marble  basin,  square  or 
octagonal,  supplied  with  water,  and  often  with  a  jetting  fount- 
ain. Here  flowers  are  kept  fresh,  and  diffuse  a  grateful  fra- 
grance, while  lemons  float  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  cooling 
for  use  in  preparing  lemonade.  On  the  slightly  raised  plat- 
form by  the  side  of  the  door  sits  the  master  of  the  bath  upon 
his  little  divan,  with  a  cupboard  close  by,  from  which  he  dis- 
penses the  fresh  towels,  and  a  chest  in  which  he  keeps  his 
money,  and  the  watches,  jewels,  purses,  and  other  valuables  in- 
trusted to  his  care  by  the  bathers.  At  one  side  of  the  door 
leading  into  the  interior  of  the  bath  is  a  stone  bench,  upon 
which  lighted  coals  smoulder  under  ashes,  where  a  little  coffee- 
pot is  ever  simmering.  A  stand  for  pipes  completes  the  fur- 
niture of  the  apartment.  The  windows  of  this  lofty  and  spa- 
cious room  are  set  very  high,  near  the  ceiling,  and  up  there 
ropes  are  fastened  across  from  wall  to  wall,  upon  which  are  hung 


488  BIBLE    LANDS. 

to  dry  the  towels  of  the  establishment.  These  are  white  and 
dark  blue  striped  with  red ;  and  one  of  the  attendants  makes 
use  of  a  long  pole  in  spreading  them  upon  the  lines,  or  in  tak- 
ing them  down  to  fold  and  put  away. 

The  customers  as  they  come  in  are  received  with  a  welcome 
from  the  master  of  the  bath,  and  selecting  a  couch,  each  one 
for  himself,  proceed  to  unrobe.  When  the  visitor  is  a  well- 
dressed  man,  and  particularly  if  accompanied  by  a  servant, 
he  is  received  with  special  attentions,  and  one  of  the  best 
couches  is  shown  him.  Couches  intended  for  the  use  of 
more  honorable  guests  are  often  spread  in  a  room  parti- 
tioned off  from  the  rest  by  a  light  wall  or  lattice-work.  As 
the  customer  undresses,  he  folds  each  garment  upon  a  towel 
provided  and  spread  out  for  the  purpose,  whose  corners  he 
afterward  laps  over  each  other  or  ties  together,  and  places 
the  bundle  on  his  couch,  setting  his  shoes  at  the  foot,  sole  to 
sole. 

During  the  process  of  undressing  one  of  the  attendants  brings 
a  large  blue  towel,  which  he  fastens  around  the  waist  of  the 
bather,  so  as  to  cover  his  form  down  to  the  ankles,  and  a  long 
white  towel  is  thrown  like  a  scarf  around  his  shoulders.  He 
is  then  furnished  with  plain  wooden  clogs  or  pattens,  and  pro- 
ceeds to  the  bath,  the  door  of  which  is  opened  by  an  attendant, 
who  claps  his  hands  as  a  signal  that  a  fresh  customer  is  going  in. 
If  the  bather  should  prefer  to  accustom  himself  gradually  to 
the  heat,  a  towel  with  a  cushion  upon  it  is  spread  on  the  stone 
platform  of  the  first  room,  which  answers  to  the  Koman  tepi- 
dariura.  Here  he  reclines,  smoking  his  pipe  and  sipping  his 
coffee,  and  then  proceeds  through  the  inner  door  into  the  bath 
proper,  where  he  stretches  himself  out  at  full  length  upon  the 
marble  platform  in  the  centre,  a  soft  towel  being  spread  under 
him,  and  his  head  resting  upon  a  cushion  filled  with  straw. 
He  now  wears  only  the  blue  towel  around  his  waist,  and  while 
waiting  for  the  perspiration  to  start  thoroughly  from  the  pores 
of  his  skin,  he  can  amuse  himself  counting  the  holes  in  the  dome 
overhead,  or,  like  Noosreddin  Khoja,  admiring  the  echoes  of 
his  own  voice;  for  every  sound  is  re-echoed  and  multiplied  to 
such  a  degree  that  the  noise  of  the  inner  bath  forms  the  greatest 
contrast  with  the  quiet  of  the  dressing-room,  where  the  song  of 
the  canary  or  blackbird  often  alone  breaks  the  stillness.     Here 


THE    FURNITURE   OF   THE   HOUSE,  489 

the  business  of  the  attendants,  called  tellah^  consists  in  perform- 
ing various  operations  for  the  bathers,  keeping  the  floors  clean, 
washing  out  the  towels,  etc.  They  spend  the  whole  day  in  the 
bath,  girt  with  a  simple  towel,  coming  out  occasionally  into  the 
dressing-room  to  cool  off  and  smoke  a  pipe.  The  only  pay 
they  receive  from  the  proprietor  is  an  occasional  present ;  but 
they  rely  on  the  generosity  of  those  who  patronize  the  bath ; 
and  this  being  not  uniform  in  degree,  they  attend  on  customers 
by  turns,  in  the  order  in  which  they  come.  Hence  the  num- 
ber of  these  servants  in  a  bath  always  indicates  the  extent  of  its 
patronage,  and  is  greater  on  Friday  mornings,  or  just  before 
some  great  festival,  than  on  pther  occasions.  They  are  gener- 
ally young  men  from  sixteen  to  twenty-five,  who  thus  seek  to 
acquire  a  little  money,  and  enter  into  some  more  agreeable 
business.  They  complain  that  this  employment  is  enfeebling 
to  the  constitution,  yet  we  have  known  men  of  fifty  who  had 
followed  it  from  their  youth. 

The  tellak  begins  his  operations  by  a  sort  of  kneading  proc- 
ess, the  object  of  which  is  to  open  the  pores,  and  cause  the  per- 
spiration to  flow  freely;  he  then  distends  the  cartilages  of  the 
joints,  making  each  to  crack  in  turn,  beginning  at  the  fingers 
and  going  through  the  entire  body  even  to  the  toes,  not  omit- 
ting the  joints  of  the  neck  and  ribs.  This  operation  is  per- 
formed partly  while  the  bather  lies  upon  his  back ;  he  then 
turns  upon  his  chest,  and  the  tellah  finishes  the  process  in  that 
position.  Next  the  tellak  inserts  his  hand  in  a  small  hair-cloth 
bag,  and,  wetting  it  occasionally,  rubs  down  the  whole  body 
most  thoroughly,  a  process  which  removes  the  imperceptible 
deposit  left  upon  the  skin,  and  constitutes  the  chief  peculiarity 
of  this  mode  of  bathing. 

The  bather  then  sits  down  upon  a  small  wooden  frame,  or 
upon  the  marble  floor  beside  the  fountain,  in  one  of  the  al- 
coves, or  within  one  of  the  small  side  rooms,  and  the  tellah, 
opening  the  faucets,  fills  the  little  marble  basin  with  water  of  a 
temperature  to  suit  him.  The  operation  of  soaping  the  head 
or  shampooing  now  begins;  this  is  repeated  three  times,  a  great 
quantity  of  water  being  poured  upon  the  head  after  each  rub- 
bing in  of  the  soap,  by  means  of  a  shallow  brass  basin  a  foot 
in  diameter.  The  tellak  then  brings  a  larger  brass  bowl,  filled 
with  the  soft  string-like  fibres  of  the  palm-tree  (leef),  which  he 


490 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


rubs  with  the  soap  and  lathers  the  whole  body ;  then  basin 
after  basin  of  clean  warm  water  is  poured  over  the  body  till  it 
is  thoroughly  rinsed,  and  the  bathing  is  completed.    But  when 

there  is  a  tank  of 
hot  water,  the  bath- 
er often  winds  up 
with  a  plunge,  af- 
ter which  a  dry 
towel  is  wrapped 
around  his  body, 
another  envelopes 
his  shoulders,  and, 
when  his  head  has 
been  well  wiped, 
two  more  towels 
are  bound  turban- 
like around  it.  Pla- 
cing his  feet  in  a 
pair  of  clogs,  upon 
which  has  just  been 
poured  a  basin  of 
warm  water,  he 
then  repairs  to 
the  dressing-room, 
where  he  lies  down 
upon  the  couch 
prepared  for  him. 
There  he  reclines 
and  gradually  cools 
off,  dozing,  sipping 
coffee  or  shorbet, 
or  smoking  his 
pipe.  When  suffi- 
ciently rested,  an 
attendant  thoroughly  dries  his  body  and  his  hair,  and  as  soon 
as  he  is  dressed  presents  him  with  a  mirror,  and  a  comb  re- 
sembling our  fine  combs,  though  larger.  The  mirror  is  cir- 
cular, and  about  six  inches  in  diameter,  having  a  handle,  and 
being  ornamented  with  mother-of-pearl.  That  used  by  the  la- 
dies usually  bears  the  picture  of  a  belle  on  the  reverse,  to  serve 


THE   FURNITURE   OF   THE   HOUSE.  491 

probably  as  a  model  in  arranging  their  own  toilets.*  Just  be- 
fore the  bather  takes  his  leave,  he  distributes  his  fees  severally 
to  the  owner  of  the  bath,  the  tellak  who  waited  on  him,  the  caf- 
fejy,  or  dispenser  of  the  coffee,  pipes,  and  other  refreshments,  and 
other  servants  of  the  establishment.  Even  these  largesses  scarce- 
ly raise  his  expenses  to  the  sum  of  half  a  dollar,  and  as  he  retires 
one  and  all  dismiss  him  with  a  "godspeed"  and  "come  again." 

The  identity  of  the  modern  processes  of  the  bath  with  those 
of  the  Egyptians  is  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  accompanying 
plate  from  Wilkinson. 

We  have  detailed  the  ordinary  process  of  bathing,  but  other 
operations  are  often  performed  in  the  bath ;  some  of  these  are 
of  a  medicinal  character,  such  as  cupping,  searing  the  flesh  for 
rheumatic  complaints,  etc.  The  depilatory  is  used  after  the 
friction  of  the  body  with  the  hair-cloth  bag,  and  before  the  ap- 
plication of  soap.  Modern  Orientals,  like  the  ancients,  consider 
hair  upon  the  body  a  great  blemish,  and  use  a  variety  of  means 
to  remove  it.  Their  effect,  however,  is  only  temporary,  and 
often  develops  it  all  the  more.  We  have  repeatedly  seen  men 
in  the  bath  who  reminded  us  of  hairy  Esau,  and  who  certainly 
surpassed  the  Mexican  specimen  of  anatomy  preserved  in  the 
Paris  Museum.  Some  content  themselves  with  the  use  of  the 
razor;  and  this  must  be  considered  a  very  ancient  practice,  for 
it  was  enjoined  by  the  Mosaic  law  as  part  of  the  purification 
required  of  the  Levites  for  the  service  of  the  Tabernacle. f 
Others  employ  quicklime  mixed  with  orpiment,  as  did  the  an- 
cient Eomans.:}:  The  Arabs  use  a  kind  of  resin,  called  liban- 
shamy,  in  a  melted  state,  and  sometimes  they  simply  rub  on  the 
ashes  of  charcoal.  They  also  pretend  to  accomplish  the  same 
object,  once  for  all,  by  the  application  of  bats'  blood  to  the  body 
of  a  new-born  infant.§  Instead  of  these  external  applications, 
however,  the  body  is  sometimes  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  pumice- 
stone  or  with  a  clay  rasp,  which  is  usually  employed  upon  the 
soles  of  the  feet.  The  ancient  Babylonians  made  use  of  the 
pumice-stone  for  the  removal  of  the  hair  of  the  body  and  even 
of  the  beard,  as  we  read  in  the  story  of  Parsondes,  related  by 
Nicolaus  of  Damascus.  | 

*  Perkins,  p.  283.  f  Numb,  viii.,  7.  %  Thevenot,  p.  32. 

§  Russell,  "Aleppo,"  vol.  i.,  p.  184;  Lane,  "Modern  Egyptians,"  vol.  i.,  p.  27. 
II  Layard,  vol.  ii.,  p.  256. 

82 


492  BIBLE   LANDS. 

The  women  frequent  the  bath  more  than  the  men.  The 
bathing  establishments  of  the  latter  are  situated  in  the  business 
part  of  the  town,  while  those  appropriated  to  the  use  of  the 
women,  and  which  far  outnumber  the  others,  stand  among  the 
dwelling-houses,  where  few  men  are  seen  in  the  day-time  in  the 
streets.  There  are,  however,  baths  which  men  may  frequent 
during  certain  hours  of  the  day,  or  on  certain  days  of  the 
week.  The  women's  baths  are  appropriated,  on  different  days 
of  the  week,  to  the  exclusive  use  of  persons  of  different  sects, 
in  order  to  avoid  the  supercilious  and  often  unkind  treatment 
which  Christian  and  Jewish  women  receive  from  their  Muslim 
sisters.  It  would  be  a  most  heinous  offense  for  a  man  to  break 
into  a  woman's  bath.  Mohammedan  law  exercises  a  most  jeal- 
ous care  over  women,  not  only  as  a  protection  to  the  weak,  but 
also  to  guard  the  rights  of  the  husband  and  father.  It  may 
be  here  remarked  that  the  people  of  Western  Asia  are  unsur- 
passed by  any  others  in  the  care  with  which  they  cover  such 
parts  of  their  persons  as  they  deem  it  immodest  to  expose.* 
Little  children  under  the  age  of  ten,  particularly  among  the 
poor,  are  indeed  seen  running  about  in  a  state  of  nature.f  So 
it  is  in  the  bath,  where  it  is  thought  superfluous  to  waste  any 
covering  for  little  boys  or  girls  up  to  the  age  of  ten  or  twelve ; 
but  this  is  all  changed  when  they  reach  the  age  of  puberty. 
A  man  never  bathes  in  the  sea,  or  any  other  public  place,  with- 
out wearing  a  pair  of  drawers  or  a  cloth  tied  around  his  waist ; 
as  much  can  not  be  said  of  some  Western  nations.  When 
women  bathe  out-of-doors  they  are  careful  to  choose  an  iso- 
lated spot,  and,  like  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh  when  she  came 
down  to  wash  herself  at  the  river,  set  one  of  their  companions 
to  walk  along  by  the  river  and  give  the  alarm.  The  nomad 
and  village  women  wash  themselves  and  the  clothes  they  wear 
in  a  retired  spot  on  the  bank  of  some  neighboring  river,  where, 
if  a  man  chance  to  come  suddenly  upon  them,  they  set  up  such 


*  Herodotus  says  that  "among  the  Lydians,  and  indeed  among  the  barbarians 
generally  "  (by  which  he  means  here  the  people  of  Western  Asia).  "  it  is  reckoned 
a  deep  disgrace,  even  to  a  man,  to  be  seen  naked."  Morier  speaks  of  having  been 
stnick  with  the  same  tiling  in  Persia  ("'Second  Journey," p.  GO).  Mohammed 
forbids  his  followers  to  expose  themselves  indecently  in  the  sight  of  a  person  of  ei- 
ther sex. — Tavernier,  "  Seraglio,"  p.  44  ;  2  Sam.  x.,  4  ;  Kev.  iii.,  18. 

t  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  67  ;  Spencer,  vol.  i.,  p.  358. 


THE   FURNITURE   OF   THE   HOUSE.  498 

a  chorus  of  cries  and  curses  that  he  is  glad  to  escape  out  of 
sight.  Women  of  doubtful  character  alone  bathe  in  a  quasi 
public  manner,  like  the  harlots  in  the  Pool  of  Samaria.*  Lay- 
ard  notices  a  custom  be  witnessed  among  the  Nestorians  in- 
habiting the  mountains  of  Koordistan,  as  well  as  among  the 
Yezidies,  their  neighbors,  which  is  so  much  opposed  to  the 
prevailing  ideas  of  the  East,  that  we  should  feel  inclined  to 
deny  the  correctness  of  his  statements  were  they  not  sustain- 
ed by  so  reliable  an  authority.  He  says  it  is  the  general  cus- 
tom for  the  women  to  bathe  in  the  most  public  manner  on  the 
river  banks,  walking  about  unconcernedly,  not  seeking  in  the 
least  to  screen  themselves  from  the  sight  of  men  ;  that  they  per- 
form their  weekly  ablutions  outside  their  cabin  doors,  and  that 
when  a  Muslim  bids  them  "get  out  of  sight,"  they  coolly  reply, 
"Turn  your  head  the  other  way."f  This  is  utterly  at  vari- 
ance with  the  feelings  of  Oriental  women  elsewhere,  whose 
general  modesty  of  demeanor  can  not  be  denied,  so  that  the 
only  way  we  can  explain  the  existence  of  the  custom  cited 
above  is  to  give  it  a  historic  origin.  The  mountain  Nestorians 
originally  inhabited  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  and  so  did  the 
Yezidies,  unless  they  came  from  the  parts  nearer  the  Persian 
Gulf  Sabeanism  was  once  the  religion  of  both,  and  still  ex- 
ists  among  the  Yezidies,  The  practice  alluded  to  may  have 
some  connection  with  it.  In  Egypt,  indeed,  where  the  coun- 
try is  intersected  by  canals  and  overflowed  in  the  summer,  it  is 
not  uncommon  to  come  upon  a  group  of  girls,  whose  graceful 
motions,  as  they  swim  toward  some  neighboring  village,  can 
only  be  compared  to  those  of  a  flock  of  aquatic  birds.  The 
women  of  Mesopotamia  who  live  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates  provide  themselves  with  a  skin  bag,  which  they 
inflate  whenever  they  wish  to  cross  the  river,  taking  off  their 
clothing  and  tying  it  upon  their  heads ;  and  Bruce  speaks  of 
Arab  girls  on  the  south-eastern  coast  of  the  Eed  Sea  who 
swam  a  mile  to  his  ship,  unmindful  of  the  sharks,  in  quest  of 
stibium  with  which  to  color  their  eyebrows,  and  who  seemed 
perfectly  unconscious  of  the  impropriety  of  their  nude  condi- 
tion in  the  presence  of  men.:j:     But  these  are  exceptional  cases. 


*  Josephus,  "Antiquities,"  book  viii.,  chap,  v.,  §  6. 

t  Layard,  "Nineveh," vol.  i.,  pp.  170, 18G,  232,  294.      J  Bnice,  vol.  \.,\k  ^.17, 


494  BIBLE    LANDS. 

and  do  not  affect  the  truth  of  the  general  statements  made 
above. 

But  to  return  to  the  bath  of  the  women.  They  must  all  re- 
sort to  it  at  least  once  a  week,  and  they  then  spend  the  whole 
day  in  it,  going  early  in  the  morning  and  returning  late  in  the 
afternoon.  Provisions  are  taken  along  with  them  for  a  hearty 
meal.  The  slaves,  if  there  be  any,  carry  large  bundles  of  clean 
clothes  and  towels.  The  girls  and  the  boys,  too,  under  age, 
form  a  part  of  the  group,  and  the  house  is  shut  up  for  the  day. 
As  may  well  be  supposed,  the  bath  is  generally  crowded  with 
women  and  children  of  all  ages,  and  the  noise  is  such  as  to  be 
proverbial  in  all  the  languages  of  the  East.  Every  thing  is 
done  leisurely.  The  time  is  spent  as  much  in  gossip  as  in 
actual  ablutions;  and  as  neighbors  meet  here  from  time  to 
time,  they  not  only  communicate  such  items  of  news  as  they 
may  possess,  but  share  their  meals  together.  Some  of  the  elder 
matrons  take  this  opportunity  to  examine  the  physical  attrac- 
tions of  the  young  marriageable  maidens,  with  a  view  to  the 
choice  of  a  bride  from  among  them  for  their  sons  or  nephews, 
for  it  would  be  difficult  in  such  a  place  to  conceal  the  smallest 
blemish  or  defect.  The  experienced  dame  who  has  the  general 
charge  of  the  bath  directs  the  proper  application  of  the  henna, 
with  which  are  dyed  the  palms,  finger-tips,  and  feet  of  women 
of  every  age,  from  the  grandmother  down  to  the  infant,  the 
little  boys  included;  but  special  interest  attaches  to  this  opera- 
tion when  performed  for  a  young  virgin  brought  by  her  rela- 
tions to  the  bath  to  be  decked  for  her  bridal. 

In  some  countries,  particularly  in  Egypt  or  Arabia,  a  species 
of  tattooing  is  practiced.  Small  figures  in  lines  are  punctured, 
by  means  of  seven  needles  tied  together,  upon  the  forehead, 
the  cheeks,  the  lips,  the  chin,  the  arms,  the  middle  of  the  breast; 
the  mark  being  rendered  permanent  by  the  insertion  of  indigo 
or  other  substances,  which  give  it  a  bluish  tint.  In  Persia,  the 
ladies  "  curiously  stain  their  fair  bodies  with  a  variety  of  fiin- 
tastic  devices,  not  unfrequently  with  the  figures  of  trees,  birds, 
and  beasts,  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  This  sort  of  pencil  -  work 
spreads  over  the  bosom,  and  continues  down  as  low  as  the 
navel,  round  which  several  radiated  figures  are  generally 
painted.  All  this  is  displayed  by  the  style  of  their  dress,  ev- 
ery garment  of  which,  even  to  the  light  gauze  chemise,  is  open 


THE   FUKNITUKE   OF   THE   HOUSE.  495 

from  the  neck  to  that  point."*  The  operations  of  the  bath  are 
essentially  the  same  with  the  women  as  with  the  men,  though 
the  rough  bag  is  less  used  and  the  soap  more  plentifully.  The 
washing  of  the  head  occupies  much  time,  as  the  hair  must  be 
plaited  in  fine  braids.  The  bathing  operations  are  often  in- 
termitted, members  of  the  same  family  or  party  performing 
mutual  offices,  so  that  the  task  of  the  attendants  is  greatly 
diminished ;  slaves  perform  the  duties  of  the  tellak  for  their 
mistress  and  her  children,  and  each  party  comes  provided  with 
the  napkins,  basins,  soap,  etc. ;  nor  is  the  meal,  or  picnic,  for 
which  the  materials  have  been  brought  from  home  or  pur- 
chased from  a  neighboring  shop,  the  least  interesting  part  of 
the  programme ;  for  the  operations  of  the  bath  conspire,  with 
the  social  character  of  the  scene,  to  give  a  relish  to  the  plainest 
fare.  Hence  the  puhlic  bath  is  generally  preferred  by  the  fair 
to  that  of  the  private  dwelling.  The  latter  is  found  only  in 
the  residences  of  the  wealthiest  citizens  and  chief  officers  of 
state;  it  is  always  connected  with  the  harim,  whose  numerous 
inmates,  having  abundance  of  leisure,  and  being  generally  con- 
fined to  the  premises,  are  wont  to  make  it  their  daily  resort. 
This  luxury  their  neighbors  are  frequently  invited  to  share 
with  them,  and  thus  vary  the  monotony  of  their  lives.  The 
deprivation  of  the  bath  is  one  of  the  severest  punishments  an 
irritated  husband  can  inflict  upon  his  wife  or  slave.  The  fre- 
quent bathing  of  the  women  of  the  wealthier  class,  together 
with  their  seclusion,  gives  a  clearness  and  delicacy  to  their 
complexions  which  is  attributable  to  no  other  cause.  We  our- 
selves have  seen  hundreds  of  Circassian  girls  on  their  way  from 
their  native  land  to  Constantinople  to  be  sold  as  slaves  to  rich 
Turks,  after  having  undergone  a  system  of  physical  "purifica- 
tions,"f  which  they  seem  to  have  inherited  from  the  Babylo- 
nians and  Persians ;  and  having  seen  many  after  they  had  been 
introduced  into  Turkish  harims,  we  could  with  difficulty  per- 
suade ourselves  that  they  belonged  to  the  same  race.  They 
are  purchased  by  slave-merchants  when  they  reach  the  capital, 
and,  being  divested  of  the  tight  leather  corset  which  incases 
their  forms  from  infancy,  and  hinders  their  healthy  develop- 
ment,:}: they  pass  through  a  system  of  training,  lasting  several 

*  Ker  Porter,  vol.  i..  p.  233.         t  Esth.  ii.,  12.         %  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  206. 


496  BIBLE    LANDS. 

months,  and  comprising  not  only  frequent  ablutions  in  the 
bath,  with  a  lavish  use  of  perfumes,  but  also  a  peculiar  diet, 
and  the  practice  of  a  variety  of  gymnastic  exercises.  We  have 
alluded  to  this  subject  because  of  the  parallel  contained  in  the 
second  chapter  of  Esther,  revealing  a  condition  of  society 
among  the  higher  classes  in  the  capital  of  Persia  remarkably 
similar  to  that  of  the  modern  capital  of  Turkey. 


'J'HE   I^'AlATEtJ   OF   THE   HOUSE.  497 


CHAPTER  VL 

THE  INMATES   OF  THE  HOUSE. 

We  now  turn  to  the  inmates  of  the  house,  and  consider  their 
names,  their  personal  appearance,  and  their  dress.  Family 
names  are  a  modern  European  invention,  though  an  approach 
to  this  custom  existed  among  the  Eomans.  The  word  Pha- 
raoh seems  to  have  been  used  somewhat  in  the  same  sense  by 
the  Egyptians,  and  even  in  Western  Asia  we  occasionally  meet 
with  a  sort  of  family  name.  In  Europe  such  a  name  as  John- 
son, for  instance,  originally  meant  the  son  of  John,  but  now 
means  a  member  of  a  certain  family.  So  in  Asia  Minor,  among 
the  Turks,  the  well-known  family  names  of  Chapanoghloo  and 
Elezoghloo  were  originally  given  only  to  the  sons  of  Chapan 
and  Elez.  The  power  and  wealth  of  these  families  lasted  for 
several  generations,  and  so  did  the  name,  which  perished  when 
they  were  reduced  to  the  common  level.  Among  the  Bedawin 
every  man  bears  the  name  of  his  tribe,  as  the  Jews  did  of  theirs, 
and  they  are  all  called  Beni  Ishmael,  or  sons  of  Ishmael,*  as 
the  Hebrews  bore  the  general  name  of  Beni  Israel,  or  sons  of 
Israel  (or  Jacob),  f 

We  make  use  of  family  names  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
tinguishing from  each  other  persons  having  the  same  Christian 
name.  Orientals  accomplish  this  object  in  a  variety  of  ways; 
but  there  is  no  fixed  rule  for  the  adoption  of  any  one  of  them. 
The  matter  is  decided  by  the  custom  prevailing  in  each  local- 
ity. It  often  happens  that  a  man  is  engaged  in  business  in 
some  town  at  a  distance  from  his  home ;  he  is  then  called  by 
the  name  of  the  town  to  which  he  belongs.  So  the  great  Con- 
stantinople banker  was  called  Hohannes  Jezairli  (John  of  Al- 
giers) ;  and  so  in  the  Old  Testament  we  have,  among  many 
other  instances,  that  of  Eliezer  of  Damascus ;:}:  and  in  the  New, 
Saul  of  Tarsus.g     The  distinguishing  name  is  sometimes  de- 

*  1  Chvon.  i.,  31.  t  Gen.  xlii.,  .f,.  J  Gen.  x v.,  2.  §  Acts  i.\.,  11. 


498  BIBLE   LANDS. 

rived  from  a  man's  nationality  or  religion,  which  in  the  East 
are  generally  confounded.  So  of  old  Abraham  was  called  the  He- 
brew ;*  Mordecai,  the  Jew  ;f  the  apostles,  Galileans.:}:  These  and 
similar  appellations  are  constantly  met  with  all  over  the  East. 

Another  mode  of  distinguishing  men  by  their  names  is  to 
mention  their  occupation,  as,  for  instance,  the  well-known  Prot- 
estant preacher  in  Beirut,  Tannoos  el  Haddad  (Anthony  the 
blacksmith);  Abramaki  the  broker,  of  Smyrna;  and,  in  the 
Scriptures,  Simon  Magus  (the  magician) ;  Demetrius  the  silver- 
smith ;§  Simon  the  tanner.||  Closely  allied  to  this  kind  of 
surname  are  nicknames,  derived  from  some  physical  or  men- 
tal peculiarity,  or  some  historical  incident.  We  here  give  a 
translation  of  some  of  the  most  striking  of  these  surnames : 
"Six-fingered,"!^  "Half-mustache"  (from  small-pox),  "Shov- 
el-nosed," "  Spirit -jug,"  "Catch  no  jackals,"  "Son  of  golden 
head  "  (red-haired),  "Son  of  the  nightingale,"  "Never  smile," 
"Laughter,"  "Come  and  go"  (busybody),  "Son  of  a  fox," 
"Son  of  a  cat,"  "Wolf"  (sheep-stealer),  "Son  of  thunder,"** 
"Son  of  the  devil."ff  The  custom  of  making  a  surname  by 
prefixing  the  word  "son  "  to  some  other  indication,  usually  of 
some  quality,  is  now  found  in  the  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turk- 
ish dialects,  but  has  never  existed  in  the  Greek.  It  occurs, 
however,  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  as  Ben-jamin  (son  of  the 
right  hand),  and  in  the  older  dialects  of  the  New  Testament, 
coming  from  the  Syriac,  as  Barnabas  (son  of  consolation).:}:^ 
The  Arabic  sometimes  substitutes  the  word  "  father,"  as  "  Aboo 
dukn"  (fjither  of  a  great  beard). 

We  find  in  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  another  point 
of  resemblance  between  the  old  Bible  names  and  those  of  the 
modern  Asiatics;  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Saviour,§§  as  well  as 
elsewhere,  the  name  of  the  father  is  in  the  possessive  case,  with 
the  word  so7i  in  italics,  indicating  that  it  does  not  exist  in  the 
original.  So,  likewise,  the  Armenians  make  a  patronymic  by 
the  use  of  the  possessive  case,  omitting  the  word  son,  thus: 
Sarkis  Minasian  —  literally,  Sarkis  of  Minas  —  which  signifies 
the  son  of  Minas. 

*  Gen.  xiv.,  13.  t  Esth.  vi.,  10,  t  Acts  ii.,  7. 

§  Acts  xix.,  24.  II  Acts  ix.,  43.  t  2  Sam.  xxi.,  20, 

*♦  Mark  iii.,  17.  ft  1  Sam.  xxv.,  17.  UActsiv.,36. 
§§  Mi.tt.  i.;   Li.kciii. 


THE    INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE.  499 

We  need  not  remind  the  reader  of  the  prevalence  through- 
out Europe  of  the  custom  of  making  patronymics  of  similar 
construction.  Such  are  the  well-known  names  of  O'Connell, 
McDonald,  Thomson,  Ericsson,  Mendelssohn,  Paskevich,  Ivan- 
hoff,  Poniatowski,  etc.  It  is  remarkable  that  this  system  did 
not,  as  in  Europe,  lead  to  the  adoption  of  family  names  among 
the  Hebrews  and  the  Arabs,  who,  unlike  other  Orientals,  have 
always  been  careful  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  pedigree. 

We  must  not,  however,  omit  to  say,  that  in  the  use  of  either 
patronymics  or  other  distinguishing  names.  Orientals  reverse, 
as  usual,  the  order  adopted  by  Occidentals.  Thus,  instead  of 
saying  Kevork  Bedrosian,  or  George  Peterson,  they  say  Bedro- 
sian  Kevork,  or  Peterson  George ;  so,  likewise,  Kaiserly  Ah- 
med, the  Caesarean  Ahmed;  Bakkal  Stepan,  Grocer  Stepan. 
The  Arabs,  however,  follow  the  mode  of  Europe.  In  the 
Bast  titles  foUoiv  a  man's  name,  instead  of  preceding  it  as  with 
us.  We  say.  General  Sherman,  President  Grant,  Queen  Vic- 
toria; they  say,  Abdool- Aziz  Khan,  Eumer  Pasha,  Ali  Ef- 
fendi,  Osman  Agha,  etc. 

Another  style  of  surname  is  peculiar  to  the  Arabs,  and 
seems  to  have  existed  among  them  from  time  immemorial.  It 
consists  in  naming  the  father  after  the  son,  with  the  prefix 
Aboo,  or  father.  Singularly  enough,  his  own  name  is  often 
dropped,  and  even  wholly  forgotten.  A  friend  of  ours  after 
his  marriage  bore  the  name  of  Aboo  Beshara,  or  the  "  Father 
of  Glad-tidings,"  though  he  had  no  son.  But  one  being  born 
to  him  in  more  advanced  age,  the  boy  was  named  Beshara, 
and,  strange  to  say,  the  father  figured  in  important  documents 
under  no  other  name  than  Aboo  Beshara ;  nor  would  it  have 
been  respectful  to  call  him  aught  else.  One  of  the  earliest 
caliphs  goes  by  the  name  of  Aboo  Bekr,  which  signifies  the 
"Father  of  the  maiden,"  a  title  given  him  in  a  similar  manner 
to  that  mentioned  above,  on  account  of  his  being  the  father  of 
Ayeshah,  Mohammed's  favorite  wife.*  Women  are  now  dis- 
tinguished, as  in  Bible  times,  by  the  name  of  their  father  or 
husband.  So  Milcah  is  called  both  the  daughter  of  Haran  and 
Nahor's  wife,f  and,  in  like  manner,  we  read  of  Michal  as  Saul's 

*  There  may  be  a  reference  to  this  practice  in  Prov.  xxx.,  4. 
t  Gen.  xi.,  29. 


500  BIBLE   LANDS. 

daughter  and  David's  wife.*  She  also  takes  the  name  of  her 
eldest  son,  with  the  word  "Um"  prefixed,  meaning  mother  \  as 
Urn  Beshara,  the  wife  of  our  friend  Aboo  Beshara,  above  men- 
tioned. Similarly  we  find  in  the  Old  Testament  Zeruiah  call- 
ed Joab's  mother  ;f  and  in  the  New,  the  mother  of  Jesus,:};  the 
mother  of  John, §  etc.  This  custom  is  explained  in  part  by  the 
existence  of  polygamy,  which  rendered  the  lot  of  a  widow  who 
had  borne  no  son  to  her  lord  more  deplorable  than  under  any 
other  system.  We  shall  more  fully  explain  this  point  else- 
where, but  the  reader  may,  meanwhile,  profitably  peruse  the 
history  of  Jacob  and  his  wives.|| 

Let  us  now  turn  to  proper  names.  Those  of  men  are  fre- 
quently an  expression  of  the  feeling  of  the  parents  on  the  birth 
of  their  son.  We  have  mentioned  the  Arabic  name  of  Be- 
shara (Glad-tidings);  and  one  of  a  similar  signification  is  com- 
mon among  Armenians,  and  exists  in  all  the  languages  of 
the  East.  So  there  are  names  expressive  of  thankfulness  to 
God  for  deliverance:  Ahmed  and  Hamood  (Arabic)  are  deriv- 
atives of  Hamed  (praise);  and  many  other  names  occurring 
in  all  the  languages  of  the  East  may  be  translated  "  Thanks  to 
God,"  "  God  sent,"  "  God's  gift,"  etc.  This  is  very  common  in 
the  Old  Testament,  as  Simeon  (hearing,  or  God  hath  heard). 

Many  names  are  formed  of  one  of  the  names  of  the  Deity  ;  as, 
Abdullah,  Abdul-Aziz  (servant  of  God,  servant  of  the  Holy 
One,  etc.).  So,  among  the  Jews,  Elijah  (my  God  is  Jehovah), 
Elisha  (God  delivers).  This  custom  also  prevailed  among 
the  Phoenicians,  the  name  of  their  god  Baal  appearing  in 
some  of  the  most  celebrated  men  of  Carthage,  a  colony  of 
Tyre;  as,  Hanni-Z>aZ,  Asdru-5a?,  etc.  It  also  occurs  in  such 
names  as  Jezehel,  Bel-shazzar,  etc.;  and  Ben-hadad  derived 
his  name  from  his  god,  Iladad.  In  Europe  the  Germans  still 
use  similar  names;  as,  Gottlieb  and  Godfried,  etc.  The  com- 
mon practice  consists,  however,  in  giving  a  child  one  of  the 
many  names  which  have  become  stereotyped  in  the  language, 
and  whose  usual  recommendation  lies,  not  so  much  in  its  real 
meaning,  as  in  the  fact  that  it  is  borne  by  some  relative.^f  Still, 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  great  majority  of  these 

*  1  Sam.  xviii.,  20;  xxv,,  44.  t  2  Sam.  xvii.,  2.").  t  John  ii.,  1. 

§  Acts  xii.,  12.  II  Gen.  xxix.  ;  x.\x. 

11  Lukei.,  59-61. 


THE  INMATES  OF  THE  HOUSE.  501 

names  are  not,  as  with  us,  of  foreign  origin,  and  that  thej  still 
continue  to  express  the  idea  originally  represented  by  them. 

The  names  given  by  parents  to  their  daughters  also  express 
their  feelings  toward  them,  which  differ  considerably  from  those 
they  entertain  toward  their  sons;  for,  while  the  latter  are  look- 
ed upon  as  the  future  stay  of  their  advanced  years,  their  most 
sanguine  hope  respecting  their  daughters  is  that  they  may  be- 
come advantageously  married.  The  names  of  the  latter,  there- 
fore, are  expressive  of  those  pei'sonal  charms  which  will  be 
most  likely  to  secure  to  them  a  happy  settlement  in  married 
life.  They  bear  the  names  of  many  of  their  favorite  flowers, 
the  rose,  the  jasmine,  the  carnation,  the  lily,  the  violet,  sweet 
basil,  etc.,  or  simply  the  word  flower  or  blossom.  Sometimes 
they  appropriate  the  names  of  the  most  brilliant  stars,  as  Venus, 
Mercury ;  as  Esther,  which  means  a  star  (French,  Estelle) ;  or 
they  are  called  Light,  Dawn,  Twilight,  Moonlight.  Yet  boys 
are  named  Moon,  and  girls  Sun — a  custom  which  may  have 
arisen  from  an  opposition  to  the  ancient  idolatrj'-,  which  con- 
sidered the  sun  to  be  the  emblem  of  the  supreme  male  deity, 
called  Baal,  or  Jupiter;  and  the  moon  as  that  of  Ashteroth,  or 
Venus.  The  names  of  favorite  trees,  distinguished  for  their 
beauty,  grace,  or  fruitful ness,  are  also  bestowed  upon  daugh- 
ters, such  as  the  pomegranate,  the  almond,  the  date-palm.* 
They  are  called  after  the  precious  metals  and  gems ;  as.  Gold, 
Diamond,  Emerald,  Pearl,  Brilliant,  or  simply  Gem.  We  also 
meet  with  the  names  Sugar-lip,  Princess,t  Milchah  (queen);  so, 
likewise,  boys  are  called  Prince,  Ruler,  King  (Melech).  The 
names  of  fleet  and  graceful  animals  are  also  appropriated,  as 
the  gazelle — a  fit  name  for  an  Arab  girl  of  Engedi,  which  very 
appropriately  signifies  "the  spring  or  fountain  of  the  wild 
goat."  Among  the  Circassians  a  boy  is  sometimes  called  "  Look 
of  a  Lion,"  and  a  girl  "  Speed  of  a  Deer.":}:  Nor  are  birds  omit- 
ted in  their  list  of  names,  for  the  nightingale  is  often  commem- 
orated in  their  families;  so  also  the  dove,  the  sparrow,  etc. 
In  addition  to  the  above,  mental  and  moral  qualities  often  fur- 
nish nameSj  which  may  prove,  unfortunatelj',  to  have  been 
most  inappropriately  bestowed ;  for  Aziz  (holy  one)  may  be 


*  2  Sam.  xiv.,  27.  t  Heb.  of  Sarah,  Gen.  xvii.,  i; 

X  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  190. 


502  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  name  of  a  man  notoriously  the  contrary,  and  "  Well-spoken" 
that  of  an  incorrigible  scold. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that,  as  in  New  Testament  times,  so 
now,  people's  names  are  often  translated  from  one  language 
into  another.  Peter  was  the  apostle's  Greek  name;  he  was 
called  Cephas,  in  Syriac.  The  same  is  true  of  Paul  and  Saul. 
So,  likewise,  now,  a  man  is  called  Allah-verdy  in  Turkish,  and 
Asdvadzadoor  in  Armenian,  both  signifying  God-given. 

In  personal  appearance  the  inhabitants  of  what  are  usually 
denominated  Bible  lands,  probably  offer  a  greater  variety  than 
those  of  any  other  part  of  the  globe.  The  people  of  Egypt, 
whether  pure  Copts,  or  partly  of  Arab  origin,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  Arab  race,  both  in  Africa  and  Asia,  are  of  medium  stat- 
ure, and  not  inclined  to  corpulency.  They  all  have  straight 
black  hair,  and  are  easily  distinguished  from  negroes,  who  have 
been  introduced  as  slaves  among  them,  by  the  greater  regular 
ity  of  their  features  and  their  lighter  skin.  As  we  go  north 
however,  the  complexion  grows  fairer.  There  is  a  marked  dif 
ference  in  color  between  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  and  of  PaleS' 
tine  ;*  but  the  Arabs  of  the  desert  are  browned  by  constant  ex 
posure  to  the  sun.  When  we  reach  the  mountainous  regions, 
we  meet  with  races  tall  and  muscular.  The  Circassians,  who  are 
commonly  regarded  as  offering  the  finest  specimens  of  physical 
development,  occupy  the  northern  point  of  Western  Asia,  and 
have  light  brown  hair  and  gray  e3^es.  They  are  tall,  erect,  and 
finely  formed,  with  clear  complexions,  which,  however,  lack 
color.  The  Armenians  of  the  mountain  ranges,  both  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Ararat  and  of  Sis  in  Cilicia,  the  later  seat  of 
their  empire,  are  often  above  six  feet  in  height,  powerful,  and 
noted  for  their  dauntless  and  independent  spirit.  The  Les- 
ghians  are  well  formed,  sinewy,  and  powerful ;  but  they  have 
usually  marked  and  prominent  features,  particularly  the  wom- 
en. The  Georgians  and  Armenians  are  thought  finer  than  the 
Circassians,  on  account  of  their  black  hair  and  eyes,  and  often 
clear  complexion.  The  Koords,  both  of  Koordistan  and  of  oth- 
er mountainous  regions  of  Asia  Minor,  are  tall  and  muscular, 
but  thin  and  gaunt,  with  prominent  features  and  a  sharp,  rest- 
less eye.     They  are  inveterate  robbers,  and  even  their  women 

*  Cant,  i.,  5. 


THE   INMATES   OF  THE   HOUSE.  508 

not  unfrequently  engage  in  the  nefarious  calling.  Light  hair 
and  blue  eyes  are  mostly  confined  to  the  Greeks.  As  fine  spec- 
imens of  the  human  form  or  of  muscular  development  can  be 
seen  in  Western  Asia,  particularly  in  Asia  Minor,  as  in  any 
part  of  the  world.  The  Smyrna  porters,  who  all  belong  to  the 
city  of  Konieh,  the  ancient  Iconium,  are  celebrated  for  their 
great  strength  ;  and  the  pekhliwans,  or  professional  wrestlers,  are 
often  possessed  of  surprising  muscular  power.  Nor  do  these 
people  yield  the  palm  to  any  other  in  point  of  longevity,  to 
which  their  generally  regular  and  abstemious  habits  doubtless 
greatly  contribute.  Men,  as  well  as  women,  are  often  met  with 
who  are  eighty  and  ninety  years  of  age ;  and  we  have  been 
able  to  authenticate  cases  in  which  the  age  of  one  hundred  and 
four,  and  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five,  had  been  attained. 

It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
rural  districts  generally  fail  to  present  in  the  most  favorable 
light  the  physical  peculiarities  and  advantages  they  may  pos- 
sess. This  is  owing  to  the  life  of  exposure  they  lead,  and  to 
the  extreme  rapacity  of  the  government  to  which  their  com- 
paratively isolated  position  continually  exposes  them,  keeping 
them  in  a  condition  of  destitution  and  want.  But  in  the  cities 
commercial  and  industrial  enterprise  often  brings  prosperity, 
and  even  wealth ;  so  that  the  condition  of  the  inhabitants  is, 
on  the  average,  indicative  of  far  more  comfort  and  ease  than 
that  of  the  rural  districts.  In  the  cities,  too,  reside  the  officials 
of  the  government,  and  all  the  men  who  enrich  themselves  by 
the  plunder  of  the  poor.  An  abundant  and  wholesome  diet, 
the  appliances  of  the  bath,  and  moderate  exercise,  combine, 
with  the  outdoor  life  of  Orientals,  to  develop  the  physical 
frame,  while  the  taste  is  cultivated  and  the  manners  polished 
by  social  intercourse.  Looking  at  the  different  races  of  West- 
ern Asia  as  thus  polished  by  the  atmosphere  of  the  cities,  we 
may  observe  in  general  that  among  the  men  the  greatest  reg- 
ularity of  feature  is  presented  by  the  Circassian  and  the  Greek, 
when  the  latter  is  of  pure  origin.  It  is  different,  however,  with 
the  fairer  sex.  The  Armenian  ladies  of  Constantinople  are 
considered  by  some  to  surpass  even  the  Circassians  in  personal 
attractions,  while  in  Smyrna  it  is  the  Greek  ladies  who  bear 
away  the  palm.  The  Georgian  slaves  are  said  to  be  more 
highly  prized  by  the  Persians  and  Turks  than  the  Circassians, 


504  BIBLE   LANDS. 

but  thej  are  difficult  to  obtain  since  the  conquest  of  Georgia 
by  the  Russians.  The  Syrian  ladies  of  Aleppo  and  Damascus 
are  celebrated  for  their  fine  features,  clearness  of  complexion, 
and  soft  dark  eyes  and  hair;  and  this  is  said  to  be  equally 
true  of  the  Jewish  ladies  of  the  same  localities.  It  may  here 
be  remarked  that  the  Jews  of  Turkey  —  mostly  of  Spanish 
origin,  called  the  Hassidim  —  are  generally  of  a  delicate  and 
effeminate  appearance,  supposed  to  be  occasioned  by  the  very 
early  marriages  of  both  sexes.  The  g}^psies  resemble  their 
race  everywhere. 

The  land  of  Palestine  and  Syria  seems  to  be  one  of  the 
most  favorable  regions  for  the  completest  development  of  the 
physical  and  mental  powers  of  the  human  race.  The  climate 
is  neither  too  warm,  as  in  Egypt  and  Arabia,  nor  too  cold,  as 
in  the  highlands  of  Asia  Minor,  to  allow  the  inhabitants  to 
live,  for  the  most  part,  out-of-doors  during  all  vseasons  of  the 
year,  and  bodily  exercise  and  labor  is  always  invigorating.  It 
hardly  needs  be  added  that  diseases  of  the  lungs  are  almost 
unknown.  These  causes,  added  to  the  flowing  garments  they 
wear,  may  account  for  their  gracefulness  of  form  and  gesture. 
We  were  in  Turkey  at  the  time  that  the  costume  of  the  mili- 
tary was  exchanged  by  Sultan  Mahmood  for  a  close  imitation 
of  the  European  dress,  and  we  well  remember  how  every  body 
exclaimed  at  the  want  of  symmetry  and  grace  which  the  change 
seemed  to  reveal.  To  mention  but  one  particular :  the  habit 
Orientals  have  of  squatting  upon  the  ground,  as  well  as  their 
mode  of  riding  (for  many  of  them  are  constantly  in  the  saddle), 
necessarily  affects  the  straightness  of  the  lower  limbs  and  the 
back,  defects  which  are  totally  hidden  by  the  Oriental  costume, 
but  fully  revealed  by  the  European. 

Women  reach  their  maturity  at  a  much  earlier  age  than  in 
Europe.  They  are  at  the  height  of  their  bloom  and  beauty  at 
fifteen  or  sixteen,  but  have  lost  their  freshness  and  seem  old  at 
thirty.  This  is  doubtless  attributable  to  their  early  marriages. 
In  Egypt  girls  are  often  married  at  eleven  years  of  age,  and 
even  earlier,  and  Mohammedan  law  recognizes  the  contracting 
of  marriage  before  the  age  of  puberty  is  reached.*  As  we  go 
north,  the  age  at  which  they  marry  increases,  though  occasion- 

*  Lane.  vol.  i.,  p.  201. 


THE    INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE.  505 

ally  we  meet  with  an  old  man  espoused  to  a  very  young  girl, 
especially  among  the  Turks.  As  the  women  advance  in  years 
they  are  inclined  to  corpulency,  but  this  is  not  considered  a 
blemish,  nor  was  it  so  regarded  of  old,  for  the  name  of  Kebecca 
signifies  "the  fat"  or  "the  plump"  one.  The  women  of  West- 
ern Asia  are  probably  as  greatly  favored,  as  to  physical  attrac- 
tions and  natural  graces,  as  those  of  any  other  land,  and  in  girl- 
hood they  are  models  of  beauty  in  body  and  limbs.*  No  cor- 
set, as  in  more  civilized  lands,  compresses  the  chest,  or  impedes 
the  healthy  development  of  the  lungs  and  breast;  but  they 
early  fade  under  the  pressure  of  maternal  duties,  and  the  breast, 
from  which  the  child  is  often  not  weaned  until  the  third  and 
sometimes  the  fourth  year,  early  loses  its  natural  fullness,  and 
lies  loose  and  flat,  being  but  partially  covered  by  the  flowing 
garment  always  open  at  the  bosom.  This  is  often  the  case, 
even  before  the  face  has  lost  any  of  its  charms. 

Among  women  of  the  lower  orders,  and  all  who  are  engaged 
in  rural  occupations,  there  is  often  a  remarkable  development 
of  physical  strength.  The  habit  of  carrying  a  jar  of  water  and 
other  considerable  weights  upon  the  head  from  the  age  of  girl- 
hood gradually  imparts  great  strength  to  the  neck  and  back, 
and  renders  the  form  and  gait  both  erect  and  firm.  A  friend 
has  assured  us  that  he  has  repeatedly  seen  Egyptian  women  at 
Alexandria  carry  half  the  body  of  an  ox  upon  their  heads  with 
apparent  ease,  not  touching  the  burden  with  either  hand. 

In  the  foregoing  statements  no  reference  has  been  made  to 
the  Turks,  a  race  that  came  into  Western  Asia  only  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  A  small  part  of  these  invaders  still  retain  their 
original  physical  peculiarities.  These  are  mostly  confined  to 
the  Crimea,  and  go  by  the  name  of  Tartars ;  and  their  heredi- 
tary chiefs  are  so  nearly  related  to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  that, 
should  the  latter  die  without  issue,  the  nearest  of  kin  would,  by 
general  consent,  be  the  Khan  of  the  Crimean  Tartars.  These 
Tartars  are  a  swarthy  race,  and  their  type  is  occasionally  met 
with  among  the  Turks.  But  the  latter  have  been  so  mixed  with 
other  races  by  proselytism,  and  still  more  by  means  of  slavery, 
that  they  have  lost  their  original  characteristics,  and  now  pre- 
sent every  variety  of  type.     The  influence  of  amalgamation 

*  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  44. 


506  BIBLE   LANDS. 

upon  their  character  has  been  extremely  unfavorable,  for  they 
have  now  become  notorious  chiefly  for  their  gross  and  debas- 
ing vices,  seldom  relieved  by  any  redeeming  qualities.  Their 
rule  has  been  the  blight  and  the  ruin  of  the  fair  lands  upon 
which,  locust -like,  they  have  alighted,  not  to  cultivate  and 
adorn  them,  but  to  devour  and  to  destroy  what  they  could  not 
consume  lest  others  should  enjoy  it ! 

It  is  the  general  impression  that  the  costumes  of  Orientals 
are  not  subject  to  the  changes  caused  in  Europe  by  inexorable 
fashion.  This  is  true,  however,  only  in  a  relative  sense.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  fashions  do  exist  in  the  East,  and  have 
from  time  immemorial  exercised  as  despotic  a  sway  there  as 
anywhere  else.  The  Persians  in  the  East  and  the  Turks  in  the 
West  have  been  ever  its  most  willing  devotees.  In  the  mat- 
ter of  hair-dressing,  for  instance,  we  have  collected  among  the 
ruins  of  Smyrna  a  number  of  beautiful  and  highly -polished 
mouldings  in  terra  cotta,  many  of  which  consist  of  the  heads, 
or  busts  of  both  men  and  women ;  and  among  about  three 
hundred  specimens  of  female  beauty,  there  are  scarcely  two 
whose  coiffure  is  similar,  while  the  style  of  some  of  them  is 
truly  extraordinary.  It  is  equally  clear  that  the  Turks  have 
been  greatly  affected  by  the  changes  of  fashion.  The  sultan's 
state  library  at  Seraglio  Point,  which  was  burned  a  few  years 
ago,  contained  a  collection  of  miniature  portraits  of  the  entire 
Osmanli  dynasty,  and  though  there  was  throughout  a  general 
similarity  of  costume,  yet  a  gradual  and  constant  change  could 
be  clearly  traced.  We  find  a  further  ilhistration  of  the  cor- 
rectness of  this  statement  in  the  Turkish  cemeteries,  where  the 
tombs  of  the  men  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  other  sex 
by  a  fac-simile  in  carved  marble  of  the  head-dress  they  wore 
when  living.  The  vast  cemeteries  of  Scutari,  on  the  Asiatic 
side  of  Constantinople,  thus  present  a  remarkable  collection  of 
the  turbans  and  other  head-gear  worn  by  the  Osmanlis  of  every 
rank  and  station  during  the  last  four  centuries. 

Besides  these  changes  of  fashion,  however,  which,  after  all, 
affect  only  certain  minor  details,  there  is  another  cause  pro- 
ducing diversity  of  dress  which  should  not  be  overlooked. 
Sumptuary  laws  that  regulate  the  color,  form,  and  material  of 
the  garments  worn  by  different  classes  and  ranks  of  society, 
have  ever  prevailed  in  these  countries.    Not  that  sucli  laws  are 


THE   INMATES   OF  THE   HOUSE.  507 

written  or  promulgated,  but,  as  we  shall  show  further  on,  there 
has  always  been  in  every  country  of  the  Levant  a  ruling  race 
or  class  arrogating  to  itself  many  privileges  and  enjoyments 
denied  to  others,  among  which  are  reckoned  the  liberty  of 
wearing  richer  and  more  costly  garments  and  gayer  colors. 
But  an  important  object  of  those  distinctions  is  to  enable  one 
to  detect  at  a  single  glance  the  class  and  rank  of  every  man, 
woman,  and  child  he  may  meet.  Hence  the  diversity  of  dress 
is  often  striking  in  color,  and  even  in  form.  There  are  also 
provincial  differences,  but  these  are  so  numerous,  and  gener- 
ally so  unimportant,  that  we  shall  only  occasionally  refer  to 
them.  Similar  distinctions,  whether  national  or  provincial, 
existed  in  ancient  times,  as  may  be  clearly  seen  upon  Egyp- 
tian and  Assyrian  monuments.  It  was  doubtless  in  accord- 
ance with  this  custom  that  Moses  appointed  for  the  Hebrews  a 
national  distinction  in  dress,  consisting  of  "  a  blue  fringe  upon 
the  edge  of  the  four  quarters  of  their  vesture.''*  This  fringe 
is  probably  represented  on  the  Assyrian  sculpture  at  page  856. 
It  seems  to  us  highly  probable  that  even  the  several  tribes  of 
Israel  and  of  Judah  wore  some  distinctive  garment,  differing  in 
color  or  otherwise  from  that  worn  by  the  rest,  whereby  they 
could  easily  distinguish  one  another,  especially  when  engaged 
in  warfare,  just  as  the  uniform  of  our  soldiers  indicates  their 
nationality,  even  at  a  great  distance ;  nor  do  we  consider  this 
supposition  disproved  by  the  Shibboleth  test  applied  to  the 
Ephraimites  by  the  Gileadites,f  for  they  had  doubtless  so  far 
altered  their  dress  as  to  escape  detection  from  that  source. 

Still,  there  is  always  a  certain  uniformity  in  dress  among  the 
common  people  of  Western  Asia,  which  may  be  accounted  for 
in  various  ways.  In  spite  of  unbounded  hospitality,  inter- 
course, except  for  purely  business  purposes,  is  limited  to  one's 
own  nationality  and  religious  faith,  while  bigotry,  fanaticism, 
and  pride  of  race  all  conspire  to  maintain  unimpaired  every 
outward  distinction.  The  cloth  worn  by  the  people  is  manu- 
factured by  their  wives  and  daughters,  dyed  and  fashioned  into 
garments  at  home.  Foreign  manufactures  of  every  description 
have,  until  a  very  recent  date,  been  unknown.  The  taste  of 
Orientals  for  splendor  of  attire  has  led  all  who  can  afford  it 

*  Numb.  XV.,  38,  39  ;  Deut.  xxii.,  12.  f  Judg.  xii.,  5,  6. 

33 


508  BIBLE   LANDS. 

to  provide  themselves  with  costly  and  showy  garments,  worn 
only  on  special  occasions,  and  these,  being  handed  down  from 
one  generation  to  another,  have  also  contributed  to  preserve 
the  fashions  and  styles  unaltered.  We  might  cite  in  proof 
the  peculiar  costumes  worn  by  the  inhabitants  of  several  isl- 
ands of  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  particularly  Hydra,  Tinos, 
and  Chios,  as  well  as  the  stupendous  turban  of  the  Koords,  the 
striped  kefiyeh  of  the  Bedawy,  the  boornoos  of  the  Algerine, 
the  tantoor,  or  horn,  of  Mount  Lebanon,  etc.  These  local  pe- 
culiarities illustrate  the  tenacity  with  which  the  people  of  this 
land  cling  to  their  ancient  customs.  But  it  is  more  especially 
among  the  women  that  this  tenacity  is  observable ;  for,  while 
business  sometimes  calls  their  husbands  far  from  home,  where 
they  are  led  from  necessity  or  choice  to  adopt  novelties  in 
dress,  they  usually  remain  at  home,  and  spend  their  whole  lives 
in  their  native  town. 

These  observations,  however,  apply  equally  to  many  parts 
of  Europe,  particularly  to  the  Highlanders  of  Scotland,  the 
peasantry  of  several  districts  of  Holland,  France,  Switzerland, 
etc.*  But  a  great  change  is  now  rapidly  coming  over  the  en- 
tire East.  The  government  is  on  the  side  of  innovations,  and 
the  brisk  trade  with  Europe  is  fast  obliterating  what  has  stood 
the  test  of  forty  centuries.  But  we  do  not  believe  that  Orient- 
als can  ever  be  made  over,  or  lose  their  distinctive  peculiari- 
ties. Their  garments  can  never  be  completely  Europeanized, 
and  will  return  to  the  old  forms  the  moment  the  present  press- 
ure is  removed.  The  influence  of  the  all -pervading  Eoman 
empire  was  ephemeral,  though  we  can  still  distinctly  perceive 
it  even  in  the  New  Testament ;  and  one  of  the  causes  of  the  re- 
markable success  of  Islam  in  its  first  propagation  is  doubtless 
to  be  found  in  the  reaction  of  the  Oriental  mind  against  the 
forcible  intrusion  of  Occidental  ideas  and  customs.  It  is  the 
old  struggle  between  the  East  and  the  West  which  commenced 

*  We  must  except  the  Persians  from  this  general  rule,  at  least  those  of  the  up- 
per and  middle  classes ;  for  no  other  nation  is  equally  fond  of  changing  the  fashion 
of  their  clothes,  which  has  given  them  the  name  of  Frenchmen  of  the  East.  He- 
rodotus described  them  two  thousand  jears  ago  just  as  they  are  to-day.  "There 
is  no  nation,"  he  says,  "  which  so  readily  adopts  foreign  customs  as  the  Persians. 
Thus  they  have  taken  the  dress  of  the  Modes,  considering  it  superior  to  their  own. 
As  soon  as  they  hear  of  any  luxury,  tliey  instantly  make  it  their  own." — Herod- 
otus, bk.  i. ,  chap.  135. 


THE   INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE. 


509 


at  the  siege  of  Troy,  was  continued  by  Xerxes  and  Alexander, 
the  Persians,  and  the  Eomans,  then  changed  to  a  contest  be- 
tween religious  creeds,  still  going  on,  and  undecided  as  to  the 
final  result. 

"We  have  already  described  the  dress  of  the  desert  Arab, 
which  appears  to  have  undergone  the  least  change  since  the 
days    of   Abraham    and 
Job.      The    dwellers    in 
cities,   possessing    better 
materials  and  more  per- 
fect implements  of  manu- 
facture, as  well  as  strong- 
er  motives   drawn  from 
social  life,  are  dressed  in 
greater  variety  of  mate- 
rial as  well  as  of  form ; 
yet   their    garments    are 
essentially  the    same    in 
all  parts  of  the  country. 
To  begin  with  the  dress 
of  the  men  :  the  drawers 
("libas"),  of  white   cot- 
ton stuff,  are  of  the  same 
form,  though  smaller  than 
the  trowsers  ("sharwar"), 
which  are  worn  over  them.     They  are  the  "breeches"  men- 
tioned among  the  garments  of  the  priests,  in  Exodus,  being  of 
linen,  and  '^  reaching  from  the  loins  to  the  thighs."*    Both  the 
drawers  and  trowsers  are  shaped  like  a  bag  broader  than  it 
is  long,  with  an  opening  at  each  of  the  lower  corners  large 
enough  to  admit  the  feet.    They  are  gathered  around  the  waist 
by  means  of  a  long,  narrow  band,  with  the  ends,  in  the  case 
of  the  sharwar,  embroidered  in   gay  colors,  which  is  passed 
through  a  broad  hem,  and  tied  in  front.    A  large  wooden  tape- 
needle  may  sometimes  be  seen  hanging  from  a  peg  in  the  wall, 
which  is  used  whenever  this  band  above-said  needs  replacing. 
The  sharwar  worn  by  the  lower  classes  is  generally  of  dark 
blue  cotton,  or  coarse  brown  woolen  stuff;  while  those  in  better 


An  Oriental  Gentleman. 


*  Exod.  xxviii.,  42. 


510  BIBLE   LANDS. 

circumstances  wear  some  light  woolen  material  or  broadcloth 
of  a  uniform  color.  The  Nestorian  mountaineers  of  Koordis- 
tan,  and  workmen  of  the  adjoining  plain,  wear  sharwars  and 
foot-gear,  which  are  perfectly  reproduced,  both  as  to  pattern 
and  form,  on  the  Persepolitan  sculptures.  Some  sharwars  reach 
only  down  to  the  knee,  others  reach  to  the  feet,  and  terminate 
in  a  pair  of  leggings  or  gaiters,  often  richly  embroidered,  and 
fastened  down  the  side  with  silk  buttons.  But  most  people  go 
with  their  legs  bare,  or  wear  sharwars  reaching  down  to  the 
ankles.  Some  of  the  mountaineers  of  Asia  Minor,  called  "  Zei- 
beks,"  wear  white  sharwars,  so  short  that  they  reach  only  half- 
way down  the  thigh,  leaving  the  rest  of  the  limb  entirely  bare 
even  in  winter.  It  must,  however,  be  remarked  that  many  per- 
sons, especially  during  the  warm  weather,  dispense  with  the  shar- 
war  altogether,  in  which  case  they  wear  the  "  kuftan,"  or  robe, 
so  long  that  it  nearly  touches  the  ground.  This  corresponds 
with  the  dress  of  the  priests  mentioned  in  Lev.  xvi.,  4';  but  the 
priest's  "coat"  was  a  simple  linen  shirt,  "girded  with  a  linen 
girdle."  The  shirt  is  full,  and  hangs  loose  down  below  the 
knee.  It  opens  in  front  to  the  waist,  and  is  without  a  collar, 
but  fastens  with  a  single  button  at  the  throat.  The  sleeves  are 
wide,  and  long  enough  to  fall  over  the  hand  ;  they  are  frequent- 
ly turned  up  over  the  shoulder,  and  kept  in  place  by  tucking 
under  the  armpit,  or  by  means  of  a  string.  This  garment  is 
worn  over  the  drawers,  but  under  the  sharwars.  It  is  white, 
and  made  of  cotton,  linen,  or  silk. 

We  have  already  described  the  shirt  as  almost  the  only  gar- 
ment worn  by  the  desert  Arabs  of  both  sexes.  The  same  is 
the  case  with  the  poor,  and  the  fellahin,  or  cultivators  of  the 
soil,  whether  in  Arabia,  Palestine,  or  Egypt.  The  material  is 
usually  cotton,  and  the  color  dark  blue,  and  it  is  bound  around 
their  bodies  with  a  strap  or  thong  of  leather. 

But  this  shirt,  or  tunic,  as  it  may  often  more  properly  be 
called,  is  not  unfrequently  woven  of  camel's  or  goat's  hair.* 
The  shirt,  however,  is  often  omitted  altogether,  especially  by 
the  poor,  and  this  is  more  frequently  the  case  in  warm  weather, 
when  the  other  garments  of  light  and  cool  material  suffice.  Over 
the  shirt,  in  cool  weather,  is  often  worn  a  vest,  called  a  "sudri- 

*  3  Kings  i.,  8 ;  Matt,  iii.,  4. 


THE   INMATES   OF   THE    HOUSE.  511 

yeh,"  of  striped  cotton  or  silk,  or  some  warmer  material,  with- 
out sleeves,  and  buttoning  up  to  the  throat. 

The  next  garment  is  the  kuftan,  a  robe  usually  reaching  to 
the  ankles,  whose  sleeves  are  long  enough  to  hang  over  and 
cover  the  hands.  It  has  a  narrow  standing  collar,  fastening  at 
the  throat  with  two  silk  buttons,*  and  open  all  the  way  down 
in  front — one  side  lapping  over  the  other  at  the  waist,  where  it 
is  held  by  a  single  button.  The  kuftan  is  slit  on  each  side 
from  the  bottom  upward  half-way  to  the  knee,  and  so  are  the 
sleeves  half-way  to  the  elbow.  These  last,  however,  may  be 
buttoned  at  the  wrist  when  desirable. 

This  garment  is  usually  of  striped  and  figured  cotton  or  silk, 
and  often  of  more  costly  stuffs,  according  to  the  means  of  the 
wearer.  One  material  in  high  favor  is  manufactured  in  Alep- 
po and  Damascus,  and  is  called  "cloth  of  seven  colors,"  the 
stripes  being  alternately  of  as  many  bright  hues,  which  may 
suggest  the  seven  colors  of  the  rainbow.  The  coat  of  many 
colors  given  by  Jacob  to  Joseph,  his  favorite  son,  was  probably 
of  a  similar  fabricf  The  kuftan  is  lined  with  some  light  ma- 
terial, a  circumstance  to  which  Josephus  alludes  in  relating  the 
detection  of  a  letter  intrusted  to  a  messenger,  and  hidden  be- 
tween the  cloth  and  the  lining:  the  man  had  taken  the  further 
precaution  to  wear  two  kuftans,  one  over  the  other,  as  is  fre- 
quently done  in  cold  weather.:};  As  we  have  already  stated, 
this  garment  only  laps  over  at  the  waist,  lying  loosely  upon  the 
bosom ;  on  the  inside,  both  right  and  left,  is  a  pocket  opening 
perpendicularly,  in  which,  as  well  as  in  the  girdle,  are  carried 
a  variety  of  articles,  such  as  the  handkerchief,  the  purse,  etc. 
But  as  we  have  already  seen  (page  405),  the  kuftan,  like  the  shirt 
of  the  Arab,  after  the  girdle  has  been  bound  around  his  body, 
offers  a  spacious  receptacle,  or  pocket.  The  kuftan  continues 
to  be  the  principal  garment  of  the  men,  as  it  was  in  ancient 
times.  It  now  constitutes,  as  of  old,  the  robe  of  honor,  be- 
stowed by  Eastern  monarchs,  or  men  in  power,  upon  their  in- 
feriors as  a  mark  of  their  favor.§  The  first  of  the  Biblical  in- 
stances here  referred  to  is  an  example  of  investiture  of  office, 
of  which  we  shall  speak  in  a  succeeding  chapter;  but  the  last 

*  Job  XXX.,  18.  t  Gen.  xxxvii.,  3. 

t  Josephus,  "Antiquities,"  bk.  xvii.,  chap,  v.,  §  7. 
§  Layard,  vol,  i,,  p.  GO;  Esth.  viii.,  15;  Dan.  v.,  29. 


512  BIBLE   LANDS. 

was  purely  honorific,  and  included  the  outer  coat  as  well  as  the 
kuftan. 

The  most  ancient  representations  of  the  human  form  found 
in  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Asia  Minor  contain  abundant  evidence 
that  no  material  change  has  taken  place  in  the  dress  of  the 
people.  We  can  clearly  distinguish  upon  those  stone  carvings 
the  poorer  people,  whose  chief  garment  was  the  shirt  we  have 
described,  and  the  wealthier  class,  who  wore  the  kuftan,  or  robe. 
So,  likewise,  if  we  turn  to  the  Scriptures  of  both  the  Old  and  the 
New  Testaments,  we  not  only  find  passages  containing  clear  allu- 
sions to  the  Oriental  robe,  but  other  passages  which  can  not  be 
understood  without  the  knowledge  of  this  garment.  We  have 
already  alluded  to  Joseph's  coat,  or  "robe  of  many  colors." 
When  the  Ark  of  the  Lord  was  brought  to  Jerusalem,*  David 
is  described  as  wearing  both  an  ephod,  or  a  shirt  of  linen,  and  a 
robe  of  like  material.  It  is  evident  that  when  the  king  danced 
before  the  Ark  he  had  laid  aside  the  latter,  and  wore  only  his 
ephod  and  drawers.f  Michal,  his  wife,  looked  through  a  win- 
dow, and,  seeing  what  she  considered  his  undignified  dress  and 
demeanor,  despised  him  in  her  heart,  and  reproached  him  in 
language  which  seems  very  natural  to  an  Oriental  ear.:}:  The 
difficulty  of  identifying  the  garments  mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
tures with  those  worn  at  the  present  day  arises  from  the  va- 
riety of  names  used  in  the  former — a  circumstance,  however, 
equally  true  of  the  latter,  since  what  is  essentially  the  same 
garment,  though  we  have  given  it  but  one  name,  is  differently 
designated  in  different  provinces  and  towns,  and  even  among 
different  classes  of  people.  We  must,  therefore,  make  large  use 
of  the  context,  and  not  trust  to  fancied  etymologies,  which  are 
no  more  reliable  in  this  case  than  when  applied  to  the  gar- 
ments we  ourselves  wear. 

The  reader  will  find  reference  to  the  kuftan  in  the  following 
passages:  it  is  called  a  robe  in  1  Sam.  xviii.,  4;  xxiv.,  4;  Job 
i.,  20;  xxix.,  14;  Isa.  xxii.,  21;  Ixi.,  10;  Jonah  iii.,  6;  Mic. 
ii.,  8 ;  Matt,  xxvii.,  28 ;  x^"^*^^  (coat).  Matt,  v.,  40 ;  Mark  vi.,  9 ; 
Luke  iii.,  11 ;  vi.,  29 ;  xx.,  46 ;  John  xix.,  2,  23.  It  is  also 
sometimes  translated  "  garment,"  as  in  Josh,  vii.,  21 ;  Ezra  ix., 
3  ;  Matt,  xxii.,  11 ;  and  the  "  apparel,"  Esth.  viii.,  15.    The  rend- 

*  2  Sam.  vi.,  12-14 ;  1  Chron.  xv.,  25-27.      t  Lev.  vi.,  10.        t  2  Sam.  vi.,  20. 


THE   INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE.  513 

ing  of  the  garment  consists  in  ripping  open  the  seams  on  each 
side  of  the  kuftan,  in  front,  where  the  gored  pieces  are  sewed 
on  to  enable  the  edges  to  overLap  each  other,  so  that,  there 
being  no  real  tearing,  the  damages  can  easily  be  repaired  by  a 
few  stitches.*  The  "  entary,"  or  woman's  garment,  correspond- 
ing to  the  kuftan  of  the  men,  is  rent  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
sign  of  mourning.f  It  is  now  the  custom  for  the  priest  in  charge 
of  the  obsequies  at  a  funeral  to  go  around  to  the  chief  mourners 
and  rip  open  the  front  seam  of  each  one's  kuftan  for  him  three 
or  four  inches  down  from  the  waist,  and  so  as  not  to  injure  the 
garment.:}:  The  girdle  in  its  simplest  form  is  a  leathern  thong, 
such  as  was  worn  by  the  prophet  Elijah  and  John  the  Baptist 
in  the  desert  over  a  shirt  of  camel's  hair,  and  such  as  is  still  in 
general  use  among  the  Bedawy  Arabs,  as  well  as  among  the  Cir- 
cassians in  the  region  of  Mount  Caucasus,  "The  poor  fellahin, 
or  settled  Arabs,  prefer  a  strip  of  cloth  called  "kamar,"  red  being 
the  favorite  color  ;§  but  those  who  can  afford  to  wear  the  kuftan 
bind  around  it  a  girdle  ("hezam"),  consisting  of  a  long  strip  of 
muslin,  or  a  shawl,  whose  material  and  value  depend  upon  the 
means  of  the  wearer.  This  part  of  the  dress  is  very  conspicu- 
ous, and  is  often  more  costly  than  all  the  rest ;  shawls  of  Cash- 
mere and  Lahore  are  not  unfrequently  worn  by  the  wealthy. 
The  proper  size  is  eight  yards  in  length  and  one  in  width  ;| 
but  there  are  parts  of  the  country  where  a  much  longer  girdle 
is  used :  those  of  the  Zeibeks  of  Asia  Minor,  for  instance,  are 
wound  around  their  bodies  from  the  armpits  to  below  the  hips. 

The  girdle  is  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures,  and 
these  references  indicate  that  it  was  used  in  the  same  manner 
as  at  present:  Exod.  xxviii.,  4;  Lev.  viii.,  7  ;  1  Sam.  xviii.,  4; 
Ezek.  xxiii.,  15.     It  was  often  of  costly  material.^ 

Before  engaging  in  a  race  or  a  fight,  the  girdle  is  tightened 
round  the  waist,  and  its  end  is  carefully  made  fast ;  at  the  same 
time  the  sharwar  is  drawn  up  tight,  and  the  surplus  fastened 
behind  with  the  girdle ;  or  the  kuftan  is  raised  similarly.  The 
loins  are  thus  strengthened  for  the  conflict  by  the  girdle,  which 
prevents  the  garments  from  slipping  down  and  impeding  the 

*  2  Sam.  XV.,  32  ;  Ezra  ix.,  5  ;  Job  i.,  20  (margin,  "  robe") ;   ii.,  12. 
t  2  Sam.  xiii.,  19.  J  "  Hadji  Baba,"  vol.  iii.,  chap.  1. 

§  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  40.  ||  Morier,  vol.  i.,  p.  245. 

t  2  Sam.  xviii.,  11 ;  Prov.  xxxi.,  24 ;  Rev.  i.,  13 ;  xv.,  6. 


514  BIBLE   LANDS. 

movements.  Hence  youths  old  enough  to  bind  on  their  own 
girdles  are  called  fighting  men.*  So,  likewise,  the  need  of  as- 
sistance in  binding  on  the  girdle  is  indicative  of  weakness,  and 
particularly  of  old  age.f 

The  manner  in  which  weapons  are  set  in  and  bound  to  the 


Weapons  carried  in  the  Girdle.    (Deut.  i.,  41.) 

girdle,  so  as  not  to  impede  the  movements  in  running,  fighting, 
or  on  a  long  march,  may  be  seen  in  the  engraving  annexed.:}: 
There  is  among  the  Persepolitan  sculptures  a  representation 
which  proves  with  peculiar  clearness  the  identity  of  the  ancient 
and  modern  girdle. 

The  long  kuftan,  or  robe,  is  not  often  worn  with  sharwars;  a 
shorter  garment,  otherwise  identical,  is  usually  substituted,  over 
which  the  sharwar  is  drawn,  and  the  girdle  is  placed  around 
over  both.  This  mode  of  dress  is  particularly  convenient  on 
horseback  as  well  as  in  warfare.  A  broad  belt  of  red  moroc- 
co is  buckled  over  the  girdle,  in  which  are  inserted  a  brace  of 
pistols,  and  a  knife  three  feet  long,  peculiarly  Oriental  in  the 
form  of  its  blade  and  handle,  and  called  a  "yatagan."  Many  car- 
ry merely  a  dagger  ("khancher")  in  their  girdles,  a  privilege  de- 
nied to  Christians  and  Jews,  who  hold  the  same  relation  to  Mus- 
lims that  the  conquered  nations  did  to  the  Romans.  The  khan- 
cher is  often  handsomely  jeweled,  and  its  blade  is  sharp  only  on 
one  side.  The  Circassian  never  parts  with  his  two-edged  dagger: 
it  corresponds  with  the  two-edged  sword  of  Eh  ud,§  for  it  is  about 
a  cubit  in  length,  including  its  ivory  handle ;  but  it  is  worn 


*  2  Kings  iii.,  21;  mnrgin  rendering,  "that  could  gird  themselves  with  a  gir 
die."  See  also  Job  xii.,  18,  21 ;  xxxviii.,  .3  ;  Psa.  xviii.,  ;{2;  Isa.  v.,  27;  viii.,  1) 
xxii.,  21  ;  xxiii.,  10. 

t  John  xxi.,  18.  J  Deut.  i.,  41 ;  Judg.  xviii.,  11.  §  Judg.  iii.,  16. 


THE   INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE. 


515 


5  G 

Ancient  Girdles :  1,  3,  Egyptian  ;  2,  Persepolitau  ; 
4,  5,  6,  Assyrian. 


conspicuously  in  front,  suspended  from  the  leathern  belt.  Ehud 
was  obliged  to  conceal  his  weapon  by  a  prohibition  to  the  He- 
brews to  carry  arms  similar  to  that  laid  upon  Christians  by 
their  Muslim  conquerors.  The  girdle  is  also  used  as  a  recep- 
tacle for  a  variety  of  articles ;  a  handkerchief  is  often  kept  in 
it,  and  the  tobacco-bag  and  the  watch  also  have  their  regular 
place  there.  The  mer- 
chant and  the  scribe 
often  carry,  thrust  into  xL  \s 
their  girdles,  their  ink-  ^^^^ 
stand  and  case  for  pens,  ^  ^ 
described  on  page  390. 
In  the  house,  and  when 
engaged  in  work,  the 
shirt,  drawers,  robe, 
and  girdle  are  usual- 
ly worn  without  any 
additional  garments, 
especially  during  the 
summer ;  but  when  the  weather  is  cool,  or  when  in  the  street, 
or  entertaining  guests,  an  additional  garment  is  worn,  called 
the  "  jibbeh,"  or  "  benish."  It  is  a  loose  coat,  usually  of  broad- 
cloth, and  of  any  uniform  color,  extending  to  the  feet,  with  a 
narrow  collar,  and  sleeves  whose  length  and  fullness  depend 
upon  the  fashion  and  the  class  to  which  the  wearer  belongs. 
It  is  always  open  in  front,  for  it  has  no  buttons.  The  garment 
appears  to  be  of  great  antiquity,  and  is  evidently  referred  to  in 
Gen.  xxxix.,  12-15;  1  Sam.  xviii.,  4;  2  Kings  ix.,  13;  Esth. 
viii.,  15;  Mic.  ii.,  8;  Matt,  xxi.,  8;  Mark  xiii.,  16;  Luke  vi., 
29;  xix.,  35;  xxii.,  36;  John  xiii.,  4;  Acts  xii.,  8;  xxii.,  20. 

The  jibbeh,  however,  is  not  worn  by  all.  Its  place  is  often 
taken  by  a  jacket  with  short  sleeves  never  reaching  lower 
than  the  girdle.  This  jacket  is  often  worn  under  the  jibbeh ; 
but  it  is  used  by  all  who  wear  the  sharwars  over  the  short  kuf- 
tan.  These  jackets  are  often  of  a  bright  color,  are  richly  em- 
broidered, and  have  long  sleeves  slit  open  from  the  shoulder 
to  the  wrist,  which  may  be  closed  at  pleasure  with  buttons,  or 
allowed  to  hang  straight  down  from  the  shoulder. 

Furs  are  much  worn  by  Orientals  in  cold  weather.  Man}' 
simply  line  with  them  the  body  of  the  jacket,  which  is  worn 


516  BIBLE    LANDS. 

either  with  or  without  the  jibbeh;  sometimes  the  jibbeh  itself 
has  a  fur  lining  throughout,  excepting  the  sleeves,  in  which 
case  it  is  called  bj  Europeans  a  pelisse.  Some  of  these  pe- 
lisses are  not  only  lined  with  expensive  furs,  but  are  also  elabo- 
rately embroidered  with  gold,  and,  like  the  kuftan  in  the  south- 
ern parts  of  the  country,  are  bestowed  in  the  northern  regions 
by  the  sovereign  as  a  mark  of  royal  favor.  The  most  common 
fur  is  that  of  the  fox,  which  abounds  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. There  are  cheaper  furs  worn  by  the  poor;  that  of  the 
wolf  is  used  only  by  sailors.  The  wealthy,  particularly  the 
ladies,  prefer  the  martin  and  the  sable. 

The  cloak  of  Western  Asia  is  more  varied  in  form  and  ma- 
terial than  any  other  garment.  The  "mashlak"  is  universally 
worn  south  of  Mount  Taurus.  It  is  a  very  loose  garment,  with 
sleeves  so  ample  as  to  hide  the  arms  and  hands  when  they 
hang  down,  made  of  a  firm,  coarse  woolen  texture  woven  in 
broad  stripes,  dark  brown  and  white.  This  garment  appears 
to  be  of  great  antiquity,  being  the  cloak  in  common  use  in  all 
parts  of  Arabia  and  the  Desert,  where  it  not  unfrequently  con- 
stitutes the  only  covering  of  the  wearer  both  by  day  and  by 
night.  It  is  probably  alluded  to  in  the  following  passages: 
Exod.  xxii.,  26,  27;  Judg.  iv.,  18;  1  Sam.  xv.,  27;  xxviii.,  14; 
1  Kings  xix.,  13, 19 ;  2  Kings  ii.,  8, 13 ;  2  Tim.  iv.,  13.  There 
are  varieties  of  this  cloak,  however,  some  of  which  may  have 
been,  or  still  are,  used  in  the  same  regions  of  country  as  the 
inashlak,*  while  others  are  found  only  in  neighboring  dis- 
tricts. The  burnoos  of  the  Moors  and  others  of  the  Barbary 
States  has  a  hood  attached,  and  this  is  the  case  with  garments 
of  various  lengths,  made  of  a  thick  woolen  stuff,  impervious  to 
rain,  and  goes  by  the  name  of  "  aba."  The  fisherman's  coat 
is  of  this  nature.f  It  has  sleeves,  but  reaches  hardly  to  the 
knees,  and  is  often  bound  around  the  waist  with  a  handker- 
chief or  a  leathern  strap,  and  is  worn  by  many  besides  fisher- 

*  The  mashlak  in  Syria  and  Palestine  is  usually  woven  in  two  pieces,  which  are 
sewed  together  in  a  single  seam,  running  down  the  back ;  a  few,  however,  are 
made  in  a  single  piece ;  they  are  the  dearest,  as  they  have  to  be  wrought  on  a 
larger  loom.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  seamless  coat  of  our  Lord,  spoken  of 
in  .John  xix.,  23,  for  which  the  soldiers  cast  lots,  was  a  cloak  or  mashlak  (Clarke. 
"Travels," chap,  xiii.,  p.  2.57).  The  word  xirwi>  usually  means  the  garment  worn 
next  to  the  skin;  it  has,  however,  also  been  used  to  indicate  the  outer  vesture 
(Josephus,  "Antiquities,"  bk.  iii.,  chap,  vii.,  §  4).  t  John  xxi.,  7. 


THE    INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE.  517 

men.  In  the  northern  parts,  the  shepherds  and  the  camel- 
drivers  wear  a  large  cloak  of  white  felt,  without  hood  or  sleeves. 
It  is,  however,  sometimes  used  as  a  hood,  and  is  set  up  over  the 
head  like  a  tent.  A  long  piece  of  cloth  somewhat  in  the  shape 
of  a  shawl,  and  of  a  uniform  dull  color,  is  sometimes  used  in- 
stead of  a  hood,  the  ends  meeting  in  front,  and  one  of  them 
being  thrown  over  the  shoulder. 

The  practice  of  shaving  the  head  is  almost  universal,  except 
with  the  Arabs  of  the  Desert.  Muslims,  however,  in  accordance 
with  the  tenets  of  their  religion,  leave  a  single  lock  on  the  top 
of  the  head ;  for  thej  believe  that  after  their  burial  two  gigan- 
tic angels,  the  one  named  Munkir  and  the  other  Guanakir,  seiz- 
ing the  follower  of  Islam  by  this  lock,  cause  him  to  kneel  down 
in  his  grave  and  answer  the  inquiries  which  are  to  decide  his 
fate  until  the  Judgment.  It  is  curious  to  find  the  same  lock 
of  hair  among  the  savages  of  North  America,  who,  however, 
instead  of  attaching  to  it  any  religious  idea,  reserve  it  for  the 
scalping-knife  of  their  enemies.  This  practice  of  shaving  the 
head  doubtless  originated  in  Egypt,  and  is  there  maintained  by 
the  prevalence  of  cutaneous  diseases  and  the  abundance  of  ver- 
min, and  it  is  certainly  efficacious  as  far  as  it  goes;  hence  it  is 
practiced  by  Jews  and  Christians  as  well  as  by  Muslims.* 

Under  the  hot  sun  of  this  land  the  hair  is  an  insufficient  cov- 
ering for  the  head,  and  neither  the  turban  nor  the  simple  tar- 
boosh, or/e2  of  modern  times,  can  conveniently  be  worn  upon 
an  unshaven  head ;  it  is,  moreover,  a  matter  of  notoriety  that 
the  wearing  of  head-dresses  produces  premature  baldness.  We 
will  not  describe  the  present  national  head-dress  of  the  Turkish 
empire,  introduced  in  1827  by  Sultan  Mahmood,  which,  under 
the  different  names  of  fez  and  tarboosh,  but  with  slight  differ- 
ences of  form,  was  designed  to  sUpplant  the  ancient  graceful 
head-dress  of  the  East  with  a  distant  imitation  of  the  European 
hat.  The  real  and  immemorial  head-dress  of  the  East  is  the 
turban.  This  consists,  first,  of  a  small  close-fitting  cap  of  white 
cotton  cloth,  called  "arakiyeh,"  worn  day  and  night,  but  often 
changed ;  next  to  this  is  worn  a  cap,  varying  in  she  and  weight, 
of  red,  white,  or  black  felt,  with  or  without  a  blue  silk  tassel, 

*  This  practice  anciently  existed  among  several  nations;  for  Jeremiah  (ix.,  26, 
margin)  specifies  as  thus  shaving  the  hair,  with  the  exception  of  a  central  curl,  the 
Egyptians,  Jews,  Edomites,  Moabites,  and  Ammonites. 


518 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


and  sometimes  of  wadded  cloth ;  around  this  is  wound  the  tur- 
ban, usually  consisting  o!"  muslin,  silk,  or  a  valuable  shawl,  of 
a  variety  of  form,  size,  or  arrangement,  according  to  the  rank 
or  condition  of  the  wearer.  Certain  colors  can  be  worn  only 
by  the  ruling,  or  Muslim,  race.  The  turban  of  men  of  the  law 
is  of  white  muslin ;  the  green  is  appropriated  exclusively  to 
the  descendants  of  the  Prophet,  called  sherifs,  even  in  the  fe- 
male line.  This  custom  dates  only  from  the  fourteenth  cen 
tury,  and  is  based  on  the  fact  that  Mohammed  was  usually 


Modern  Oriental  Head-dresses. 

dressed  in  green,  and  that  it  was  the  color  of  the  sacred  stand- 
ard. Bright  colors  can  be  worn  either  in  the  dress  or  the  tur- 
ban by  the  Muslims  alone,  while  the  "rayahs,"  or  subject  .races, 
are  permitted  the  use  only  of  dark  or  dull  colors.  The  shape  of 
the  turban,  especially  in  the  cities  and  among  the  higher  class, 
has  been  subject  to  frequent  changes.  The  simplest  forms  have 
probably  always  remained  the  same.  We  have  seen  a  very 
ancient  helmet,  which  was  evidently  intended  to  be  worn  over 
the  turban,  and  an  illustration  is  given  of  it  farther  on. 


THE    INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE.  519 

The  Mamlooks  of  Egypt  formerly  wore  a  turban  of  great 
size ;  it  consisted  of  seventy -five  yards  of  the  finest  muslin,  so 
curiously  and  nicely  folded  and  intertwined,  that  they  formed 
a  kind  of  horn,  the  dimensions  of  which,  varying  accordiqg  to 
the  rank  and  dignity  of  every  individual,  was  from  two  to  ten 
ells.*  This  fact  might  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  text  of 
Scripture,  "Lift  not  up  the  horn."f  It  must,  however,  be  ac- 
knowledged that  these  passages  can  be  explained  without  sup- 
posing them  to  contain  allusion  to  any  thing  worn  by  men  upon 
the  head.:}: 

By  far  the  most  imposing  turban  worn  in  our  day  is  that  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  Koordish  mountaineers.  A  tall,  conical  cap 
is  set  upon  the  head,  and  around  it  is  worn  a  long  shawl,  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  assumes  the  shape  of  a  flat  shield  about 
four  feet  in  diameter;  about  this  are  twisted  and  tied  innumer- 
able gay  handkerchiefs — the  most  acceptable  gift  that  can  be 
offered  to  a  Koordish  chieftain.  As  may  be  well  conceived, 
such  a  stupendous  head-dress  is  quite  heavy ;  it  has,  indeed, 
to  be  balanced  by  means  of  a  handkerchief,  which  passes  across 
the  forehead  and  is  tied  to  the  hind  part  of  the  turban.  It  is 
a  great  protection  to  the  head  in  warfare,  which  may  be  said  of 
the  turban  generally. § 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  turban  has  at  any  time 
been  the  exclusive  head-dress  of  the  nations  that  have  occupied 
the  western  portions  of  Asia.  The  carvings  upon  the  stones 
of  Shehel  Minar,  and  similar  rock  drawings  found  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, Armenia,  and  Syria,  prove  that  the  head-dresses  of  the 
Persians,  and  of  their  predecessors,  the  Assyrians,  were  essen- 
tially the  same  as  at  the  present  day.  The  Phrygian  caps  rep- 
resented on  the  bass-reliefs  of  Boghaz  Keuy,  in  Central  Asia 
Minor,  differ  from  those  of  modern  Persia  only  in  being  more 
upright,  and  the  Circassians  of  our  day  wear  caps  of  the  same 
material,  precisely  similar  to  those  of  the  ancient  Ninevites.  In- 
deed, the  lamb-skin  cap,  in  some  form,  is  worn  by  all  the  North- 
ern tribes  in  place  of  the  turban,  and  particularly  by  the  Geor- 
gians, Mingrelians,  Lesghies,  Armenians,  and  even  by  the  Cos- 
sacks, the  Tartars,  and  the  Bulgarians  of  south-eastern  Europe. 


*  Churchill,  vol.  ii.,  p.  332.  t  Psa.  Ixxv.,  4, 10;  cxii.,  9;  cxlviii.,  14. 

J  1  Kings  xxii.,  11 ;  Micah  iv.,  13.     §  Perkins,  p.  191 ;  Layard,  vol.  i.,  p.  151. 


520  BIBLE   LANDS. 

The  Osmanli  empire,  far  more  than  its  predecessors  at  Bug- 
dad,  Damasous,  and  Cairo,  has  ever  been  fond  of  the  outward 
show  produced  by  a  varied  garb  in  its  oificers  and  subjects; 
and,  until  lately,  there  was  in  Turkey  a  great  diversity  of  head- 
dress, properly  belonging  neither  to  the  class  of  the  lamb-skin 
cap  nor  to  that  of  the  turban,  but  designated  by  the  general 
name  of  "ka-ook"  and  "kalpak,"  which  would  already  have 
perished  from  the  memory  of  man,  but  for  the  curious  collec- 
tions of  old  costumes  in  the  Imperial  Museum  at  the  At-Meidan, 
in  Constantinople.  It  is  highly  probable  that  distinctive  cos- 
tumes were  worn  by  the  different  officers  of  state  at  the  courts 
of  the  Pharaohs  and  the  kings  of  Jerusalem,  Nineveh,  and 
Babylon,  though  we  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  precisely 
what  they  were.  It  appears,  however,  from  a  passage  in  He- 
rodotus, that  even  the  Persians  often  wore  the  turban  in  his 
day;  for  he  says  of  them  that,  on  certain  occasions,  "they 
wear  the  turban  encircled  with  a  wreath,  most  commonly  of 
myrtle."*  Various  forms  of  the  turban  are  not  unfrequently 
represented  on  ancient  carvings. 


Ancient  Turbans. 


r 


The  beard  is  held  in  higli  estimation  throughout  the  East, 
and  it  is  a  shame  for  a  man  to  have  no  hair  upon  his  face, 
which  is  the  case  with  eunuchs,  who  are  generally  despised.f 
The  hair  of  the  upper  lip  is  always  allowed  to  grow,  but  the 
chin  and  face  are  shaved  by  the  younger  men,  and  the  beard 
is  not  worn  in  some  districts  until  the  age  of  forty.:}:  In  the 
cities  it  is  trimmed  and  thinned  about  the  throat  by  the  bar- 
ber. The  Jews  strictly  obey  the  requirement  of  their  law  to 
allow  the  beard  its  natural  growth, §  and  they  carry  out  the  first 
part  of  the  precept  by  leaving  a  lock  of  hair  before  each  ear, 
though  they  shave  the  rest  of  the  head.  It  was  not  always  so, 
however,  for  Mephibosheth  left  his  beard  untrimmed,  as  a  sign 


*  Rawlinson,  "  Herodotus,"  vol.  i.,  p.  218.  t  Matt,  xix.,  12. 

}  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  107.  §  Lev.  xix.,  27. 


THE   INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE.  521 

of  mourning,*  as  is  now  done  by  others  than  Jews.  The  beard 
is  rarely  dyed  except  among  the  Persians,  who  use  both  indigo 
and  henna  (see  page  364).  This  was  done  by  the  ancient 
Assyrians.!  The  hair,  when  cut,  is  not  preserved,  as  are  shav- 
ings of  the  nails,  both  of  hands  and  feet;  some,  indeed,  drop  the 
latter  into  some  chink  or  crack  in  the  floor,  but  others  care- 
fully deposit  them  in  a  little  bag  kept  in  the  girdle,  with  the 
idea  that,  being  a  part  of  their  bodies,  these  fragments  must 
rise  from  the  grave  at  the  resurrection-day,  and  become  iden- 
tified with  their  new  bodies.  The  beard  is  not  only  esteemed, 
but  venerated,  and  men  swear  not  only  by  their  heads,:}:  but 
by  their  beards. 

It  is  a  great  reproach  to  shave  off  the  beard  after  being 
grown.  We  once  knew  a  highly  respected  Armenian  priest  of 
Nicomedia,  Der  Harootune  by  name,  who  refused  to  sign  a  dec- 
laration presented  by  his  bishop  which  recognized  the  worst  ten- 
ets of  popery.  He  was,  in  consequence,  taken  to  the  principal 
church  of  the  city,  divested  of  his  priestly  garments,  his  beard 
shaved,  and  he  was  driven  thence  to  prison  amidst  the  hoot- 
ings  and  peltings  of  the  mob.§  The  beard,  and  even  the  eye- 
brows, are  sometimes  shaven,  in  token  of  mourning;!  but  they 
are  oftener  "plucked  off"  on  such  occasions,  as  is  also  the  hair 
of  the  head  when  not  shaved.^  This  is  frequently  the  case 
among  the  Persians,  and  was  universal  among  the  Greeks  and 
Eomans.**  The  practice  of  plucking  off  the  hair  of  the  head 
is  very  general  among  women  in  time  of  severe  aflflictions.f  f 

The  sandal,  so  generally  worn  by  the  ancients,  is  now  most- 
ly confined  in  Western  Asia  to  the  Arabs  of  the  desert,  with 
the  exception  of  that  form  of  it  described  on  page  186.  In  the 
cities  and  large  towns  of  Western  Asia  it  has  been  replaced  by 
the  morocco  shoe,  terminating  with  a  high  point  at  the  toes; 
but  it  is  still  in  very  general  use  in  India,  China,  Japan,  and 
some  of  the  islands  of  the  South-eastern  Archipelago.:}::]:  The 
accompanying  plate  shows  the  forms  of  shoes,  boots,  and  clogs 
most  in  use  at  the  present  time  in  Western  Asia  and  Egypt. 

*  2  Sam.  xix.,  24.  t  Layard,  vol.  ii.,  p.  254.  t  Matt,  v.,  36. 

§  2  Sam.  X.,  1-5.  ||  "Arabian  Nights,"  p.  46;  Isa.  xv.,  2;  Jer.  xli.,  5. 

1  Ezra  ix.,  3.  **  Acts  xviii.,  18. 

tt  Josephus,  "Antiquities,"  bk.  xvi.,  chap,  vii.,  §  5  ;  Perkins,  p.  341 ;  Spencer, 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  98,  350.  J  J  Tavernier,  part  ii.,  chap,  xxii.,  p.  197. 


522  BIBLE   LANDS. 

In  warm  weather,  and  among  the  poor,  the  shoe  constitutes 
the  sole  covering  of  the  foot.  Both  rich  and  poor,  however, 
though  they  go  about  the  house  wearing  their  shoes,  always 
leave  them  at  the  door  of  the  room  before  they  step  upon  a 
carpet  or  matting,  or  sit  upon  their  feet  on  the  divan.*  This 
is  done  from  motives  of  cleanliness,  and  must  not  be  confound- 
ed with  a  similar  practice  at  places  considered  as  holy  ground. f 


T^-^O' 


^i  ,->-- 


Oriental  Shoes,  Boots,  and  Clogs.    (Cant,  vii.,  1.) 

The  richer  class  wear  either  socks  or  stockings  of  cotton  or 
wool,  or  a  morocco  "  mest,"  which  is  a  boot  or  sock  of  soft 
leather,  with  a  sole  of  the  same,  and  is  worn  inside  of  the  shoe. 
Some  men,  however,  instead  of  shoes,  use  slippers  of  the  same 
form  as  those  worn  by  the  women ;  and  this  not  only  about  the 
house,  but  in  the  street  as  well.  One  of  the  duties  of  a  serv- 
ant is  to  put  away  the  shoes  of  his  master  when  taken  off, 
and  to  set  them  down  before  him  when  he  wishes  to  step  off 
the  carpet.  When  a  rich  man  rides  through  the  street,  he  is 
accompanied  by  several  servants  on  foot,  one  of  whom  carries 
his  shoes.:}:  Walking  barefoot  out-of-doors  is  a  sign  of  pover- 
ty,§  and  also  a  sign  of  mourning  ;|  and  as  the  ordinary  sandal 
of  Bible  times  was  considered  as  an  article  of  trifling  value,^ 
so  now  even  a  new  pair  of  morocco  shoes  is  worth  but  one  or 
two  shillings  of  English  money,  or  from  twenty -five  to  fifty 
cents.  Yellow  slippers  and  mests  are  worn  by  Muslims,  while 
Christians  and  Jews  can  only  wear  dark  purple  or  black. 
There  is  also  a  heavy,  clumsy  morocco  boot,  always  red,  like 

*  Luke  vii.,  38  ;  John  xiii.,  5,  6. 

t  Exod.  iii.,  5;  Josh,  v.,  15.  I  can  not  agree  with  Mr.  Lane  on  this  point, 
though  I  am  sorry  to  dift'er  from  so  high  an  authority.  See  Lane,  "Modern 
Egyptians,"  Introduction,  vol.  i.,  p.  10. 

i  Morier,  "Travels,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  1C6  ;  Matt,  iii.,  11.  §  Luke  xv.,  22. 

II  Morier,  " Travels,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  17'J  ;  2  ISam.  xv.,  30 ;  Ezek.  xxiv.,  17. 

1  Amos  ii.,  G  ;  viii.,  G. 


THE    INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE.  523 

the  shoe,  with  an  iron  heel,  which  is  worn  almost  exclusively 
in  riding. 

There  is  by  no  means  so  marked  a  distinction  between 
the  costumes  of  women  and  that  of  men  in  the  East  as  in  the 
West,  though  this  is  fully  compensated  by  the  veil.  The  dif- 
ference consists  only  of  slight  deviations  in  the  form  of  the 
garments.  We  have,  indeed,  repeatedly  seen  women  clad  in 
clothes  belonging  to  their  husbands,  and,  among  the  nomads, 
have  often  been  puzzled  to  distinguish  the  sex  until  it  was  be- 
trayed by  the  smooth  face  or  the  long  tresses.  The  shirt  worn 
by  the  women  is  full  and  ample,  like  that  worn  by  the  men, 
but  shorter,  reaching  only  to  the  knees,  and  generally  of  a 
finer  texture.  Those  who  can  afford  it  wear  a  white  crape- 
like material  of  silk,  or  silk  and  cotton.  The  edge  of  this  gar- 
ment around  the  throat  and  in  front,  as  well  as  the  full  sleeves, 
are  often  handsomely  trimmed  with  silk  lace.  Over  this  shirt 
they  always  wear  the  "  shintian,"  a  garment  corresponding  to 
the  sharwar  of  the  men,  and  usually  made  of  striped  and  fig- 
ured print,  but  oftentimes  of  materials  far  more  costly,  and 
richly  embroidered.  This  garment  is  very  full ;  it  is  gathered 
and  tied  just  below  each  knee,  its  ample  folds  falling  graceful- 
ly to  the  feet.  A  quilted  vest  is  often  worn  in  cold  weather 
next  to  the  shirt.  The  "  entary  "  of  the  women  corresponds  to 
the  kuftan  of  the  men,  though  it  is  longer,  fuller  below  the 
waist,  and  its  sleeves  often  reach  to  the  ground.  Unlike  the 
kuftan,  it  fits  close  to  the  body,  buttons  at  the  waist,  but  is  cut 
quite  open  in  front,  where  the  bosom  is  covered  only  by  the 
fine  shirt.  It  is  slit  up  at  each  side  as  high  as  the  hip,  show- 
ing the  full  trowsers,  of  the  same  material  and  color:  it  is 
sometimes  of  bright  scarlet,  a  color  always  in  favor. 

In  the  cities  the  ladies  are  fond  of  wearing  entaries  of  great 
length,  six  yards  being  sometimes  the  measure  from  the  shoul- 
der. Even  every -day  garments  are  made  after  this  fashion, 
particularly  at  the  capitals,  the  long  flowing  ends  of  the  train 
being  caught  up  and  fastened  in  the  girdle  when  the  wearer  en- 
gages in  household  occupations.  This  robe  and  the  trowsers  are 
often  of  rich  and  expensive  stuffs,  gorgeously  embroidered  with 
silk  of  various  colors,  gold  thread  and  spangles,  pearls  and  pre- 
cious stones.  Instead  of  the  antery  is  sometimes  worn  a  "ye- 
lek,"  differing  from  it  only  in  having  no  skirt,  and  reaching  a 
34 


524 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


little  below  the  waist.  The  trowsers  worn  with  this  yelek  are 
fastened  over  it,  and  more  nearly  resemble  the  sharwar  of  the 
men,  buttoning  at  the  ankles  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  the 
gaiter. 

The  girdle  worn  by  the  women  is  of  lighter  material  than 
that  of  the  men,  and  usually  consists  of  a  square  shawl,  or 
handkerchief,  of  silk  or  muslin,  bound  loosely  around  the  waist 
in  such  a  manner  that  a  corner  hangs  down  the  back  or  at  the 
left  side.*     The  handkerchief  is  usually  carried  in  the  girdle; 


Muslim  Lady  iu  the  Harim— the' Jacket. 

bat  some  ladies  of  rank  affect  to  wear  a  small  hanjar,  or  dagger, 
with  a  jeweled  handle.  More  than  two  hundred  years  ago, 
and  within  the  memory  of  many  now  living,  the  women  of 
Western  Asia  wore  a  belt  or  zone,  clasped  in  front  by  two 
disks  of  silver  or  gold,  sometimes  set  with  precious  stones; 
the  belt  itself  was  often  of  cloth  of  gold.  Such  a  girdle  is  still 
worn  by  the  married  women  in  Circassia.f 

A  short  jacket  of  broadcloth,  silk,  or  velvet  is  worn  over  the 


•  Isa.  iii.,  24. 


t  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  104,  206. 


THE   INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE.  525 

robe.  This  is  often  the  most  costly  garment  of  tlie  entire  suit, 
being  richly  embroidered  with  gold.  It  reaches  to  the  waist, 
its  sleeves  vary  in  fashion,  and  it  is  sometimes  buttoned  in 
front.  This  garment  was  once  worn  nearly  as  long  as  the 
European  frock-coat.  We  have  seen  it  embroidered  with 
writing.* 

The  head-dress  of  the  fair  sex,  and  the  manner  of  arranging 
the  hair,  varies  considerably  in  different  localities,  and  in  large 
cities,  especially  at  the  capital,  it  is  under  the  influence  of  fash- 
ion. Still  there  are  certain  general  characteristics  which  belong 
to  it  everywhere,  and  distinguish  it  from  any  European  styles. 
The  hair  of  the  back  of  the  head  is  worn  in  one  of  two  ways : 
it  is  gathered  into  one  braid,  or  tress,  which  hangs  down  the 
back,  precisely  like  the  representation  of  Astarte  and  her  train 
of  virgins  in  the  celebrated  carvings  of  Pterium.f  This  mode 
of  arranging  the  hair  is  now  general  among  the  Circassian 
women,:}:  as  well  as  among  the  inhabitants  of  Lesser  Armenia.§ 
Among  the  Greeks  of  some  of  the  islands,  two  tresses  are  worn 
instead  of  one.  The  other,  and  almost  universal  mode,  is  to 
divide  the  hair  into  numerous  fine  braids,  from  nine  to  twen- 
ty-five, but  always  of  an  odd  number,!  which  hang  down  the 
back.  Into  each  tress  of  hair  are  often  braided  three  black 
silk  cords,  to  which  small  gold  coins  are  sometimes  fastened  at 
irregular  distances,  reaching  down  to  the  knees,  glittering  at 
every  movement  of  the  wearer  (see  page  509).  The  truly 
Oriental  mode  of  wearing  the  front  hair,  which  is  affected  by 
fashion  only  in  the  large  cities,  consists  in  clipping  it  straight 
across  the  forehead  about  an  inch  above  the  eyebrows,  leaving 
a  single  lock  hanging  on  each  side  of  the  face.  This  lock  is 
called  a  "  maksoos,"  and  women  sometimes  swear  by  it,  pulling 
it  forward  with  the  hand  as  men  swear  by  their  beards.  Girls 
wear  their  hair  parted  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  and  comb- 
ed simply  back  behind  the  ears,  where  it  hangs  in  several  braids. 
The  custom  of  curling  the  hair,  once  so  prevalent  in  Egypt,  as 
appears  from  the  monuments  and  the  mummies,  seems  now  to 
be  confined  to  the  savage  tribes  of  Africa,  who  "  use  a  stick, 

*  Churchill,  "Lebanon,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  333 ;  Rev.  xix.,  16. 

t  Boghaz-keuy,  "Travels  in  Asia  Minor, "  vol.  ii.,  p.  118. 

J  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  103,  205.  §  Morier,  "  Travels, "  vol.  ii.,  p.  150. 

II  Lane,  "Modern  Egyptians," vol.  i.,  p.  55. 


526 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


with  which  they  hold  their  locks  and  twist  them  round  a  screw 
until  they  curl  into  the  desired  form."^  Such  an  instrument 
appears  to  have  been  used  by  Hebrew  ladies  in  the  days  of 
Isaiah.f  The  women  never  go  bare-headed  any  more  than 
the  men,  but  they  wear  a  low  and  small  tarboosh,  or  red  cap, 
whose  blue  tassel  is  either  of  floss-silk  spread  equally  over  the 
crown,  or  of  coarser  twisted  silk  hanging  down  behind.  A  light 
handkerchief  of  printed  muslin,  whose  tasteful  colors  are  often 
very  becoming,  is  bound  around  the  red  cap,  and  tied  in  a  grace- 
ful knot  at  one  side;  and  where  the  influence  of  fashion  has 
not  yet  penetrated,  several  of  these  handkerchiefs  form  the 
complete  turban  of  the  women,  always  lighter  and  less  formal 
than  that  of  the  men.  Married  women  wear  a  light  handker- 
chief of  figured  muslin  thrown  loosely  over  the  head,  and  hang- 
ing down  behind,  whenever  liable  to  meet  a  man  about  their 
premises,  or  when  crossing  the  street  to  the  house  of  a  near 
neighbor.  Such  a  handkerchief  is  the  sole  head-dress  of  girls 
over  ten  years  of  age,  and  they  throw  it  off  when  indoors.  The 
red  cap  is  sometimes  covered  with  gold  coins  sewed  upon  the 
crown,  each  overlapping  the  other  like  scales,  so  as  completely 
to  hide  its  surface,  and  appear  like  a  small  golden  helmet.  In 
place  of  coins  is  often  worn  a  convex  golden  plate  about  five 
inches  in  diameter,  sometimes  of  open-work,  representing  flow- 
ers and  ornamented  with  diamonds.:}:  A  favorite  form  of  these 
head-jewels  is  the  star  and  crescent,§  which  has  from  time  im- 
memorial been  an  emblem  of  Astarte,  or  Venus,  who  personi- 


Fronflet  worn  by  Ladies.    (Dent, 


fied  the  generative  power  of  nature ;  she  is  often  represented 
with  a  star  and  crescent  as  an  ornament  upon  her  head.     It  is 

*  Bruce,  vol.  iii.,  p.  410.  t  Isa.  iii.,  22. 

t  Lane,  "Modem  Egyptians,"  vol.  ii..  Appendix  A,  p.  .313. 
§  Isa.  iii.,  23;   Kiissell,  "Aleppo,"  vol.  i.,  p.  106;  Lane,  "Modern  Egyptians," 
vol.  ii.,  Appendix  A,  pp.  3U,  315. 


THE   INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE. 


527 


a  singular  fact,  that  this  s3nnbol  has  now  become  identified  with 
the  faith  of  Islam,  a  monotheistic  religion ;  but  its  adoption  as 
such  dates  only  from  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  in  the  fif- 
teenth century,  for  it  was  the  emblem  of  ancient  Byzantium. 

In  some  districts  an  indispensable  ornament  of  a  woman  is 
a  row  of  gold  coins  sewed,  as  before  mentioned,  upon  a  band 
of  cloth,  and  worn  across  the  top  of  the  forehead,  being  half 
concealed  by  the  edge  of  the  turban.    A  more  graceful  "  front- 


The  Law  upon  the  Forehead.    (Exod.  xiii.,  16.) 

let"  consists  of  rows  of  little  gold  plates,  linked  together,  and 
hung  across  the  forehead,  to  the  lowest  of  which  are  suspend- 
ed small  coins  of  the  same  metal,  which  shake  and  glitter  at 
every  motion  of  the  head. 

The  custom  of  wearing  frontlets  appears  to  be  quite  ancient, 
as  might  be  inferred  from  the  direction  of  Moses  to  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel,  to  inscribe  passages  of  Scripture  upon  the  front- 
lets worn  by  their  women.*      The  small  box,  containing  a 


*  Deut.  vi.,  8.     See  in  Lane,  "Modern  Egyptians,"  vol.  ii.,  Appendix  A.,  spec- 
imens of  such  head-jewels  worn  by  Egyptian  ladies. 


528  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Strip  of  parchment  with  a  passage  of  the  law  written  upon  it, 
which  is  worn  on  the  forehead  by  the  German  Jews,  espe- 
cially when  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  does  not  seem  to 
correspond  with  any  existing  Oriental  custom,  and  appears  to 
be  of  comparatively  modern  origin.  Jewish  women  are  not 
permitted  to  show  their  hair  after  marriage,  and  their  head- 
dress is  so  contrived  as  completely  to  conceal  the  hair.*  They, 
however,  imitate  the  side -locks  of  other  women  by  wearing 
black  feathers  in  front  of  each  ear.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that 
this  custom  also  exists  among  the  Circassians.f 

Much  has  been  said  of  the  use  of  the  "  horn"  by  the  women. 
The  horn,  worn  almost  from  time  immemorial  by  the  women 
of  Lebanon,  both  Christians  and  Muslims,  as  well  as  Druses, 
has  lately  almost  disappeared  ;  but  a  description  of  this  curious 
and  ancient  head-dress  will  not  be  inappropriate.  It  consists  of 
a  hollow  tube  of  silver,  sometimes  chased 
with  gold,  and  adorned  with  precious 
stones,  closed  at  the  upper  end,  and  some- 
what trumpet -shaped  at  its  base,  where 
it  is  sewed  to  a  little  cushion,  and  set 
upon  the  top  of  the  forehead.  It  in- 
clines somewhat  forward,  and  its  base 
and  cushion  are  fastened  to  what  is  call- 
ed the  "  bridge,"  consisting  of  pieces  of 
cloth,  tightly  bound  together  into  a  cord 
an  inch  thick,  shaped  like  an  arch :  one 
end  of  this  bridge  is  sewed  to  the  cushion 
upon  which  is  fastened  the  lower  end  of  the  horn,  while  the 
other  end  rests  upon  the  crown  of  the  head,  having  strong 
cords  suspended  from  it,  which  hang  down  the  back  and  reach 
to  the  knees,  with  huge  tassels  of  red  silk  weighted  with  lead. 
These  tassels  are  a  counterpoise  to  the  horn,  which  would  oth- 
erwise topple  over  in  front.  The  whole  thing  is  rendered  firm 
and  steady  by  a  net-work  of  cords,  which  connect  the  two  ends 
of  the  bridge,  as  well  as  the  little  cushion  which  supports  the 
horn,  and  by  a  strong  band  fastened  tightly  under  the  jaws.:}: 

Surely  there  can  be  no  stronger  example  of  the  tyranny 


*  Isa.  xlvii.,  2.  t  S|ieiKcr,  vol.  ii.,  p.  20^ 

t  Chuicliill,  "Lebanon,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  21)7,  332. 


THE   INMATES  OF  THE   HOUSE.  629 

of  fashion  than  this,  which  has,  besides  its  inconvenience,  been 
known  repeatedly  to  injure  particular  organs. 

The  veil  is  worn  over  the  horn  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
leave  its  lower  half  uncovered  in  front.  It  is  drawn  over  the 
face  at  pleasure,  its  drapery  concealing  all  but  one  eye.  In- 
deed the  horn  is  never  seen  unveiled,  even  in  the  house.  It  is 
worn  day  and  night,  and,  to  relieve  the  wearer,  a  hole  is  made 
in  the  wall  by  the  side  of  her  bed,  into  which  she  inserts  this 
incommodious  appendage  while  she  sleeps! 

Some  commentators  find  a  reference  to  the  horn  of  Leba- 
non, or  some  similar  ornament  worn  by  women,  in  numerous 
passages  of  the  Scriptures,  such  as  2  Sam.  xxii.,  3  ;  Psa.  xviii., 
2;  lxxv.,4;  cxii.,  9;  and  cxlviii.,  14.  We  can  not  favor  this 
view,  for  all  these  passages  contain  references  to  men,  and  not 
to  women,  and  are  connected  with  the  idea  of  conquest  and 
the  honors  of  victory.  The  only  instance  in  which  this  lan- 
guage is  used  by  a  woman*  appears  to  be  a  quotation  from  a 
psalm  or  hymn,  for  the  phraseology,  "  He  shall  exalt  the  horn 
of  his  anointed"  (verse  10),  is  a  proof  that  she  was  not  speak- 
ing of  herself.  The  figure  is  evidently  taken  from  the  ram, 
the  goat,  the  bull,  the  reem,  etc. ;  while  the  budding  of  Daniel's 
hornf  doubtless  refers  to  the  antlered  stag,  or  roebuck.  Now 
the  horn  is  the  appendage  of  the  male,  and  not  of  the  female 
of  animals,  while  the  Mount  Lebanon  horn  is  worn  exclusive- 
ly by  women.  Our  own  opinion  is,  that  this,  in  common  with 
various  other  peculiar  head-dresses  put  on  at  marriage,  and 
worn  during  the  remainder  of  life,  has  no  reference  whatever 
to  the  horns  of  animals,  but  is  connected  with  the  idea,  very 
prevalent  in  the  East,  that  the  marriage  ceremony  constitutes 
the  crowning  of  the  virgm,  who  is  thenceforth  a  queen.  She 
is,  indeed,  so  called  in  the  liturgies  of  all  the  Oriental  church- 
es; and  the  head-dress  she  then  puts  on  for  the  first  time  bears 
a  resemblance  in  varying  degrees  to  a  crown.  On  Mount  Leb- 
anon it  is  a  horn  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  in  length ;  in  the 
district  of  Kesrooan,  near  the  cedars  of  North  Lebanon,  the 
women  wear  a  large  silver  cup  fastened  to  the  back  of  the 
head ;  still  farther  north,  this  ornament  takes  the  form  of  a 
small  silver  trumpet,  attached  to  the  left  side  of  the  head  just 

*  1  Sam.  ii.,  1.  t  Psa.  cxxxii.,  17;  Ezek.  xxix.,  21. 


530 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Various  Head-jewels  of  married  Women, 


above  the  ear;  while  in  Aintab  the  women  wear  on  the  top  of 
the  head  a  flat,  circular  disk  of  embossed  silver  eight  inches 
in  diameter,  fastened  by  a  handkerchief  tied  under  the  chin. 
At  Sivri-Hissar,  in  Central  Asia  Minor,  a  similar  disk  is  worn 
in  the  same  manner,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  set  a  small 
silver  box  containing  a  charm,  or  talisman,  against  "  the  evil 
eye." 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  these  customs  are  confined  to  nar- 
row districts,  and  that,  while  otherwise  universal,  they  have 
never  been  adopted  by  the  Turks,  but  are  always  limited  to  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants,  which  would  seem  to  be  a  proof  of  their 
antiquity.  We  shall  speak  elsewhere  of  the  crowning  of  the 
bride  with  the  dodos,  a  ceremony  which,  so  far  as  we  are  aware, 
never  prevails  where  the  head-dresses  we  have  described  are 
worn  by  married  women. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  a  head-dress  similar  to  the  horn  of 
Mount  Lebanon  was  in  use  at  one  time 
among  some  of  the  Hebrew  women ;  for 
such  a  coiffure  is  now  worn  at  Tunis  and 
Algiers,  in  Africa,  exclusively  by  the  Jew- 
ish married  women  ;  it  is  there  considered 
an  antiquated  custom,  which  is  djnng  out. 
Oriental  women  are  notoriously  fond  of 
decking  with  jewelry,  not  only  their  heads, 
but  other  parts  of  the  body  as  well.  They 
wear  ear-rings  of  various  forms,  some  of  them  reaching  even 
below  the  shoulders,  and  being  of  considerable  weight.*     The 


Jewish  Horn  at  Algiers. 


*  Gen.  XXXV.,  4:  Isa.  iii.,  20;  Ezek.  xvL,  12. 


THE   INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE.  531 

first  of  the  references  below  is  supposed  to  imply  that  figures  of 
false  gods  were  engraven  upon  the  ear-rings  of  Jacob's  wives. 
This  is  well  known  to  accord  with  the  practice  of  antiquity, 
as  will  be  seen  in  a  later  chapter  in  the  picture  of  a  golden  ear- 
ring, bearing  a  laughing  Cupid,  which  was  found  not  far  from 
Padan-aram,  in  Upper  Mesopotamia.  Among  the  Bedawy 
Arabs  even  men  and  boys  sometimes  wear  ear-rings.*  The 
side  cartilages  of  the  nose  are  bored,  and  rings  of  gold,  silver, 
or  brass  are  suspended  from  them,  sometimes  forming  a  chain, 
the  other  extremity  of  which  is  fastened  to  the  ear.f  The 
middle  cartilage  of  the  nose  is  also  adorned  with  a  ring,  some- 
times so  large  that  it  reaches  to  the  chin,  and  must  be  removed 
at  every  meal.:};  This  custom  is  now  confined  to  the  lower 
classes  and  the  rural  districts  of  the  countries  extending  from 
Lesser  Armenia  to  Egypt.  Among  some  of  the  African  tribes 
women  sometimes  have  no  less  than  seven  holes  for  rings:  one 
in  the  middle  cartilage,  and  three  on  each  side  of  the  nose.§ 
Rings  are  worn  on  all  the  fingers — even  on  the  thumbs — and 
are  often  set  with  precious  stones.f  The  most  unique  we  have 
seen  is  frequently  given,  at  betrothals,  and  consists  of  two  gold 
rings  linked  together  at  one  spot,  each  being  hung  round  with 
little  flat  spangles  of  gold  called  basl-.*[ 

There  is  great  variety  both  in  the  form  and  in  the  materials 
of  their  bracelets,  which  are  almost  universally  worn,  being  of 
gold,  silver,  brass,  or  copper,  and  even  of  glass.  Some  of  them, 
made  of  the  purest  gold,  show  great  beauty  of  workmanship, 
and  are  sold  by  weight,  as  of  old.**  The  poor  often  wear  them 
of  a  single  piece  of  colored  glass.  Men,  however,  no  longer 
wear  these  ornaments.  Ankle -rings  are  worn  almost  exclu- 
sively by  the  women  of  the  Desert  Arabs,  or  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts ;  they  are,  however,  more  common  in  Egypt.  These  knock 
together,  making  a  ringing  sound  as  they  walk,  and  are  prob- 
ably alluded  to  by  the  prophet  Isaiah  (iii.,  16-18).  The  neck- 
lace is  not  so  indispensable  an  ornament  as  the  bracelet,  yet  it 

*  Exod.  xxxii.,  2  ;  Judg.  viii.,  24. 

t  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  104  ;  Smith,  vol.  ii.,  p.  232  ;  Lane,  "Modern  Egypt,"  vol. 
ii.,  Appendix  A.,  p.  323. 

t  Gen.  xxiv.,  47  (Hebrew,  nose-ring's  for  ear-rings);  Judg.  viii.,  2G;  Ezek.  xvi.,  12. 
§  Pococke,  vol.  i.,  p.  129.  11  Cant,  v.,  14. 

%  Exod.  XXXV.,  22  ;  Isa.  iii.,  21.  **  Gen.  xxiv.,  22. 


532  BIBLE   LANDS. 

is  very  generally  worn,  especially  among  the  wealthier  classes. 
This  graceful  ornament  often  consists  of  a  string  of  gold  coins 
of  one  size,  with  a  larger  one  in  the  centre,  which  lies  upon  the 
breast;  or  it  may  be  of  several  strings  of  pearls  supporting  a 
central  ornament,  formed  of  diamonds  or  other  precious  stones, 
or  whatever  valuable  trinkets  the  wearer  may  possess.  Some 
necklaces  are  wrought  of  pure  gold,  in  curious  and  beautiful 
patterns,  precisely  similar  to  those  found  in  ancient  tombs.  We 
have  seen  little  heart-shaped  plates  of  gold,  hanging  from  each 
link  of  the  necklace,  and  sparkling  at  every  motion.* 


Eastern  Necklaces.    (Cant,  iv.,  9.) 

On  occasions  of  special  festivity,  the  ladies  often  wear,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  ornaments  already  specified,  long  chains  of  gold 
of  various  patterns  and  forms,  hung  from  the  neck  and  extend- 
ing below  the  girdle.  Such  a  chain  is  sometimes  formed  of 
large  sequins,  and  passes  over  either  shoulder,  reaching  to  the 
hip,  whence  a  broader  chain  hangs  down  half-way  to  the  feet. 
Sometimes  a  box  as  large  as  the  hand  hangs  from  the  necklace 
upon  the  breast;  it  is  of  gold,  either  plain,  or  adorned  with 
precious  stones,  and  wrought  with  many  openings,  through 
which  issues  the  perfume  of  ambergris,  or  the  musk  paste  called 
"seraglio  pastilles;"  for  Orientals  are  extremly  fond  of  strong 
perfumes,  and  live  too  much  out-of-doors  to  be  hurt  by  them.f 
The  display  on  festive  occasions  is  sometimes  extremely  gor- 
geous; for  their  suits  are  of  the  richest  stuffs,  and  highly  em- 
broidered, which  have  been  acquired  in  times  of  prosperity,  and, 
not  being  subject  to  the  changes  of  fashion,  are  worn  by  suc- 
ces.sive  generations,  and  sometimes  lent  to  neighbors  and  rel- 
atives, being  carefully  kept  in  large  chests  of  cypress- wood, 
whose  odor  preserves  them  from  the  ravages  of  motiis.:|:     Our 

*  Exod.  XXXV.,  22;  Numb,  xxxi.,  50 ;  Isa.  iii.,  20,  where  the  word  tablet  should 
be  translated  necklace. 

t  Chardin,  vol.  vii..  n.  80.  X  Job  xxvii.,  IG,  17. 


THE   INMATES  OF  THE   HOUSE.  533 

Lord  refers  to  this  custom  in  Matt,  vi.,  19.  Ezekiel  minutely 
describes  these  chests  and  their  use,  the  only  difference  consist- 
ing in  their  being  made  of  cedar  instead  of  cypress.*  It  is 
probably  owing  in  great  measure  to  the  insecurity  of  property 
in  real  estate  that  so  much  of  it  is  laid  out  in  gold  and  jewelry. 
We  have  known  families  possessed  in  all  of  some  five  thousand 
dollars,  one  half  at  least  of  whose  property  was  invested  in  so 
unprofitable  a  manner.  Even  the  women  of  isolated  mountain 
villages,  particularly  those  of  Koordistan,  unable  to  adorn  them- 
selves with  ornaments  of  gold,  sometimes  wear  a  complete 
breastplate  and  helmet  of  silver  coins,  closely  sewed  upon  a 
piece  of  cloth,  or  to  their  cap  of  felt.f 

The  reader  of  ancient  history,  both  sacred  and  profane,  can 
not  fail  to  have  noticed  that  this  is  not  a  new  trait  in  the  char- 
acter of  Orientals.  It  is  an  illustration  of  the  appropriateness  of 
St.  Paul's  exhortation  that  "  women  adorn  themselves  in  mod- 
est apparel,  with  shamefacedness  and  sobriety,  not  with  broid- 
ered  (margin,  j^laited)  hair,  or  gold,  or  pearls,  or  costly  array.";}: 
Repeatedly  have  we  noticed  some  matron  who,  after  clinging 
to  her  ornaments  of  gold  as  her  inalienable  dowry,  began  to 
read  the  Word  of  God,  when,  all  at  once,  and  of  her  own  ac- 
cord, she  removed  those  bright  trinkets  from  her  brow,  and  of- 
fered them  to  her  husband  to  aid  in  the  support  of  the  family ; 
but  we  have  seen  no  similar  change  in  the  plaiting  of  the  hair, 
which,  as  now  practiced,  does  not  seem  to  be  opposed  to  the 
spirit  of  the  apostolic  injunction.  He  doubtless  had  reference 
to  practices  existing  in  his  own  day,  which  have  now  disap- 
peared. It  is  well  known  that  even  after  the  commencement 
of  the  Christian  era  the  Egyptian  ladies  wore  large  and  costly 
wigs,  which  are  found  preserved  in  their  mummies;  and  it  is 
highly  probable  that  the  ladies  of  Greece  and  the  Greek  colo- 
nies in  Asia  Minor,  in  the  apostle's  day,  were  in  nowise  behind 
the  Egyptian  dames  in  this  respect,  as  may  be  judged  from  the 
specimens  of  female  head-dresses,  in  terra  cotta,  found  among 
the  ruins  of  Smyrna,  and  dating  not  long  previous  to  that  pe- 
riod. 

Socks  are  worn  only  in  the  colder  regions,  and  the  shoes  of 
the  women  are  of  the  same  material  as  those  of  the  men ;  the 

*  Ezek.  xxvii.,  24.  f  Ussher,  p.  353.  t  1  Tim.  ii.,  9. 


534 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


yellow  color  being  worn  by  the  Muslim  race  alone.  They  con- 
sist of  a  small  slipper,  worn  indoors,  and  made  of  simple  mo- 
rocco, richly  embroidered  with  colored  silks,  gold-thread,  and 
even  pearls.  In  warm  climates,  however,  and  in  the  summer 
season,  the  feet  are  bare,  and  dyed  with  henna  as  an  ornament. 
They  put  their  feet  into  the  common  thick-soled,  yellow  slip- 


Lady's  portable  Lookiug-glass.    (Exoci.  xxxviii.,  8.) 

per  whenever  they  step  off  the  mat  or  carpet.  In  some  peaces, 
however,  the  ladies  move  about  the  house  on  "kubkabs" 
(clogs),  made  sometimes  of  dark -colored  wood  inlaid  with 
mother-of-pearl,  and  held  to  the  foot  by  an  embroidered 
leather  strap.  The  ladies  of  Damascus  use  kubkabs  eight  or 
nine  inches  high,  in  order,  it  is  said,  to  appear  taller  than  they 
really  are.     Out-of-doors,  or  in  cold  weather,  is  worn  a  small 


THE    INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE.  535 

mest,  or  sock  of  morocco,  similar  to  that  of  the  men,  with  a 
yellow  slipper  over  it. 

We  have  now  completed  the  description  of  the  women's 
dress,  and  must  add  the  finishing  touch  bj  reminding  the 
reader  of  what  we  have  mentioned  respecting  the  dyeing  of 
the  hands  and  feet  with  henna,  the  leaves,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, of  the  camphire  plant,*  which  are  crushed  when  dry, 


Lady'B  portable  Looking-glass— Back  of  Mirror. 

and  made  into  a  paste  with  a  little  water;  this  is  spread  upon 
the  palms  of  the  hands,  the  soles  of  the  feet,  and  around  the 
ends  of  the  fingers  and  toes,  and  bound  up  overnight,  after 
which  the  paste  is  washed  off,  and  leaves  an  all  but  indelible 
mark.     Elderly  dames  very  commonly  dye  their  gray  locks 


Cant. 


536  BIBLE    LANDS. 

with  henna.  But  Eastern  women  are  almost  as  fond  of  the 
kohl  as  of  the  henna.  This  kohl  consists  of  a  coUyrium  of 
antimony,  or  other  substance  considered  beneficial  to  the  eye 
as  well  as  ornamental,  which  is  kept  in  a  small  bottle,  and  ap- 
plied with  a  probe  of  silver,  ivor}^,  or  wood  to  the  edges  of  the 
eyelids,  for  the  purpose  of  blackening  them,  and  thus  enhan- 
cing the  brightness  of  the  eye,  which  is  usually  large,  shaded  by 
long  black  lashes,  and  decidedly  the  finest  feature  of  Oriental 
women.*  Varieties  of  the  henna  and  kohl  constitute  the  cos- 
metic dyes  used  by  them  in  modern  as  in  ancient  times.f  Kohl 
must  have  been  in  high  repute  as  early  as  the  time  of  Job,  foi- 
he  named  his  youngest  daughter  Keren-happuch,  which  signi- 
fies "a  horn"  (bottle)  "for"  (eye)  "paint"  (/.  e.,  kohl  or  anti- 
mony).:}: Orientals  admire  eyebrows  that  meet  over  the  nose, 
presenting  the  appearance  of  a  bow  ;  and  when  nature  has  de- 
nied them  this  ornament,  they  imitate  it  by  artificial  paint.  This 
is  removed  in  case  of  mourning,  and  the  hair  growing  there 
naturally  is  plucked  in  order  to  disfigure  the  face.  This  was 
also  done  anciently;  for  Moses  forbade  the  Hebrews  to  "  make 
any  baldness  between  their  eyes  for  the  dead."§ 

The  bathing  and  open-air  life  of  the  women,  as  well  as  their 
being  veiled  from  the  sun,  conduce  more  than  any  such  arti- 
ficial appliances  to  enhance  the  beauty  of  their  complexion, 
where  there  exists  the  solid  basis  of  a  good  constitution.  In 
adjusting  her  ornaments  and  arranging  her  head-dress,  every 
woman  makes  use  of  a  little  circular  looking-glass,  with  or 
without  a  handle,  and  usually  framed  with  wood  inlaid  with 
mother-of-pearl.  It  corresponds  in  form  and  size  with  the 
metallic  mirrors  occasionally  found  among  the  ruins  of  ancient 
cities;  such,  but  with  polished  metal  instead  of  glass,  were  the 
mirrors  offered  by  the  Hebrew  women  to  the  Lord,  to  be  made 
into  a  brazen  laver  for  the  service  of  the  tabernacle.!  Among 
the  wealthy  a  small  oval  mirror  is  sometimes  used,  set  in  a 
frame  of  solid  wrought  silver,  and  the  ladies  of  Constantinople 

*  2  Kings,  ix.,  30;  Prov.  vi.,  25 ;  Jer.  iv.,  30  (Hebrew,  Icakhal) ;  Ezek.  xxiii.,  40. 
t  Wilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  p.  343 ;  Liiyard,  "  Nineveh,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  254. 
\  Job  xlii.,  14. 

§  Deut.  xiv.,  1.  This  rendering  is  supported  by  the  versions  in  Chaldee,  Syriac, 
and  Greek. 

II  Exod.  xxxviii.,  8  ;  Job  xxxvii.,  18. 


THE   INMATES   OF  THE   HOUSE. 


537 


r.  1^ 


have  a  portable  looking-glass,  whose  frame  and  cover  is  faced 
with  crimson  velvet  heavily  embroidered  with  gold.  In  the 
interior  of  the  country  glass  is  still  rare,  and  fragments  of  look- 
ing-glass are  often  seen,  set  in  plaster,  in  the  walls  of  apart- 
ments of  the  harims. 

Ladies  of  the  higher  and  middle  classes  often  chew  the  white 
gum  called  "  mastic,"  which  fully  supplies  the  place  of  the 
tooth-brush,  which  they  never  use,  and,  besides  whitening  the 
teeth,  sweetens  also  the  breath.  This  gum  is  obtained  by  in- 
cisions in  the  stem  of  a  shrub  grown  exclusively  in  the  island 
of  Scio,  so  highly  prized  as  to  be  a  government  monopoly,  af- 
fected to  the  support  of  the  valideh  sultan.,  or  queen-dowager. 

Oriental  women  never  wear  combs  in  their  hair;  those  which 
they  use  at  home,  or  at  the  bath,  are  broad,  short,  thick  in 
the  middle,  and  very  fine.  They 
are  of  the  same  pattern  as  those 
which  have  been  found  in  Egyp- 
tian tombs.* 

Oriental  women  never  show 
themselves  unveiled  before  men 
other  than  their  near  relatives. 
On  such  occasions,  however,  the 
veil  worn  differs  considerably  in 
dijBPerent  parts  of  the  country. 
The  most  common  form  consists 
of  a  sheet  of  white  cotton,  or 
mixed  silk  and  cotton,  ample 
enough  to  cover  the  whole  per- 
son from  head  to  foot.  In  put- 
ting on  this  veil  the  skirts  of  the 
antery  are  first  caught  up  into  the 
girdle,  and  the  folds  of  the  shin- 
tian,  which  usually  hang  down 
loose  about  the  ankles,  are  in  like 
manner  gathered  out  of  sight.  The  veil  is  then  folded  in  two 
equal  parts,  and  the  middle  of  it  is  made  fast  round  the  waist, 
so  that  the  lower  portion  hangs  nearly  to  the  ground,  while 
the  upper  half  is  brought  over  the  head  as  far  as  the  forehead, 


Veiled  Woman.    (Geu.  xxxviii.,  14,) 


Wilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  p.  343. 


538  BIBLE    LANDS. 

the  arms  and  hands  being  left  free  to  gather  it  in  front  and 
draw  it  over  the  face,  concealing  all  but  the  eyes.  The  Mount 
Lebanon  veil  only  reaches  half  way  down  the  skirt.  In  some 
districts  the  rigid  Muslim  ladies  wear  a  piece  of  black  crape, 
which  is  stiff,  and  projects  from  the  face  so  as  to  enable  the 
wearer  to  see  from  beneath  it  as  she  walks.  The  various 
styles  of  veils  worn  in  Egypt  have  been  fully  described  by 
Mr.  Lane.*  At  the  capital,  and  in  some  of  the  larger  cities, 
the  outdoor  costume  of  the  women  consists,  first,  of  a  cloak,  or 
ferejeh,  whose  ample  folds  and  wide  sleeves  completely  envelop 
the  person,  while  a  broad,  square  cape,  reaching  nearly  to  the 
ground,  effectually  conceals  the  form.  The  material  is  a  light 
woolen  stuff,  which  the  Muslim  women  may  wear  of  any  bright 
shade  —  apple-green,  sky-blue,  pink,  and  bright  3^ellow  being 
the  favorite  hues,  while  all  other  women  must  robe  themselves 
in  neutral  tints.  This,  added  to  their  dull-colored  mests  and 
slippers,  enables  one  at  first  glance  to  distinguish  them  from 
Muslim  ladies.  In  all  cases,  the  head,  face,  shoulders,  and 
breast  are  completely  covered  with  folds  of  the  finest  muslin, 
leaving  only  the  eyes  in  sightf  The  circumstances  in  which 
the  veil  is  worn  or  dispensed  with,  and  the  influence  of  polyg- 
amy in  restraining  feminine  liberty  in  this  respect,  are  topics 
which  properly  belong  to  the  following  chapter. 

Let  it  now  suffice  to  remark  that  the  large  veil  just  described 
is  almost  exclusively  worn  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  larger 
towns,  and  even  there  by  those  in  easy  circumstances,  and  that 
rural  occupations  tend  to  substitute  for  so  cumbrous  an  ap- 
pendage the  light-colored  handkerchief  whicli  city  ladies  also 
wear  when  in  the  house. 


*  "  Modern  Egyptians,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  57-Gl. 

t  Dicaearchus,  describing  the  dress  of  the  women  of  ancient  Thebes,  says  tliat 
"  their  eyes  only  are  seen ;  tlie  other  parts  of  their  faces  are  covered  by  their  gar- 
ments." 


LIFE    IN    THE   FAMILY.  539 


CHAPTER  VII. 

LIFE  IN  THE  FAMILY. 

"We  have  purposely  confined  ourselves,  in  the  two  preced- 
ing chapters,  to  what  would  be  most  likely  to  arrest  the  eye 
of  an  Occidental  within  the  walls  of  an  Eastern  home.  We 
now  propose  to  go  a  little  farther,  and  call  the  attention  of  our 
readers  to  the  different  members  of  the  household,  and  the 
manner  in  which  their  several  relations  to  each  other  are  sus- 
tained. 

Love  is  an  irrepressible  sentiment  of  the  human  heart,  and 
can  never  be  wholly  extinguished  by  such  a  state  of  society  as 
does  not  recognize  it  to  be  the  foundation  of  the  conjugal  re- 
lation. It  often  asserts  itself  with  a  power  the  more  irresisti- 
ble, for  the  restraint  laid  upon  it.  The  Oriental  theory  is  that 
love  comes  after  marriage,  and  that  it  can  be  kept  from  pre- 
mature development  by  the  complete  separation  of  the  sexes. 
Thus,  love,  not  being  permitted  to  enter  as  an  element  in  the^ 
formation  of  the  conjugal  relation,  marriage  becomes,  in  a  good 
measure,  an  affair  of  pecuniary  interest,  and,  on  account  of  the 
usually  early  age  of  the  parties,  depends  chiefly  upon  the  will 
and  choice  of  their  parents.  This  also  occurs  in  all  the  South 
of  Europe,  and  indeed,  to  a  great  extent,  even  in  France.  So 
Abraham,  after  the  death  of  Sarah,  procured  a  wife  for  their 
son  Isaac*  It  is  particularly  upon  the  mother,  aunts,  and  sis- 
ters of  a  young  man  that  the  duty  devolves  of  looking  up  for 
him  a  suitable  wife.  When  such  an  object  is  in  view,  not  con- 
tent with  inquiries  among  their  friends  and  acquahitances  con- 
cerning all  the  marriageable  girls  of  families  occupying  a  simi- 
lar social  position  to  their  own,  they  sally  forth  in  a  body  on 
their  tour  of  inspection.  Custom  permits  them  to  call  at  any 
house  for  such  a  purpose,  and  they  signify  the  object  of  their 
visit  by  asking  for  "a  glass  of  water  from  the  hand  of  the 
young  lady  of  the  house,"  i.  e.,  of  her  who  would  naturally  be 

*  Gen.xxiv.,  2-4. 

35 


540  BIBLE   LANDS. 

understood  to  be  the  candidate  for  the  union  in  view.  The 
company  are  invariably  greeted  with  the  utmost  courtesy,  and 
ushered  at  once  into  the  reception-room,  where  they  are  en- 
tertained with  conversation  till  the  appearance  of  the  young 
lady  in  question,  who  presently  enters,  bearing  sweetmeats  and 
water,  of  which  each  guest  partakes.  She  is  arrayed  in  all 
the  finery  and  jewels  which  belong  to  her  dowry,  nor  does  any 
one  hesitate,  or  deem  it  any  impropriety,  to  inquire  of  the  dam- 
sel's mother  what  besides  is  to  constitute  her  marriage  portion. 
Should  the  call  result  in  a  favorable  impression,  and  the  friends 
of  the  girl  not  show  themselves  averse  to  the  match,  the  next 
step  is  for  the  ladies  of  the  young  man's  family  to  contrive  to 
meet  the  other  party  at  the  public  bath,  so  as  to  make  sure 
that  no  physical  defect  whatever  exists  to  mar  the  personal 
charms  of  the  young  maiden.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  how- 
ever, that  those  who  belong  to  the  unfortunats  class  laboring 
under  the  disadvantage  of  physical  deformity  are  therefore 
necessarily  debarred  from  the  connubial  state.  It  is  a  disgrace 
in  the  East  to  remain  unmarried,  especially  for  woman,*  and 
so  the  comely  and  symmetrical  marry  those  of  their  own  sta- 
tion and  social  position,  often  still  higher,  while  the  less  favored 
ones  usually  form  alliances  with  their  inferiors  in  wealth  and 
rank. 

When  both  parties  have  made  up  their  minds  as  to  the  de- 
sirableness of  the  connection,  a  formal  proposal  is  made,  and 
the  dowry  is  then  discussed  and  settled.  The  latter  transaction 
implies  that  the  husband  purchases  his  wife,  and  that  he  must 
pay  her  price  to  her  parents  or  to  herself  Whatever  dowry 
the  husband  thus  settles  upon  his  wife,  and  whatever  she  brings 
with  her  as  a  marriage  portion,  is  her  own  to  take  away  in  case 
of  divorce,  unless  indeed  the  divorce  be  granted  on  her  own 
application,  in  which  case  she  can  take  nothing  away. 

In  the  rural  districts,  among  the  village  farmers  and  the 
nomad  tribes,  whose  manners  have  been  least  affected  by  the 
influence  of  civilization,  the  marriage  contract  is  avowedly  an 
act  of  purchase,  the  parents  selling  the  daughter,  whom  they  re- 
gard as  their  property,  and  whose  acquiescence  is  secured  by 
means  of  a  few  additional  triflinc;  sifts  or  trinkets.     Tliis  is 


*  Isa.  iv.,  1. 


LIFE   IN   THE    FAMILY.  541 

practiced  by  all  the  Circassian  tribes,  both  Muslim  and  pagan, 
among  whom  the  father  sells  his  daughtei-,  and  the  brother  his 
sister,  to  the  highest  bidder.*  So  much  for  the  high  civiliza- 
tion which  some  travelers  affect  to  discover  among  this  people. 
It  is  the  same  with  the  Crimean  Tartars,  who  have  imported 
most  of  their  customs  unchanged  from  Central  Asia.f 

Nor  is  this  practice  confined  to  the  northern  parts  of  the 
country,  for  it  prevails  throughout  the  whole  of  Western  Asia, 
including  Persia,  and  extending  to  the  southern  limits  of  Ara- 
bia, as  well  as  to  Egypt  and  Africa.  Among  the  modern  Jews 
the  amount  of  the  dowry  varies  with  the  condition  of  the 
bride's  fomily,  according  to  a  fixed  scale.:}:  The  Mosaic  law 
set  it  down  at  a  uniform  rate  of  fifty  shekels,  or  twenty-five 
dollars.§  Among  the  country  people  and  poor  nomads  of 
Judea,  the  price  of  a  wife  often  ranges  from  one  hundred  and 
fifty  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  She  thus  becomes  an*" 
article  of  luxury,  far  above  the  means  of  a  poor  fellah.||  The 
same  principle  prevailed  in  the  same  country  in  the  olden 
time.  In  that  masterly  narrative  where  Abraham's  trusty  old'^ 
servant  is  described  as  procuring  a  wife  for  his  master's  son  in 
Mesopotamia  among  his  kindred,  we  read  that  he  not  only 
bestowed  upon  Rebekah  "jewels  of  silver  and  jewels  of  gold, 
and  raiment,"  but  that  he  also  gave  to  her  brother,  who,  at  his 
father's  death,  had  become  the  head  of  the  family,  "and  to  her 
mother,  precious  things,"  for  he  had  come  with  ten  camels  of 
his  master,  "all  the  goods  of  his  master  being  in  his  hand."!" 
As  for  Jacob,  Eebekah's  son,  he  came  on  the  same  errand  him- 
self with  his  staff  alone,  and  being  too  poor  to  buy  a  wife,  he 
worked  by  contract  seven  years  for  each  of  the  daughters  of 
his  shrewd  uncle,  Laban.**  And  this,  too,  is  still  common  in 
the  East  among  the  same  class  of  people,  the  father-in-law  er^ 
deavoring,  like  Laban,  to  make  a  good  bargain  by  protracting 
the  term  and  advancing  the  price.ff  The  propi'iety  of  thus 
purchasing  a  wife  is  so  generally  recognized  by  the  people, 
that  the  most  deeply-seated  prejudices  are  often  overcome  by 
the  contracting  of  a  marriage  between  persons  of  different  re 

*  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  323.  t  Ihid.,  p.  94.  |  Picart,  vol.  i.,  p.  240. 

§  Compare  Exod.  xxii.,  17,  with  Deut.  xxii.,  29.  ||  Lvnch,  p.  393. 

t  Gen.  xxiv.,  10,  53.  **  Gen.  xxxi.,  41. 

tt  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  94  ;  2  Sam.  iii.,  14  ;  Ilosea  iii.,  2  ;  Rath  iv.,  10. 


542  BIBLE   LANDS, 

ligions.  Even  the  gypsies,  though  greatly  despised,  are  thus 
enabled  to  obtain  the  daughters  of  Armenians,  and  the  Koords 
the  daughters  of  Turks. 

The  degrees  of  consanguinity  which  forbid  marriage  among 
Christians  and  Muslims  are  derived  from  the  Mosaic  law;  and 
the  Nestorians,  who  have  preserved  the  practices  of  primitive 
Christianity  with  probably  the  least  alteration,  maintain,  like 
the  others,  that  marriage  is  unlawful  within  four  generations, 
both  of  the  man  and  of  the  woman.*  So  carefully  is  this  rule 
observed  by  Eastern  Christians,  that  we  have  known  the  nup- 
tial ceremony  to  be  suddenly  arrested  and  broken  off  by  the 
accidental  discovery  of  the  existence  of  such  a  relationship  be- 
tween the  parties.  As  the  Koran,  like  the  Hebrew  legislation, 
allows  polygamy,  it  may  be  regarded  as  considering  the  mar- 
riage relation  from  the  same  point  of  View  as  did  the  Hebrews ; 
and  the  present  condition  of  its  votaries  may  be  taken  as  a  fair 
exponent  of  the  state  of  the  marriage  relation  among  the  Jews 
in  the  days  of  their  national  existence. 

Respecting  the  vexed  question  whether  Lev.  xviii.,  18,  pro- 
hibits marriage  with  a  deceased  wife's  sister,  the  Koran  ap- 
plies it  to  a  polygamous  connection  of  two  sisters  with  one 
husband.f 

The  Mosaic  law  ordained  that  a  man  should  marry  his  broth- 
er's widow  in  case  he  left  no  child,  in  order  to  raise  up  seed 
to  his  brother.  The  object  of  this  regulation,  especially  when 
taken  in  connection  with  the  law  of  the  jubilee,  was  evidently 
the  prevention  of  the  accumulation  of  landed  property,  and  the 
avoiding  of  pauperism.:]:  The  Jews  of  the  present  day  still  ad- 
here to  this  law,  although  they  have  lost  the  land  of  their  in- 
heritance. Among  the  Arabs  it  takes  the  milder  form  of  rela- 
tionship conferring  a  prior  claim  to  the  hand  of  a  girl,  without, 
however,  obviating  the  necessity  of  paying  her  price;  for  we 
have  known  a  match,  in  which  the  parties  were  greatly  inter- 
ested, to  have  been  broken  up  by  the  interference  of  a  relative, 
who  obtained  the  girl  (a  young  miss  of  thirteen)  for  his  son  of 
five,  giving  in  exchange  his  daughter  to  her  brother.  The  poor 
girl  could  not,  of  course,  express  any  j)ersonal  preference,  for 
that  would  have  been  deemed  highly  indecorous,  and  would 

*  Perkins,  p.  324.  t  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  128.  J  Deut.  xxv. ,  6,  6. 


LIFE   IN   THE    FAMILY.  543 

have  availed  nothing.  She  was  but  an  article  of  merchandise, 
raised  to  be  sold  for  the  benefit  of  her  proprietors ! 

Among  Muslims  generally  marriage  with  a  brother's  widow 
is  simply  allowed,  and  the  children  born  of  such  a  connection 
enjoy  no  special  privilege.* 

It  is,  however,  worthy  of  notice  that  the  Mosaic  law  upon 
this  subject  is  a  mere  repetition  of  a  "prior  law"  already  ex- 
isting among  the  patriarchs.f  The  only  trace  now  left  of  such 
a  law  among  other  nations  than  the  Jews  is  to  be  met  with  in 
the  customs  of  a  race  of  African  savages.  Bruce  relates  that 
among  the  Gallas,  a  warlike  heathen  people,  neighbors  and  en- 
emies of  the  Abyssinians,  when  the  eldest  brother  dies  leaving 
younger  brothers  behind  him,  and  a  widow  young  enough  to 
bear  children,  the  youngest  brother  of  all  is  obliged  to  marry 
her;  but  the  children  of  the  marriage  are  always  accounted  as 
if  they  were  those  of  the  eldest  brother;  nor  does  this  marriage 
of  the  youngest  brother  to  the  widow  entitle  him  to  any  part 
of  the  fortune  of  the  deceased.;};  The  ground  of  this  law  among 
the  Galla  tribes  appears  to  have  been  originally  the  same  as 
led  to  the  adoption  of  a  similar  practice  by  the  Hebrews,  among 
whom  the  principle  of  inheritance  became  an  effectual  means 
of  preventing  the  too  great  accumulation  of  real  estate  in  an 
agricultural  country,  and  the  prevalence  of  pauperism.  For 
with  those  African  savages,  when  a  man  becomes  old  and  unfit 
for  war  he  is  obliged  to  surrender  his  whole  effects  to  his  eldest 
son,  who  is  bound  to  give  him  aliment  and  nothing  else.  These 
people  hold  to  the  rights  of  primogeniture  as  strictly  as  did  the 
Israelites  in  the  olden  time,  and  the  Arabs  after  them  until  Mo- 
hammed, and  among  some  tribes  even  to  the  present  day ;  but 
the  Gallas  carry  it  so  far  that  the  eldest  son  inherits  every  thing, 
giving  to  his  brothers  and  sisters  only  what  their  father  had 
named  as  theirs  at  their  birth,  with  the  increase  of  the  same 
until  the  time  of  his  death.  It  is  interesting  to  meet  traces  of 
ancient  customs  long  after  the  causes  which  led  to  them  have 
ceased  to  operate.  They  are  like  the  "bird  tracks"  found  in 
rocks,  once  a  soft  mud,  which  tell  us  that  creatures  of  which 
we  have  no  other  trace  passed  that  way  many  centuries  ago. 

There  is  another  incongruity  resulting  from  the  practice  of 

*  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  123.  t  Gen.  xxxviii.,  8.  t  Bruce,  vol.  ii.,  p.  410. 


5i4  BIBLE   LANDS. 

purcliasing  a  wife,  unfortunately  not  unheard  of  in  more  high- 
ly favored  lands.  It  consists  in  the  disparity  of  years  between 
the  parties.  Girls  are  usually  married  at  thirteen  or  fourteen, 
sometimes  even  nine  or  ten  years  of  age.  Lynch  mentions  "a 
mere  child"  of  a  bride,  eight  years  old  (page  159);  and  at  a 
Jewish  wedding  which  we  once  attended,  the  bride  was  so 
young  that  she  was  carried  about  in  the  arms  of  her  relatives. 
Nor  does  it  unfrequently  happen  that  a  girl  is  compelled  to 
marry  a  boy  much  younger  than  herself.  But  most  common 
of  all  is  the  practice  of  Ian  old  man  espousing  a  j^oung  girl.  We 
have  known  a  man  of  sixty  to  marry  a  child  of  twelve.  She 
ran  away  from  home  the  next  day,  but,  strange  enough,  became 
eventually  an  excellent  and  devoted  wife.  King  David  was 
persuaded  to  do  something  of  the  kind  in  his  old  age,  showing 
that  the  practice  was  not  unknown  at  that  day;  but  it  seems 
the  more  strange  in  his  case,  as  we  are  told  he  had  female 
slaves  and  concubines  in  his  household.*  These  are  all,  how- 
ever, exceptional  cases,  the  vast  majority  of  unions  being  form- 
ed upon  the  same  principles  as  are  deemed  expedient  and  prop- 
er in  other  countries. 

Among  the  Christians,  indeed,  there  is  considerable  freedom 
of  intercourse  between  young  people,  so  that  the  parties  can 
hardly  be  said  to  be  quite  ignorant  of  each  other's  character  or 
personal  attractions — a  circumstance  of  some  importance,  since 
divorce  is  not  allowed  by  them,  as  it  is  by  every  other  relig- 
ious sect  in  the  country. 

The  parties  are  considered  as  affianced  as  soon  as  the  mar- 
riage contract  has  been  agreed  to;  but  the  nuptial  ceremony  is 
sometimes  deferred  for  a  considerable  period.f  Meantime  the 
parties  are  not  permitted  to  see  each  other,  but  may  exchange 
tokens  of  remembrance  and  affection.  The  young  lady  usual- 
Iv  sends  specimens  of  her  needle-work;  while  choice  fruits  and 
flowers,  among  which  the  narcissus  and  the  carnation,  specially 
consecrated  to  affianced  maidens,  are  offered  by  the  young  man 
or  his  mother,  particularly  on  festive  occasions,  as  the  Bairam, 
or  the  Feast  of  Easter. 

The  marriage  ceremony  diffi^rs  among  the  many  nations  and 
tribes  which  now  occupy  "Western  Asia  according  to  the  usa- 

*  2  Sam.  v.,  13.  +  Deut.  xx.,  7  ;  xxii.,  23. 


LIFE   IN   THE    FAMILY.  545 

ges  of  the  countries  whence  they  came,  or  the  religions  they 
profess.  It  would  be  tedious,  as  well  as  foreign  to  our  pur- 
pose, to  give  a  full  account  of  them  all.  But  some  of  these 
rites  offer  points  of  resemblance  to  Scriptural  scenes,  and  to 
such  we  now  invite  the  attention  of  our  reader. 

The  costume  of  the  bride  is  deemed  a  matter  of  the  highest^ 
importance,  since  much  may  depend  upon  the  effect  produced 
by  the  first  sight  of  her  which  her  husband  is  supposed  to  ob- 
tain. She  sometimes  wears  the  very  bridal  suit  which  her 
mother  wore  before  her,  and,  in  some  instances,  that  of  her 
mother-in-law ;  but  usually  a  new  outlay  is  made  for  the  oc- 
casion at  the  expense  of  the  bridegroom.  The  friends  of  the 
bride's  family  take  this  opportunity  to  show  their  good -will 
by  sending  presents  which,  with  the  rest  of  the  trousseau,  are 
exhibited  in  a  room  set  apart  for  the  purpose  during  the  week 
preceding  the  wedding.  Orientals  are  celebrated  for  their  love 
of  display  and  magnificence,  and  some  of  the  costumes  pre- 
pared for  such  occasions  are  rich  and  gorgeous  beyond  expres- 
sion. The  following  description  of  a  bridal  entary,  or  wed- 
ding robe,  was  given  us  by  an  Oriental  tailor,  who  had  often 
seen,  as  well  as  assisted,  in  making  such  a  dress.  It  should 
measure,  he  said,  six  yards  from  the  shoulders  to  the  end  of 
the  train,  and  the  long  sleeves  must  sweep  the  floor.  One  of 
the  finest  he  described  was  of  rose-colored  silk ;  it  was  spread 
out  upon  a  carpeted  floor,  while  seven  women  skilled  in  em- 
broidery worked  upon  one  side  of  the  long  breadths,  and  sev- 
en upon  the  other  side,  under  the  direction  of  an  embroiderer 
in  chief  of  their  own  sex,  who  designed  the  pattern,  and  ap- 
pointed to  each  one  her  work.  The  first  layers  of  embroider- 
ing with  gold-thread  had  already  been  wrought  by  men,  and 
the  women  were  now  putting  on  the  finishing  touches  by  sew- 
ing on  golden  spangles  and  pearls.  The  sum  paid  to  the  di- 
rectress alone  for  superintending  the  needle-work  on  this  single 
robe  was  five  hundred  dollars,  while  her  charge  for  the  work 
done  by  her  subordinates  was  two  thousand  five  hundred  dol- 
lars. In  speaking  of  it,  she  said,  in  a  deprecating  tone,  "  Ten 
years  ago  I  used  to  make  such  dresses  for  the  Sultan's  slaves, 
and  now  he  has  grown  so  economical  that  I  make  them  only 
for  his  wives."  The  entire  cost  of  this  robe,  materials  and  all 
was  estimated  at  ten  thousand  dollars.     Indeed  these  garments 


546 


BIBLE  LANDS. 


are  often  priceless,  for  they  are  embroidered  with  diamonds 
and  other  precious  stones,  in  clusters  or  bouquets,  the  buttons 
from  the  throat  to  the  waist  and  sleeves  consisting  of  diamond 
"solitaires!"  These  are  worn,  not  by  princely  and  royal  per- 
sonages alone,  but  also  by  the  wives  and  daugliters  of  grandees 
and  bankers  in  Constantinople,  Cairo,  Damascus,  and  all  the 
chief  cities  of  the  empire.  The  foregoing  description  adds 
force  to  such  passages  of  Iloly  Writ  as  refer  to  a  bride's  attire, 
especially  when  taken  in  connection  with  what  has  already 
been  said  of  the  jewelry  with  which  she  is  decked,  and  of  cer- 
tain ornaments  which  she  then  wears  for  the  first  time,  as  the 
horn  of  Mount  Lebanon,  and  similar  crown -like  adornments 
(see  page  529).  And  now,  also,  let  the  reader  peruse  such  pas- 
sages as  Isa.  xlix.,  18 ;  Ixi.,  10 ;  Ixii.,  5 ;  and  the  touching  la- 
ment of  Jer.  ii.,  82,  "Can  a  bride  forget  her  attire?"  So  the 
apocalyptic  John,  in  portraying  the  glory  and  transcendent 
beauty  of  the  New  Jerusalem,  as  she  first  appeared  to  him 
"  coming  down  from  God  out  of  heaven,"*  found  no  language 
better  suited  to  his  purpose  than  that  which  represents  a  bride 

when  first  seen  by  the  im- 
patient bridegroom,  radi- 
ant with  all  the  adorn- 
ments we  have  just  de- 
scribed. 

But  the  bride  is  not 
only  arrayed  in  the  rich- 
est garments  her  friends 
can  afford  to  furnish  ;  she 
now  also  assumes  the  dis- 
tinguishing badge  of  a 
married  woman,  which  va- 
ries in  different  parts  of 
the  country.  Among  the 
Jews  it  consists  of  an  en- 
tire concealment  of  the 
hair,  in  place  of  which  she  wears,  in  front  of  her  ears,  tips  of 
black  ostrich  or  other  feathers.  On  Mount  Lebanon  the  tall 
silver  horn  is  now  worn  for  the  first  time,  and  in  like  manner 


The  Bridal  Crown,  or  Dodos. 


Rev.  xxi.,  2. 


LIFE   IN    THE   FAMILY.  547 

similar  crown -like  ornaments  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 
There  are  extensive  districts  in  which  the  high  pasteboard  cap 
called  "dodos"  is  worn,  but  only  until  the  marriage  ceremonies 
are  over.  This  cap  is  fastened  to  the  head  by  a  band  passing 
under  the  chin.  The  Jews  also  encircle  the  head  with  a  wreath 
of  flowers,  and  throw  a  veil  of  scarlet  gauze  over  the  bride ; 
while  the  Muslims  leave  the  face  uncovered,  and  set  it  off  with 
bits  of  gold-leaf  and  black  patches,  or  "beauty-spots."  The 
Christians,  however,  among  whom  a  part  of  the  ceremony 
takes  place  in  public,  envelop  the  bride  with 
a  silken  veil  of  bright  scarlet — the  bridal  color 
— whose  heavy  folds,  falling  to  her  feet,  com- 
pletely conceal  her  head  and  face,  and  part  of 
her  person.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the 
dodos  was  in  use  among  the  ancients,  as  seems 
to  be  proved  by  a  terra-cotta  head  found  in 
Asia  Minor,  probably  not  less  than  two  thou- 
sand years  old,  which  wears  the  dodos  with  a 
garland  around  it. 

It  is  customary  for  the  bride  to  go  through 
her  toilet,  and  other  preliminaries,  in  the  presence  of  her  fe- 
male friends  and  guests,  with  an  accompaniment  of  timbrel 
and  song.  This  occupies  a  good  portion  of  two  days.  The_ 
henna  having  been  applied  to  the  hands  and  feet  of  the  bride 
overnight,  the  following  day  is  spent  by  the  whole  company  at 
the  bath,  which  has  been  already  secured  for  their  exclusive 
use.*  On  the  evening  of  the  marriage,  at  an  early  hour,  the 
bride  is  led  into  the  reception-room,  where  she  is  surrounded 
by  her  friends,  eager  to  assist  in  her  final  toilet.  Her  hair  is 
braided  into  numerous  fine  plaits;  she  is  arrayed  in  her  wed- 
ding-robe ;  a  girdle  is  wound  around  her  waist,  at  the  same 
time  that  wishes  are  expressed  similar  to  those  with  which  the 
friends  of  the  parting  Eebekah  bade  her  godspeed, f  and,  final- 
ly, the  significant  dodos  is  fastened  upon  her  head,  and  she 
stands  ready  for  the  coming  of  the  bridegroom.  All  this  has 
transpired  in  the  midst  of  music  and  plaintive  songs  suggestive 
of  the  young  damsel's  approaching  departure  and  separation 
from  her  childhood's  home,  at  which  the  bride  is  expected,  of 

*  Ruth  iii.,  3  ;  Ezek.  xxiii.,  40;  Eph.  v.,  26,  27.  t  Gen.  xxiv.,  60. 


548  BIBLE    LANDS. 

course,  to  be  greatly  moved,  and  many  of  the  sympathetic  com- 
pany shed  their  tears.  But  this  does  not  hinder  the  utterance 
of  many  a  playful  remark  and  jest,  as  well  as  a  great  deal  of 
tittering  and  laughing  on  the  part  of  the  younger  maidens. 

Marriage  festivities  often  commence  a  week  before  the  wed- 
ding-day, and  continue  for  the  same  length  of  time  after  its 
consummation.*  Friends  are  invited, f  and  come  from  day  to 
day,  sometimes  from  quite  a  distance,  remaining  also  at  night 
in  many  cases,  partaking  of  the  feast,  rejoicing  with  the  family, 
and  witnessing  the  various  performances.;}:  Music  is  indispen- 
sable, and  professional  dancers  are  employed  to  divert  the  com- 
pany. Other  shows  are  sometimes  added,  according  to  the 
means  of  the  family.  Meantime  similar  festivities  are  going 
on  at  the  house  of  the  bride's  parents.  So  numerous  are  the 
guests  sometimes  at  these  marriage  feasts,  that  they  must  needs 
sit  down  at  separate  tables  successively,  till  all  are  served.  In 
Abyssinia  such  an  occasion  never  passes  without  a  great  rush, 
and  even  a  fight,  for  a  share  in  the  feast.§  But  in  Western 
Asia  things  are  done  more  decorously.  The  guests,  though 
previously  invited,  are  summoned  by  messengers  sent  to  their 
houses  or  places  of  business,  who  say,  "  Come,  for  all  things  are 
now  ready."!  To  the  more  honorable,  the  invitation  is  sent 
by  several  messengers  in  succession,  and  they  are  escorted  to 
the  festive  scene  by  a  band  of  music. 

The  ricli  distribute  garments  among  the  guests — sometimes 
entire  suits,  but  more  frequently  the  outer  garment  alone,  or 
jibbeli — or  a  piece  of  cloth  sufficient  to  make  one.  This  cus- 
tom is  alluded  to  in  Matt,  xxii.,  11:  the  king  found  a  man 
feasting  who  had  not  on  one  of  the  new  garments  he  had  dis- 
tributed, and,  considering  him  an  uninvited  intruder,  he  had 
him  ejected  into  the  outer  night 

Most  weddings  are  now  celebrated  in  the  day-time.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  in  the  country  districts.  When  the  parties 
dwell  in  different  villages,  the  bridegroom,  accompanied  by  his 
friends,  all  well  mounted  and  armed,  and  escorted  with  da-ool 
(drum)  and  zoornd  (hautboy),  repair  to  the  house  of  the  bride, 
and  escort  her  to  her  new  home,  riding  on  horseback,  or  in  a 


*  Judg.  xiv.,  12.       t  John  ii.,  1,  2.       J  Jer.  vii..  :U ;  xvi.,  t) :  Kcv.  xviii..  23. 
§  Paikyns,  vol.  ii.,  p.  40.  ||  Luke  xiv.,  17. 


..i 


LIFE  IN   THE   FAMILY.  551 

takhtravan  (see  page  226),  as  described  by  Josephus.*  In  the 
towns  of  Palestine  and  Egypt  the  bride  walks  under  a  cano- 
py, escorted  on  either  side  by  a  man  with  a  drawn  sword,  as 
if  to  denote  the  value  set  upon  her  by  the  bridegroom  and  his 
friends,  as  well  as  their  readiness  to  defend  the  prize  by  force 
of  arms.f  This  custom  doubtless  originated  in  occurrences 
similar  to  the  one  narrated  by  Josephus  in  the  above  reference. 

The  Armenians  seem  to  be  almost  the  only  people  who  re- 
tain the  Jewish  practice,  referred  to  by  our  Saviour,  of  celebra- 
ting their  weddings  in  the  night,:}:  for  the  Nestorians  commence 
very  early  in  the  morning,  simply  to  accommodate  their  priests, 
who  must  not  break  their  fast  until  the  ceremony  is  over.§ 

Sunday  is  considered  the  most  auspicious  day  for  the  cere- 
mony ;  and  as  soon  as  night  sets  in,  which  is  at  an  early  hour, 
since  marriages  take  place  mostly  in  the  winter  season,  the 
house  of  the  bridegroom  presents  an  animated  scene.  Every 
one  is  busily  engaged  in  the  final  preparations ;  the  last  touches 
are  given  to  the  toilet  of  the  young  groom,  which  has  already 
received  due  attention  at  the  bath,  where  the  whole  morning 
has  been  spent  with  his  young  companions.]!  He  puts  on  his 
wedding  garment,  which  is  of  the  finest  broadcloth  his  means 
will  allow,  and  sometimes  even  embroidered  with  gold,  while 
his  jibbeh  is  of  striped  silk.  Midnight  is  the  hour  when  the 
ceremony  takes  place  at  the  church.  As  the  time  approaches 
lanterns  and  meshals  (torches)  are  brought  out,  lighted,  and  held 
aloft  in  front  and  along  the  side  of  the  procession.  The  musi- 
cians take  the  lead,  playing  upon  the  ood  (guitar),  the  kanoon, 
the  kejnerijeh  (violin),  and  the  tamboora  (lute).  Then  comes 
the  bridegroom,  wearing,  for  the  occasion,  upon  his  shoulders, 
a  handkerchief  of  scarlet  silk,  fringed  with  gold  thread,  and 
richly  embroidered  with  winged  cherub-heads  (Cupids?).  He 
modestly  covers  his  mouth  with  a  folded  silk  handkerchief, 
also  elaborately  embroidered,  and  leads  by  the  hand  a  little 
boy  dressed  precisely  like  himself,  and  called  "the  mock  bride- 
groom," who  imitates  his  slightest  movements,  and  thus  diverts 
the  company.  Then  follow  the  friends  and  guests,  after  whom 
comes  a  handsomely  caparisoned  horse,  mounted  by  a  smart- 

*  Book  xiii.,  chap,  i.,  §  4 ;  see  also  1  Mace,  ix.,  37-41. 

t  Lynch,  p.  448  ;  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  208.  t  Matt,  xxv.,  1-12. 

§  Perkins,  p.  234.  ||  J„dg.  xiv.,  10,  11. 


552  BIBLE    LANDS. 

\y  dressed  little  girl,  called  "the  mock  bride,"  while  the  wom- 
en of  the  household  bring  up  the  rear.  The  bridegroom  is  ex- 
pected to  kiss  the  hand  of  every  one  he  meets,  and  receive  his 
or  her  blessing.  Meanwhile  the  festivities  at  the  bride's  house 
gradually  subside;  the  company  show  signs  of  weariness, 
grow  drowsy,  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  who  keep  on 
the  alert,  drop  asleep  on  the  divans  where  they  sit  waiting. 

At  length  some  more  watchful  matron  perceives  the  glare 
of  the  advancing  torches ;  soon  the  sound  of  music,  and  occa- 
sionally a  joyful  shout,  are  heard  breaking  the  midnight  still- 
ness, and  presently  a  cry  resounds  through  the  house,  "Behold 
the  bridegroom  cometh ;  go  ye  out  to  meet  him."*  At  this,  the 
girls  and  younger  women  rise  in  haste,  light  their  lamps,  lan- 
terns, or  candles,  and  sally  forth  to  meet  the  coming  procession, 
which  soon  arrives,  and  enters  crowding  into  the  house.  Af- 
ter a  short  interval  of  rest  and  refreshment,  they  demand  their 
bride.  A  show  of  resistance,  and  sometimes  quite  a  struggle, 
ensues,  when  she  is  surrounded  by  the  bridegroom's  friends, 
taken  possession  of,  and  borne  away.  The  bridegroom  goes 
first,  as  before,  accompanied  by  his  friends  and  guests;  then 
comes  the  bride,  accompanied  by  the  attendant  group  of  wom- 
en, and  mounted  on  the  handsomely  caparisoned  horse,  whose 
reins  are  grasped  on  either  side  by  one  of  her  own  and  one  of 
her  intended  husband's  nearest  relatives. 

The  ceremony  at  the  church  consists  in  placing  the  two  par- 
ties face  to  face,  with  their  heads  so  inclined  that  their  fore- 
heads touch.  The  priest  throws  a  veil  over  both,  while  he  pro- 
nounces the  blessing,  reads  certain  passages  of  Scripture  relat- 
ing to  marriage,  and  closes  with  prayers. 

Among  the  Nestorians,  the  bride  remains  in  a  corner  of  the 
apartment,  or  the  church,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  cere- 
mony, which  may  take  place  in  either.  When  they  have  reach- 
ed a  part  where  hands  are  to  be  joined,  several  women  catch 
hold  of  the  bride,  veiled  as  she  is,  and  pull  her  by  main  strength 
half  across  the  room  toward  her  intended  husband,  and  sev- 
eral men  at  the  same  time  seize  the  bridegroom,  who  is  at  first 
equally  resolute  in  his  modest  reluctance,  but  finally  yields 
and  advances  toward  the  bride.     A  smart  struggle  ensues  in 

♦  Matt.  XXV.,  G. 


LIFE    IN    THE   FAMILY.  553 

his  effort  to  secure  ber  hand ;  but  he  at  length  succeeds,  and 
both  submissively  stand  near  the  officiating  clei'gy  till  the  end 
of  the  service.  At  the  close,  the  bishop  first,  and  then  the  mul- 
titude, kiss  the  married  pair.* 

We  have  thus  far  described  such  weddings  as  are  celebrated 
in  connection  with  religious  ceremonies.  It  is,  however,  to  be 
remembered  that  there  are  no  such  rites  practiced  among  Mus- 
lims, Jews,  and  the  remnants  of  heathen  tribes,  who  now  con- 
stitute by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  people  of  Western  Asia. 
Among  all  these,  marriage  consists  in  the  betrothal,  or  the  con- 
tract, sometimes  written, f  but  more  commonly  verbal,  of  the 
parties  concerned,  after  which  nothing  remains  but  the  removal 
of  the  bride  from  her  father's  house  to  that  of  the  bridegroom, 
or  of  his  father.  In  this  respect  the  customs  of  these  people 
bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the  practices  of  the  ancient  He- 
brews. Isaac  married  Rebekah  by  proxy,  through  a  simple 
verbal  contract.  Eliezer  brought  her  to  his  master,  and  told 
him  all  things  that  he  had  done ;  and  "Isaac  brought  her  into 
his  mother  Sarah's  tent,  and  took  Rebekah,  and  she  became 
his  wife;  and  he  loved  her.";}:  So,  likewise,  when  Laban  gave 
his  daughters  to  Jacob,  he  merely  gathered  together  all  the 
men  of  the  place,  and  made  a  feast.§  The  modern  Jews,  in- 
deed, have  a  religious  ceremony  connected  with  their  weddings, 
but  this  would  seem  to  be  in  imitation  of  the  Christian  custom. 
A  tabernacle,  or  tent,  is  erected  in  a  room  of  the  bride's  house, 
draped  with  shawls  and  other  articles  of  her  trousseau.  Be- 
neath the  canopy  are  placed  the  chests  containing  her  ward- 
robe, while  the  youthful  pair  stand  at  the  entrance,  the  bride 
on  the  right  of  the  bridegroom,  and  their  mothers  beside  them. 
In  front,  two  tall  candlesticks  are  lighted,  and  the  officiating 
rabbi,  after  throwing  an  ample  white  veil  over  the  bride  and 
groom,  repeats  a  certain  formula,  then  presents  a  cup  of  wine 
to  them,  and  when  they  have  tasted  it,  he  dashes  the  glass  to 
pieces  on  the  floor.  This  ceremony  is,  however,  dispensed  with, 
we  believe,  in  the  marriage  of  widows. 

Among  the  Muslims  there  is,  properly  speaking,  no  marriage 
ceremony.     The  utterance  of  the  single  sentence,  "I  give  my- 


*  Perkins,  p.  235.  t  Tobit,  vii.,  14. 

t  Gen.  xxiv.,  66,  67.  §  Gen.  xxix.,  22. 


554  BIBLE   LANDS. 

self  up  to  thee,"  by  a  woman  to  a  man  who  proposes  to  marry 
her,  even  without  the  presence  of  witnesses,  constitutes  her  his 
legal  wife.*  The  Circassians  and  other  heatiien  tribes  seem  to 
think  that  possession  is  nine  points  of  the  law ;  after  the  con- 
tract or  bargain  (for  it  is  a  sale)  is  concluded,  the  maiden  is 
carried  off  by  her  purchaser,  or  one  of  his  friends,  and  is  at 
once  installed  mistress  of  his  house,  certain  mystical  rites  alone 
being  performed  for  the  purpose  of  driving  away  evil  spirits.f 
The  foregoing  account  will  throw  light  upon  some  incidents 
of  that  interesting  parable  of  our  Loi'd  —  the  Ten  Virgins.:): 
The  foolish  virgins  were  evidently  the  friends  of  the  bride, 
who  failed  of  being  prepared  to  meet  the  bridegroom  in  a  suit- 
able manner.  While  they  went  to  purchase  oil,  the  procession 
was  formed  and  moved,  not  to  the  church,  as  is  the  custom  of 
Christians,  but  to  the  house  of  the  bridegroom,  as  do  the  Mus- 
lims, Jews,  and  other  sects,  and  as  did  the  Jews  in  the  days  of 
our  Saviour.  The  door  was  then  shut,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
danger  arising  from  violent  men,  who  might  make  an  irruption, 
rob  and  carry  ofFjewelry,  costly  garments,  and  even  the  bride 
herself.  Outrages  like  this  were  repeatedly  done  not  many 
years  ago  by  the  notorious  Janissaries,  who  refused  to  give 
up  the  unfortunate  bride  until  a  heavy  ransom  was  paid  for 
her  release.  The  tardy  virgins  who,  anxious  to  join  in  the  con- 
cluding festivities  of  the  wedding,  finally  came  crying,  "Lord, 


ni-cotta  L:inip8  and  Oil-vessels.    (Matt,  xxv.,4.) 


Lord,  open  to  us,"  could  not  of  course  be  admitted,  nor  was  their 
cry  recognized:  "Verily,  I  say  unto  you,  I  know  you  not," 
was  the  response  of  the  wary  bridegroom.§     The  lamps  refer- 


*  Lane,  vol  i.,  p.  220.  t  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  32G. 

t  Matt.  XXV.,  10-12.  §  Matt,  xxv.,  11,  12. 


LIFE   IN   THE   FAMILY.  555 

red  to  ill  the  first  verse  of  the  parable,  as  well  as  the  oil-vessels 
(ver.  4),  were  doubtless  the  same  as  are  now  found  in  great 
quantities  among  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities,  and  for  which  glass 
has  been  substituted  in  modern  times.  The  form  and  appear- 
ance of  those  most  generally  met  with  are  illustrated  by  the 
preceding  picture. 

A  man  newly  married  is  not  expected  to  go  forth  on  a  milita- 
ry expedition,  and  his  relations  and  friends  by  common  consent 
relieve  him,  as  far  as  possible,  from  any  heavy  task,  and  seek  to 
lighten  his  burden  of  care.  When  traveling  once  in  a  mount- 
ainous region  with  a  company  of  men,  a  distribution  of  burdens 
was  found  to  be  necessary,  each  one  carrying  his  own  share. 
A  young  man  of  the  party  begged  off,  on  the  ground  that  he 
had  been  married  a  fortnight  before;  his  plea  was  admitted  at 
once,  and  he  trudged  along  empty-handed.  This  is  in  exact 
accordance  with  the  Mosaic  regulation  on  the  subject;*  which, 
however,  also  extended  to  a  simple  betrothal  without  the  con- 
summation of  marriage.f 

We  should  now  like  to  proceed  at  once  with  a  description 
of  the  growth  of  the  family  from  this,  its  incipient  formation. 
But  there  are  developments  of  human  folly  and  passion,  de- 
rived too  often,  alas !  from  mistaken  views  of  life,  which  mar 
the  picture;  and  these  must  be  introduced,  if  we  would  give  a 
truthful  impression  of  Oriental  life,  or  faithfully  carry  out  our 
parallel  between  the  Bible  and  the  modern  East.  We  must 
speak  of  marriages  contracted  for  limited  periods,  of  divorce, 
adultery,  concubinage,  polygamy,  and  slavery. 

Marriage  for  limited  periods  must  be  distinguished  from 
those  which  are  limited  by  divorce,  as  the  former  are  contract- 
ed for  a  definite  time  previously  agreed  upon  by  the  parties. 
They  are  mostly  confined  to  the  Muslims  of  Persia,  who  belong 
to  the  Sheite  sect,  and  are  thought  to  be  derived  from  an  old 
Arabian  custom,  tolerated  by  Mohammed,  but  abrogated  by  his 
successor,  Omar,  whose  authority  the  Sheites  do  not  acknowl- 
edge. In  entering  upon  this  strange  relation,  the  parties  agree 
to  live  together  for  a  fixed  period,  which  varies  from  a  few  days 
to  ninety-nine  years,  and  the  contract  is  regularly  drawn  up  by 
the  cadi,  or  judge,  and  duly  signed  by  witnesses.:}:     This  prac- 

*  Deut.  xxiv.,  5.         t  Deut.  xx.,  7.         t  Malcolm, "Persia,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  428. 


556  BIBLE    LANDS, 

tice  is  confined  to  the  transient  residents  of  large  cities,  partic- 
ularly merchants,  who  find  these  temporary  connections  more 
convenient  for  their  business  than  permanent  ones,  as  the  re- 
moval of  families  is  thus  superseded ;  and  the  women  who  en- 
ter upon  such  relations  are  deemed  of  good  repute.*  Some  of 
the  Armenian  and  Georgian  Christians,  who  reside  in  Tebriz 
and  Teheran,  have  been  led  by  this  evil  example  to  the  adop- 
tion of  similar  practices. 

But  the  frequency  of  divorce  is  the  most  common  cause  of 
the  brief  duration  of  the  marriage  contract.  The  Jews  deem 
it  sufficient  to  "  write  a  bill  of  divorcement,"  and  dismiss 
their  wives  for  the  most  trifling  cause.  The  law  of  Moses 
allows  divorce  in  case  the  husband  "find  some  uncleanness 
in  his  wife."t  Before  New  Testament  times,  the  Shammai 
(School  of  Interpretation)  understood  this  "uncleanness"  to 
mean  some  infamous  action.  But  the  later  school  of  Hillel 
introduced  the  practice  of  divorcing  at  will,  which  was  com- 
mon in  the  days  of  our  Saviour,:}:  and  still  prevails  among  the 
Jews,  rendering  the  condition  of  their  women  sad  in  the  ex- 
treme; and  this  is  further  aggravated  by  denying  to  the  wife 
the  power  to  divorce  her  husband  under  any  circumstances.§ 
We  may  infer  that  such  was  not  the  purpose  or  intent  of  the 
Mosaic  law,  from  the  fact  that  it  specifies  the  cases  in  which  di- 
vorce is  at  all  allowable,  and  utterly  forbids  it  in  other  cases. || 

A  similar  state  of  things  exists  among  the  Muslims,  where 
divorce  takes  place  with,  if  possible,  still  greater  facility;  for  a 
husband  can  put  away  his  wife  at  will,  and  without  cause,  by 
simply  saying,  "  I  divorce  thee."  He  must,  however,  pay  her 
dowry.  But,  unlike  what  occurs  in  the  case  of  the  Jew,!"  ^^c 
can  take  her  back  if  he  chooses,  even  without  her  consent,  pro- 
vided it  be  within  a  limited  period,  unless  he  has  divorced  her 
three  times,  or  repeated  thrice  in  succession  the  above-mention- 
ed sentence,  in  which  case  she  can  be  his  only  after  marrying 
another  man.**  The  wife,  however,  can  not  obtain  a  divorce 
except  by  application  to  the  judge,  and  for  a  cause  which  he 
shall  deem  sufficient.  As  might  be  expected,  divorces  are 
common.      They  would  be  far  more  so  were  it  not  for  the 

♦  Perkins,  p.  294.  t  Deut.  xxiv.,  1-4.  t  Matt,  v.,  32. 

§  Prideaiix,  vol.  iv.,  p.  2'J9.  ||  Dent,  xxii.,  19,  29. 

1  Deut.  xxiv.,  3,  4.  **  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  124. 


LIFE   IN   THE    FAMILY.  557 

children,  who  constitute  a  common  bond  between  the  parents; 
for  parental  affection  is  one  of  the  strongest  passions  of  the 
Orientals. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  actual  cause  of  divorce  is  not  adul- 
tery, a  crime  punishable  with  death  when  detected,*  which, 
however,  rarely  occurs.  The  usual  causes  of  divorce  are  a 
bad  temper,  or  extravagance  in  the  wife,  and  the  cruel  treat- 
ment or  neglect  of  the  husband.  As  the  latter  is  not  obliged 
to  pay  the  wife's  dowry  when  she  sues  for  divorce,  he  often 
treats  her  so  badly  as  to  compel  her  to  appeal  to  the  judge  for 
deliverance.  We  have  known  a  man,  not  forty  years  of  age, 
who  had  successively  married  and  put  away  a  dozen  wives, 
having  devoured  the  substance  of  each  in  turn,  and  compelled 
her  to  seek  a  divorce  on  the  ground  of  utter  neglect.  Others 
have  known  men  who  bad  married  twenty,  thirty,  or  even 
more  wives,  in  the  course  of  ten  years,  and  some  M^ho  were  in 
the  habit  of  taking  a  new  wife  every  month.  Women,  too, 
not  far  advanced  in  age  are  sometimes  met  with  who  have 
been  married  to  a  dozen  men  in  succession.f 

It  is  far  otherwise  with  the  Christian  sects.  Instead  of  fol- 
lowing the  Mosaic  law,  or  rather  a  perversion  of  it  by  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  elders,:}:  like  the  Jews  and  the  Muslims,  they 
adopt  an  exaggerated  version  of  the  Gospel  rule,  holding  that 
the  marriage  tie,  under  any  circumstances,  can  not  be  dis- 
solved by  divorce.  Cases  of  manifest  adultery  form  no  excep- 
tion, the  parties  being  separated  only  for  a  time,  and  an  err- 
ing wife  being  sometimes  confined  to  the  house  of  the  priest, 
there  to  be  duly  watched  over  and  admonished.  The  inno- 
cent party  can  not  contract  another  marriage.  They  must  be 
reconciled,  and  try  to  live  together  in  peace.§  The  effects  of 
this  system  are  decidedly  pernicious.  It  is  an  exaggeration  of 
the  Gospel  principle  respecting  marriage,  just  as  is  the  rule  of 

*  Lev.  XX.,  10.  t  John  iv.,  18 ;  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  231. 

t  Matt,  v.,  31 ;  Mark  x.,  4-12. 

§  A  number  of  cases,  however,  have  occurred  in  which  a  husband,  having 
changed  his  religion,  his  wife  has  been  taken  from  him,  usually  with  her  own 
consent,  by  the  priests,  and  married  to  another  man.  With  the  Turks  the  practice 
is,  of  course,  common,  for  they  hold  to  loose  views  on  the  subject.  A  somewhat 
parallel  case  is  that  of  Samson's  Philistine  wife,  who  was  taken  from  him  and 
given  to  his  companion,  to  create  enmity  between  them  (Judg.  xiv.,  20).  Still 
more  in  point  are  the  cases  referred  to  by  Paul  in  1  Cor.  vii.,  !'>. 


558  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  Oriental  clergy  never  to  take  an  oath.  The}'  swear  in  pri- 
vate, but  would  cease  to  be  venerated  by  their  people  if  they 
took  an  oath  before  a  magistrate.  Yet  it  is  clear  that  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Christians  respecting  marriage  exerts  a  far  better 
influence  upon  their  morals  than  that  adopted  by  the  Jews  and 
Muslims. 

Adultery,  according  to  Muslim  law,  is  punishable  with  death 
by  the  stoning  of  both  parties  ;*  the  guilty  man^  however,  is 
not  punished  if  he  be  unmarried,  and,  since  four  witnesses  are 
required  to  prove  the  crime,  conviction  is  extremely  rare,  espe- 
cially as,  in  case  of  failure  to  substantiate  the  charge,  the  ac- 
cuser is  doomed  to  receive  eighty  stripes,  and  his  testimony  is 
never  again  admitted  in  a  court  of  justice. f  Seldom,  however, 
do  men  receive  any  kind  of  punishment  for  this  crime,  while 
a  common  fate  of  the  adulteress  is  to  be  tied  up  in  a  bag  and 
drowned. 

Polygamy  is  generally  acknowledged,  even  by  those  who 
practice  it,  to  be  neither  favorable  to  morality  nor  conducive 
to  the  happiness  of  the  community.  Fortunately  it  is  restrict- 
ed to  comparatively  few,  whose  great  wealth  allows  them  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  sanctioned  license  of  maintaining  sev- 
eral wives.:}:  Merchants  and  others  who  live  by  their  own  in- 
dustry may  occasionally  have  two  or  three  wives,  but  the 
practice  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  officers  of  government, 
whether  in  the  military  or  civil  service,  or  in  the  legal  or 
clerical  professions.  We  shall  not  here  pause  to  consider  the 
life  led  by  the  inmates  of  the  harim,  but  content  ourselves  with 
describing  the  influence  of  polygamy  upon  Oriental  society  in 
general. 

Polygamy  was  probably  practiced  among  the  Hebrews  to 
the  same  extent  as  now  among  the  Muslims.  Their  kings, 
from  David  down,  have  had  their  harims.§  They  also  kept 
eunuchs.ll  And  though  the  generality  of  the  people  were 
doubtless  monogamous,  yet  we  find  occasional  allusions  in  the 
Scriptures  to  the  existence  of  polygamy  among  the  wealthier 


*  Lev.  XX.,  10  ;  John  viii.,  4,  5.  +  Koran,  chap,  xxiv.,  ver.  4-9. 

X  Niebuhr,  p.  65. 

§  2  Sam.  v.,  13 ;  1  Kings  xi.,  3 ;  1  Chron.  vii..  4  ;  2  Chron.  xi.,  2L 
II  2  Kings  viii.,  6  (marg.);   ix.,  32;   xxiv.,  11  (inarg.);    1  Chron.  x.wiii.,  1 
(marg.)  ;  2  Chron.  xviii.,  8. 


LIFE   IN   THE    FAMILY.  559 

class*  They  had,  indeed,  spent  a  considerable  time  in  Egypt, 
where  the  practice  was  unknown.f  But  it  was  inherited  by 
the  entire  Abrahamic  race,  from  the  patriarch  himself,  who 
brought  it  from  Mesopotamia ;  and,  whatever  may  have  been 
the  practice  of  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt,  they  certainly  reverted 
to  polygamy  on  their  return  to  Canaan.  It  was  less  prevalent 
after  the  captivity  simply  because  the  people  were  poor  and 
oppressed;  for  Josephus  informs  us  that  Herod  the  Great  had 
nine  wives  living  at  the  same  time ;:{:  and  we  find  a  reference  to 
its  common  practice  in  apostolic  times,§ 

Polygamy  can  not,  however,  be  said  to  have  been  encouraged 
or  even  sanctioned  by  the  Mosaic  law ;  for  the  "  mind  of  the 
Spirit"  on  the  subject  is  clearly  shown  in  utterances  like  that 
found  in  Lev.  xviii.,  18,  which  most  commentators  explain  as 
a  distinct  prohibition  of  polygamy.  Circumstances,  however, 
rendered  it  impracticable  to  bring  about  a  reformation  at  this 
time;  but  polygamy  was  regulated,  and  its  evils  mitigated.|| 
The  pernicious  effects  of  the  system  are  now  found  to  be  es- 
sentially the  same  as  those  so  graphically  described  in  Holy 
Writ ;  contentions,  en vyings,  jealousies,  and  quarrels  among  the 
wives,^  as  well  as  between  the  different  sets  of  children.** 

Not  many  years  ago  there  was  a  Druse  family  residing  on 
Mount  Lebanon,  consisting  of  two  wives,  or  rather  widows  of 
an  old  sheikh.  The  elder  wife  had  an  only  son,  who  died, 
leaving  her  a  most  promising  grandson,  on  whom  she  fondly 
doted,  and  who,  according  to  law,  inherited  most  of  his  grand- 
father's estate.  Now,  the  younger  wife  had  three  sons,  each  of 
whom  must  be  content  with  a  small  share  of  the  remainder. 
After  the  death  of  the  old  sheikh,  it  soon  became  evident  that 
the  young  grandson  would  not  be  left  to  the  undisturbed  en- 
joyment of  his  rightful  inheritance.  The  eldest  son  of  the  sec- 
ond wife,  a  fiery,  jealous  youth,  the  senior  of  his  nephew  only 
by  a  year  or  two,  was  vexed  and  indignant  at  his  gentle  young 


*  Gen.  iv.,  19  ;  Deut.  xxi.,  15  ;  Judg.  viii.,  30  ;  1  Sam.  i.,  2 ;  1  Chron.  iv.,  5 ; 
viii.,  8. 

t  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  5  ;  vol.  ii.,  p.  22-4. 

t  "Antiquities,"  bk.  xvii.,  chap,  i.,  §  8,  §  1  Tim.  iii.,  2. 

II  Mark  X.,  4,  5.  f  Gen.  xxx.,  1-15  ;  1  Sam.  i.,  (3-8. 

**  Gen.  XXV.,  28;  xxvii.,  1-42;  xxxvii.,  18-24;  2  Sara,  .xiii.,  19,  20,  28,  29- 
1  Kings  i.,  5-53.  ' 


560  BIBLE   LANDS. 

rival  on  account  of  his  good  fortune.  Instigated  and  stimulated 
by  his  wicked  mother,  he  began  to  seek  the  life  of  the  lad. 
First,  poison  was  tried,  but  failed ;  then,  when  they  were  both 
old  enough  to  join  in  the  game  of  the  yeno?,  he  attempted  to  ac- 
complish his  purpose  by  striking  furiously  at  the  boy  with  his 
spear,  when  only  the  timely  interference  of  friends  prevented  a 
fatal  issue.  After  this  he  gave  up  covert  dealing,  and  deter- 
mined to  gain  his  end  by  one  bold  stroke.  Carefully  loading 
his  pistol,  he  one  day  strode  into  the  apartment  of  his  father's 
elder  wife,  where  her  grandson  was  seated  quietly  beside  her, 
and  deliberately  shot  him  dead.  He  then  fled,  and  secreted 
himself  for  some  time.  Meanwhile  the  heart-broken  grand- 
mother died,  and  ere  long  it  was  intimated  to  the  murderer  that 
the  displeasure  of  the  relatives  was  appeased,  and  he  might  re- 
turn and  take  possession  of  his  wickedly  acquired  inheritance.* 

It  has  been  asserted  by  some  that  there  are  two  sides  to  the 
question  of  polygamy  and  concubinage,  which,  as  they  claim, 
tend  to  prevent  the  licentiousness  which  prevails  where  they 
do  not  exist.  Our  own  observation,  however,  does  not  support 
such  a  theory.  Nowhere  do  the  crimes  against  nature  specified 
in  Rom.  i.  prevail  to  a  greater  extent  than  where  polygamy 
and  concubinage  are  allowed.  Still  more  significant  is  the  fact 
that  these  vile  practices  are  almost  exclusively  confined  to  Mus- 
lims, and  especially  to  those  among  them  who  possess  populous 
harims.  It  appears  to  have  been  the  same  anciently.  The 
testimony  of  profane  history  is  unequivocal,  and  so  is  that  of 
Scripture. 

It  is  also  worthy  of  notice  that  anciently,  as  now,  harlots 
were  a  recognized  and  numerous  class. f  We  are  told  of  Ra- 
hab,  the  harlot  of  Jericho,  whose  house  was  on  the  city  wall, 
where  she  could  watch  the  arrival  of  strangers,  and  lay  her 
snares  for  them  ;:{:  of  Tamar,  who  waited  "openly  by  the  wav- 
side,"§  as  is  now  done  in  Egypt,  and  indeed  wherever  the  pop- 
ulation is  largely  Muslim. ||  The  signs  of  a  harlot  were  as  ev- 
ident then  as  now,  for  they  decked  themselves  in  gaudy  at- 
tire, and  went  about  unveiled,^  singing  and  dancing  in  tl)e 


*  2  Sam.  xiv.,  21,  22. 

t  E.  D.  Clarke,  "Travels"  (in  1801),  chap,  xi.,  p.  210.  t  Josli.  ii.,  1. 

§  Gen.  xxxviii.,  13-23.  U  1  Kings  iii.,  IG ;  Matt,  xxi.,  31. 

^  rococke,  vol.  i.,  pp.  41),  GO. 


LIFE   IN   THE   FAMILY.  561 

Streets,*  and  decoying  the  foolish  into  the  snares  they  laid  for 
them.f 

The  practice  of  polygamy,  combined  with  the  concubinage 
of  slaves,  certainly  exerts  a  more  subtle  and  pernicious  influ- 
ence than  is  generally  supposed.  It  perverts  the  relations  of 
the  sexes  and  separates  them,  thus  depriving  each  of  the  whole- 
some influence  of  intercourse  with  the  other.  Promiscuous  as- 
semblies of  men  and  women  are  unknown ;  and  even  when  a 
crowd  collects  to  see  some  sight  or  gaze  at  a  show,  the  sexes  are 
always  grouped  in  two  distinct  and  separate  portions.  A  man 
never  walks  in  the  street  by  the  side  of  his  wife  or  daughter, 
but,  when  he  happens  to  be  out  in  their  company,  is  sure  to 
keep  several  paces  in  advance  of  them.  In  speaking  of  his 
wife  he  calls  her  Ms  house,  and  in  conversation  with  other  men 
prefixes  to  the  word  "  woman,"  "  wife,"  or  "  daughter  "  (when- 
ever he  has  occasion  to  allude  to  either),  the  phrase  "I  beg 
your  pardon,"  just  as  politeness  requires  him  to  do  before  men- 
tioning the  words  garlic,  onion,  a  donkey,  or  a  hog.  When  a 
man  is  absent,  and  writes  to  his  family,  he  does  not  address  his 
letter  to  his  wife,  but  to  his  son,  though  his  son  may  be  a  babe 
in  his  mother's  lap.  It  is  death  to  a  woman,  in  some  parts  of 
the  country,  willingly  to  remain  unveiled  in  the  presence  of  a 
stranger.:}:  The  Christians  and  other  monogamous  sects  alone 
permit  it,  and  even  tlieir  women  hide  their  faces  from  the  Mus- 
lims, knowing  the  ideas  of  the  latter  upon  the  subject.  No 
man  would  dare  enter  a  harim  without  first  warning  the  in- 
mates of  his  approach  by  calling  with  a  loud  voice.  Accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  the  Koran,  the  persons  before  whom  women 
are  "  not  required  to  restrain  their  eyes,  preserve  their  modesty, 
hide  their  ornaments  (except  what  is  unavoidable),  not  to  throw 
a  veil  over  their  bosoms,  nor  show  their  attractions,  are  their 
husbands,  fathers,  husband's  fathers,  or  husband's  sons,  their 
brothers,  or  their  brothers'  sons,  their  sisters'  sons,  or  women, 
or  their  slaves  or  eunuchs ;"  and  before  all  others  they  are  even 
forbidden  to  make  a  noise  (as  they  walk)  with  their  ankle- 
rino-s.§  A  woman  may  remain  unveiled  before  her  own  or 
her  husband's  slave,  and  there  is  no  impropriety  in  his  going 

*  Isa.  xxiii.,  16 :  Lane,  vol.  ii.,  p.  86-92. 

t  Judg.  xvi.,  1,  16-21 ;  Prov.  vii.,  10-22.  t  Terkins,  p.  288. 

§  Koran,  chap,  xxiv.,  31 ;  comp.  Isa.  iii.,  IG. 


562  BIBLE   LANDS. 

into  any  part  of  the  house.*  This  may  explain  the  circum- 
stances in  which  Joseph  was  placed  in  the  house  of  Potiphar.f 
In  some  parts  of  the  country,  and  even  among  the  Christians, 
a  woman  may  not  show  herself  unveiled  before  her  father-in- 
law,  and  even  before  her  own  husband.  She  never  speaks  to 
the  former  except  through  a  third  person,  and  should  he  ask 
her  a  question,  she  must  whisper  her  answer  to  some  one  who 
will  repeat  it  aloud  to  him.  Indeed  a  newly-married  woman 
is  not  allowed  to  speak  above  a  whisper  for  several  years,  and 
even  wears  a  handkerchief  bound  around  her  mouth  until  her 
mother-in-law  bids  her  dispense  with  it. 

Oriental  women  are,  as  a  class,  remarkably  industrious  and 
thrifty.  They  have  the  entire  charge  of  the  housekeeping,  the 
daughters  and  daughters-in-law  bearing  the  chief  burden,  and 
they  wait  upon  their  husbands  and  fathers  even  when  there 
are  plenty  of  servants  and  slaves.  Neither  they  nor  the  chil- 
dren can  sit  in  his  presence  without  his  special  invitation.:}: 
They  perform  all  manner  of  menial  services  for  him,  light  his 
pipe,  make  and  serve  his  coffee,  "  minister  to  him  at  his  meals, 
setting  on  meat,"  and  pouring  water  upon  his  hands,  and  even 
washing  his  feet.§  He  eats  in  solitary  dignity,  or  in  company 
perhaps  with  his  older  sons,  after  which  the  women  retire  to 
another  room  to  partake  of  their  meal  with  the  younger  chil- 
dren. Among  the  Nestorians,  and  in  some  other  parts  of  the 
^untry,  the  husband  does  not  call  his  wife  by  her  own  proper 
name,  but  by  that  of  her  father;  for  instance,  if  the  father  be 
called  Abraham,  he  addresses  her,  "  thou  daughter  of  Abra- 
ham."! In  country  districts  the  women  often  till  the  ground 
and  tend  the  flocks  just  like  the  men.^  It  frequently  hap- 
pens that  the  husband  engages  in  business  that  calls  him  away 
from  his  family.  He  sometimes  owns  mules,  camels,  or  asses, 
which  he  lets  to  travelers  or  merchants,  and  accompanies  the 
caravan  to  take  care  of  them,  being  thus  constantly  on  the 
move,  and  rarely  visiting  home.  Sometimes  he  seeks  his  for- 
tune, or  at  least  his  livelihood,  in  one  of  the  large  cities,  being 
absent  for  years  at  a  time,  and  sending  his  earnings  to  his 
family.     Meantime,  however,  the  women  are  not  idle.     They 

*  Lnne,  vol.  i.,  p.  224.  t  Gen.  xxxix.,  11.  t  Gen.  xxxi.,  35. 

§  Matt,  viii.,  IT) ;  xxvii.,  55  ;  2  Kings  iii.,  11  ;  Luke  vii..  44. 

II  Terkiiis,  p.  31(;.  t  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  209. 


LIFE   IN   THE   FAMILY. 


563 


cultivate  their  little  field,  and  raise  wheat  while  the  girls  lead 
the  sheep  or  the  goats  to  the  pasture;  and  though  no  supplies 
may  arrive  from  the  absent  husband  or  father,  they  manage 
by  economy  and  thrift  to  make  a  living.  Even  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  the  women  are  frequently  engaged  in  outdoor 
work,  weeding  or  picking  the  cotton,  pruning  the  vines,  gath- 
ering the  grapes,  olives,  or  other  fruits,  putting  the  sickle  to  the 
grain,  and  helping  to  bring  in  the  harvest.  Mothers  take  their 
cradles,  with  their  infants  in  them,  upon  their  shoulders  in  the 
morning  to  the  distant  field  or  vineyard,  and  so  the  little  one 
lies  bound  in  its  place  all  day  long,  visited  now  and  then  and 
nursed  by  the  mother,  who  is  at  work  near  by,  and  at  sunset 
it  is  again  borne  on  her  shoulders  to  its  home.  Women  may 
often  be  seen  carrying  loads  of  brush-wood  upon  their  back,  and 
to  them  belongs  the  task  of  preparing  and  drying  manure  into 
cakes  of  fuel  for  the  winter's 
consumption.  Theirs  also  is 
the  work  of  filling  the  jars  of 
water  at  the  fountain,  as  al- 
ready described,  page  43.* 

In  Egypt  the  invariable 
mode  of  carrying  little  chil- 
dren is  astride  upon  their 
Ynother's  left  shoulder.  There 
is  an  interesting  picture  on 
a  Khorsabad  slab,  of  a  pro- 
cession of  prisoners  of  both 
sexes,  among  whom  is  a 
woman  carrying  a  child  in 
the  manner  we  have  de- 
scribed ;  she  also  wears  the 
fringed  blanket,  or  haram,  over  her  head  and  left  shoulder,  like 
the  Egyptian  women  of  the  present  day.f 

Women  of  the  higher  class,  however,  particularly  in  the  large 
cities,  spend  most  of  their  time  within  doors.  They  occupy 
themselves  with  the  care  of  their  households,  and  with  needle- 
work and  fine  embroidery,  the  latter  being  wrought  in  a  frame 
supported  by  four  legs,  like  a  small  table,  which  is  placed  in 


(1)  Ancient  and  (2)  niodeiu  L^'jptiui  Mode  of 
carrying  little  Cliildren      (I&a.  xlix.,  22.) 


Perkins,  pp.  102,  319,  320 ;  Layard,  vol.  i.,  p.  15G. 


t  Bonomi,  p.  207. 


564 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


front  of  the  fair  worker  as  she  sits  in  Oriental  fashion  upon  the 
divan.  Others,  like  Solomon's  thrifty  housewife,*  and  like  the 
women  portrayed  in  the  ancient  sculptures  of  Egypt,  engage  in 


Aucieut  Egyptian  Wonieu  spiuniDg. 

spinning  wool,  cotton,  flax,  silk,  or  goat's  hair;  busily  ply  the 
loom,  with  which  many  households  are  still  supplied,  and  clothe 
their  families  with  stuffs  of  home  manufacture.  They  knit 
woolen  socks,  in  striped  and  figured  patterns,  or  stockings,  often 
exquisitely  fine,  of  the  silky  Angora  goat's  hair,  worn  by  ladies 
of  wealth  and  rank. 

There  is  no  disrepute  attached  to  manual  labor,  and  men  of 


^  v^ii^— ^'  ^i'iKai#- 


'^^ 


Modern  Oriental  Spinning-wheel. 


wealth  and  high  position  do  not  hesitate  to  engage  in  it.    Such 
persons  may  sometimes  be  seen  plowing  or  digging  with  their 


I'rov.  xxxi.,  13-24. 


LIFE   IN   THE    FAMILY. 


565 


own  hands,  or  engaged  in  doing  the 
work  of  a  mason,  or  some  other  hand- 
icraft; indeed  one  of  the  laws  of  the 
Osmanli  empire  requires  every  sultan 
to  learn  a  trade,  and  occasionally  work 
at  it.  It  is  the  pampered  sons  of  the 
state  officials  alone  who,  being  brought 
up  in  luxury  and  self-indulgence, 
spend  a  life  of  sloth,  until  some  re- 
verse of  fortune  compels  them  to  work 
off  their  monstrous  corpulency  by  en- 
gaging in  some  useful  labor. 

The  patriarchal  system  is  still  re- 
tained in  Oriental  households.  When 
the  sons  marry,  they  bring  their  wives 
into  the  family,  and  in  many  cases 
even  the  sons-in-law  take  up  their 
abode  with  their  wives'  parents,*  so 
that  the  home  circle  is  continually  on 
the  increase  till  the  death  of  the  fa- 
ther and  of  the  mother,  when  there  is 
but  one  wife,  after  which  the  property 
is  divided,  and  the  sons  separate.  It 
is  worthy  of  note  that,  as  a  general  rule,  there  are  more  chil- 
dren in  monogam.ous  families  than  in  others,  though  in  polyg- 
amous households  the  sum  total  is  larger,  including  slaves  who 
are  not  identified  by  ties  of  blood  and  interest.  Such  was  the 
family  of  Abraham,  during  the  lifetime  of  Sarah — one  wife  and 
one  child — yet  it  was  so  numerous  as  to  contain  three  hundred 
and  eighteen  trained  servants  born  in  his  own  house.f  Jacob's 
family,  however,  was  composed  of  seventy  persons  when  he 
took  up  his  abode  in  Egypt,  not  one  of  whom  was  a  slave.:}: 
We  have  known  a  single  Christian  household  to  contain  more 
than  seventy  souls,  all  descended  from  a  single  pair.  Such 
households  have  all  things  in  common.  Each  one  brings  of 
his  earnings  to  fill  the  common  purse.  Sometimes  one  of  the 
younger  sons,  finding  he  can  do  little  or  nothing  toward  main- 
taining the  family,  or  not  being  satisfied  to  occupy  an  inferior 


Oriental  Distaff.    (Exod.  xxxv 


Gen.  ii.,24. 


t  Gen.  xiv.,  14. 


t  Gen.  xlvi.,  27. 


566  BIBLE    LANDS. 

position,  aud  having  no  control  over  property,  seeks  to  better 
his  lot  by  departing  to  some  prosperous  city,  or  more  favored 
land.  This  was  the  case  with  the  Prodigal  Son  ;*  and  his  fa- 
ther's treatment  of  him,  as  well  as  his  reply  to  the  murmuring 
son  (ver.  20-31),  seem  very  natural  to  Orientals.  There  seems 
to  be  no  difficulty  in  controlling  so  large  a  family ;  respect  for 
the  aged  and  for  their  superiors  seems  to  be  inherent  in  the 
constitution  of  this  people,  and  exercises  a  powerful  influence 
over  their  minds.  The  younger  look  up  to  their  elders,  and  all 
pay  the  utmost  deference  to  their  common  patriarch,  and  hold 
in  equal,  if  not  greater,  esteem  his  aged  spouse.  Devotion  to 
the  mother  is  certainly  a  striking  characteristic  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  whole  Asiatic  continent.  The  sultan,  it  is  said,  rules 
the  country,  but  is  himself  the  slave  of  his  mother ;  and  Abdool 
Mejid  clearly  pointed  out  the  secret  cause  when  he  exclaimed, 
at  her  dying  bedside,  "She  is  my  only  true  friend." 

Slavery  has  existed  in  the  East  from  time  immemorial.  It 
was  a  recognized  institution  in  the  days  of  Abraham,  two  thou- 
sand years  before  Christ.f  The  oldest  writings  of  heathen  au- 
thors and  the  most  ancient  monuments  represent  it  as  an  exist- 
ing institution.  War  was,  doubtless,  both  the  first  cause  and 
the  ever-fertile  source  of  slavery,  for  the  theory  of  the  Asiatics 
has  always  been,  and  continues  to  be,  that  the  conqueror  has  a 
right  to  the  life  and  the  property  of  the  conquered ;  so  that  the 
men  are  mercilessly  put  to  the  sword,  while  the  women  and 
children  are  reduced  to  slavery.:}:  Another  source  of  slavery 
was  the  law  concerning  debt,  now  no  longer  in  force,  which  al- 
lowed the  creditor  to  sell  his  debtor  and  his  family,  and  thus 
to  obtain  the  payment  of  his  claim. §  The  votaries  of  Islam 
have,  from  the  time  of  Mohammed,  been  almost  constantly  war- 
ring against  neighboring  nations,  thus  supplying  their  harims 
with  women,  and  their  houses  with  servants.  But  the  last  cen- 
tury saw  their  progress  effectually  arrested,  so  that  there  was  a 
great  demand  for  slaves,  when  the  Greek  revolution  (1821-27) 
came  in  to  replenish  the  market.  That  unhappy  classic  land 
was  well-nigh  drained  of  its  inhabitants  when,  for  six  long 
years,  it  was  devastated  with  fire  and  sword  by  ruthless  hordes 

*  Luke  XV.,  12,  13.  t  Comp.  Gen.  ix.,  25  ;  xv.,  2  ;  xxiv.,  2. 

t  Gen.  xxxiv.,  25  ;  2  Chron.  xxix.,  9  ;  Josephus,  "  Antiquities,''  bk.  vi.,  chap.  9. 
§  2  Kings  iv.,  1 ;  Mutt,  xviij..  2.">. 


LIFE   IN   THE    FAMILY.  567 

of  Turks ;  and  many  Greek  women  still  live  in  the  harims  of 
the  murderers  of  their  fathers  and  brothers.  During  all  this 
period  the  supply  of  negro  slaves  had  been  obtained  by  fre- 
quent raids  into  the  interior  portions  of  Africa ;  for,  by  the 
adoption  of  European  improvements  in  warfare,  they  were  en- 
abled to  butcher  the  men,  and  carry  off  the  women  and  chil- 
dren, with  little  or  no  loss  to  themselves ;  and  since  hostilities 
have  ceased  with  Christian  nations,  they  have  obtained  their 
white  slaves  from  Georgia  and  Circassia,  where  the  parents, 
both  Muslim  and  heathen,  are  found  willing  to  sell  their  chil- 
dren to  the  highest  bidder  for  the  sake  of  the  price  they  obtain. 
Their  ancestors  also  sold  their  children  to  the  Persians.*  Par- 
ents were  also  allowed  to  sell  their  children  by  the  law  of 
Moses,  f  The  white  slave -girls,  whether  Circassian  or  Geor- 
gian, are  highly  esteemed  for  their  beauty  and  temper,  and  the 
price  they  bring  in  the  market  varies  from  one  hundred  and 
fifty  to  five  hundred  dollars,  and  even  more;  whereas  that 
of  the  black  girls,  whether  of  the  Galla  or  other  African  tribes, 
never  rises  above  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  even  when 
they  are  good  cooks ;  for  they  are  generally  employed  as  men- 
ials.:}: The  late  exodus  of  several  hundred  thousand  Circassian 
families,  who  have  been  driven  from  their  country  by  the  Rus- 
sian Government,  and  have  taken  refuge  in  Asia  Minor,  has 
reduced  the  price  of  slaves  of  that  race  lower  than  it  was  ever 
known  before ;  and  we  have  ourselves  heard  of  some  children 
being  sold  for  four  shillings  apiece.§ 

The  power  of  the  master  over  his  slaves  is  unbounded.  He 
may  even  wantonly  put  them  to  death.  He  may  give  them 
away  as  any  other  property,  and  may  marry  them  to  whom  he 
pleases.||  On  the  other  hand,  the  slave  enjoys  certain  immuni- 
ties or  privileges  which  are  denied  to  the  free  servant.  In  case 
of  an  offense,  his  punishment  is  but  half  that  of  others,  and 
even  less.^  Female  slaves  are  usually  kept  as  concubines, 
whether  the  master  be  married  or  not.**  But  when  they  be- 
come mothers,  the  children  are  free  if  he  acknowledge  them  as 

*  Herodotus,  bk.  iii.,  chap.  97. 

t  Exod.  xxi.,  7;  Lev.  xxv.,  39;  Smith,  vol.  i.,  p.  2-42;  Tavemier,  p.  131; 
Ussher,  p.  63. 

X  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  234.  §  "Travels  in  Asia  Minor,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  44,  45. 

11  Exod,  xxi.,  20,  21.  t  Lev.  xix.,  20.  **  2  Sam,  v.,  13. 


568  BIBLE    LANDS, 

his  own,  find  the  mother  is  regarded  as  essentially  his  wife.^ 
She  is  thus,  in  fact,  emancipated ;  for  the  law  does  not  allow  a 
free  man  to  marry  a  slave  woman.  A  Christian  or  Jew  is  not 
allowed  to  keep  a  Muslim  concubine;  but  a  Muslim  may  have 
one  of  any  religion. f     The  husband  has  no  power  over  his 

^  wife's  slaves,  and  can  not  treat  them  as  concubines  without  in- 
curring the  penalty  he  would  suffer  if  they  belonged  to  any  one 
else.  Sometimes,  though  seldom,  their  mistress  permits  them 
to  become  her  husband's  concubines,  and  their  children  are,  in 
L*uch  a  case,  legitimate ;  otherwise  they  are  the  slaves  of  the 
wife.:}:  This  explains  the  position  of  Hagar  toward  Sarah,  her 
U^istress,§  as  well  as  the  conduct  of  Leah  and  Rachel  toward 
their  slaves,  Zilpah  and  Bilhah.||  The  student  of  the  Bible  can 
compare  the  Mosaic  law  with  these  regulations  by  examining 
the  texts  we  have  adduced. 

Orientals  rejoice  exceedingly  over  the  birth  of  a  son,  for  he 
is  not  only  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  his  father,  but  is  ex- 
pected to  be  the  support  and  defense  of  his  mother  and  of  the 
rest  of  the  family,  in  a  country  where  unprotected  woman  is 
most  cruelly  oppressed,  and  the  widow  and  the  fatherless  even 
of  the  wealthiest  are  often  reduced  to  penury  and  want.  The 
same  feeling  existed  among  the  Hebrews.     Hagar  despised  her 

\^mistress  as  soon  as  she  found  herself  the  mother  of  a  son.l" 
When  the  hated  Leah  had  given  birth  to  Jacob's  first-born  she 
Rejoiced,  saying,  "  Now,  therefore,  will  my  husband  love  me."** 
And  when  she  had  borne  him  six  sons,  she  exclaimed,  "God 
hath  endued  me  with  a  good  dowry :  now  will  my  husband 
dwell  with  me."tt  When  there  are  several  wives,  their  rivalry 
for  the  affections  of  the  husband  is  often  great;  and,  much  de- 
pending upon  the  birth  and  life  of  a  son,  the  latter  not  unfre- 
fluently  falls  a  victim  to  the  intrigues  of  the  less  favored  wives, 
usually  by  means  of  poison  —  an  occurrence  sufficiently  com- 
mon to  attract  little  notice. 

There  has  been  no  change  in  the  practice  of  obstetrics  from 
the  time  of  Pharaoh,  whether  in  Egypt  or  in  neighboring  lands. 
Many  of  the  women,  especially  in  the  country,  suffer  little  from 
parturition  ;  they  go  to  the  bath  on  the  second  or  third  day, 

*  Gen.  XXV.,  6.  t  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  128.  X  Ibid.,  vol.  i.,  p.  233. 

§  Gen.  xvi.,  1-4.  ||  Gen.  xxx.,  3-9.  H  Gen.  xvi.,  4,  11. 

♦*  Gen.  xxix.,  32.  tt  Gen.  xxx.,  20. 


LIFE    IN   THE   FAMILY.  569 

and  assume  their  accustomed  tasks  on  the  day  following.  It 
is  not  an  uncommon  thing  for  a  peasant's  wife,  when  working 
as  usual  in  the  vineyard,  to  step  aside  behind  a  rock  or  a 
shrub,  give  birth  to  a  cliild,  and  carry  it  home  in  the  evening 
slung  behind  her  back.*  Thus  did  the  midwives  say  to  Pha- 
raoh, "  The  Hebrew  women  are  lively  "  {i  e.,  full  of  life,  strong), 
"and  are  delivered  ere  the  midwives  come  in  unto  them."f 
And  the  fact  that  there  were  but  two  midwives  to  attend  to 
the  Hebrew  families  which  eighty  years  later  must  have  num- 
bered more  than  a  million  souls,  was  a  strong  corroboration  of 
the  statement.  As  in  Europe  not  very  long  ago,  so  still  in 
Asia,  the  prejudices  of  the  people  forbid  a  male  physician  to 
attend  a  woman  at  such  a  time;  even  her  own  husband  must 
keep  out  of  the  way.  Midwives  alone  are  allowed  to  aid  na- 
ture, and  their  mode  is  universally  that  which  is  alluded  to  in 
Exod.  i.,  16.  Their  relations  to  the  family  naturally  become  of 
a  very  intimate  character.  It  is  they  who  treat  all  the  ailments 
of  the  women  and  children,  a  doctor  being  seldom  summoned 
for  them ;  and  some  of  these  midwives  are  in  the  habit  of  ad- 
ministering to  young  infants  the  poison  of  serpents  and  other 
reptiles,  whereby  they  are  rendered  proof  against  the  venom 
of  those  creatures  for  life,  somewhat  as  vaccination  is  used  for 
the  purpose  of  warding  off  the  small-pox.  As  soon  as  the  babe 
is  born  it  is  washed  in  salted  water,^  clothed  and  swathed  in 
a  long  bandage,  or  "swaddling-cloth,"§  three  or  four  inches 
wide,  and  about  ten  feet  long,  which  is  firmly  wound  around 
it  from  the  neck  downward,  including  the  arms,  which  are 
thus  pinioned  to  its  sides,  so 
that  it  can  stir  neither  hand 
nor  foot.  This  is  done  with 
the  idea  of  keeping  the  tender 
bones  motionless  in  a  proper 
position  until  they  acquire  suf- 
ficient strength  to  be  allowed  to 
move  about.     It  is,  moreover,  au  oriental  ciadie. 

easier  for  the  mother  to  carry  the  little  one  on  her  arm  or  slung 
on  her  back.     The  cradle  is  low,  and  rocks  readily  to  and  fro 


*  Morier,  vol.  ii.,  p.  106 ;   Heimer,  vol.  iv.,  p.  434.  t  Exod.  i.,  19. 

t  Ezek.  xvi.,  4.  §Lnkeii.,7. 


570 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


by  the  simple  pulling  of  a  string  fastened  to  its  side,  while  large 
rings  of  glass  or  metal,  strung  upon  a  transverse  stick,  amuse 
the  child  with  their  jingle.  The  little  one  lies  tightly  bound 
in  its  cradle  day  and  night,  being  taken  up  once  or  twice  in 
twenty-four  hours.  Its  mother  leans  over  the  cradle  to  nurse 
it,  and  hushes  its  cries  by  incessant  rocking:  all  night  long 
lying  in  her  bed,  spread  upon  the  floor  close  by,  she  never  lets 
go  the  cradle-string.  When  the  child  begins  to  creep  or  walk 
about  with  uncertain  steps,  little  anklets,  consisting  of  silver 
chains,  or  bands,  hung  with  tiny  bells,  are  fastened  around  its 
ankles,  and  their  constant  tinkling  announces  to  the  mother 
the  whereabouts  of  her  child. 


Bells  fastened  to  a  ChilcVs  Ankle. 

The  circumcision  of  their  children  is  accomplished  among 
the  Jews  on  the  eighth  day,  as  enjoined  upon  Abraham.*  The 
practice  has  existed  in  Egypt  from  very  ancient  times,  as  at- 
tested by  Herodotus,f  and  proved  by  the  mummies.  The 
arbitrary  nature  of  the  ceremony  would,  however,  favor  the 
idea  that  it  was  derived  from  the  Hebrews,  and  was  also  adopt- 
ed by  the  Abyssinians,  as  asserted  by  themselves.  No  mention 
is  made  of  circumcision  in  the  Koran.:}:  It  existed  among  the 
Arabs  from  time  immemorial,  being  probably  handed  down  to 
them  by  their  father,  Ishmael ;  and  as  the  latter  was  thirteen 
years  old  at  the  time  of  his  circumcision, §  the  Arabs  apply  the 
rite  to  their  sons  at  that  age,||  but  other  Muslims  between  the 
ages  of  six  and  sixteen,  or  about  the  time  they  are  able  to  re- 
peat intelligently  the  profession  of  faith,  "  There  is  no  God  but 
God,  and  Mohammed  is  the  apostle  of  God."  The  Jews  and 
the  Muslims,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  occupy  positions  with 
regard  to  circumcision  similar  to  those  held  by  Ptedobaptists 

*  Gen.  xvii.,  12.  +  Bk.  ii.,  chap.  104. 

t  Sale,  Koran,  "Prel.  Dis.,"§  4,  p.  76.  §  Gen.  xvii.,  S."). 

II  Josephus,  "Antiquities," bk.  i.,  chap,  xii.,  §  2. 


LIFE   IN    THE   FAMILY.  571 

and  by  Baptists,  respectively,  concerning  the  Christian  ordi- 
nance of  baptism.  Baptism  is  administered  among  Eastern 
Christians  as  early  after  birth  as  practicable ;  a  church  festival 
is  often  selected,  particularly  the  anniversary  of  our  Lord's 
baptism,  or  of  his  crucifixion.*  There  is  usually  a  room  in 
the  church,  called  the  baptistry,  where  the  rite  is  performed. 
Among  the  Nestorians,  who  have  kept  themselves  the  most 
free  from  innovations,  baptism  is  administered  as  follows:  the 
child  is  divested  of  its  clothing,  and  anointed  on  the  head  and 
the  breast,  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  with  consecrated  oil,  poured 
from  a  horn  in  which  it  is  kept  for  the  purpose.  This  is  said 
to  be  done  in  imitation  of  the  anointing  of  kings  and  prophets 
in  the  Old  Testament ;f  and  the  practice  is  supposed  to  be  coun- 
tenanced by  the  words  of  the  apostle :  '!  He  hath  made  us 
kings  and  priests  unto  God  and  his  Father.":}:  It  is  needless, 
perhaps,  to  remark  that,  like  the  Church  of  Rome,  most  East- 
ern Christians  believe  that  the  anointing  with  oil  secures  the 
influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  while  the  baptismal  water  re- 
moves the  taint  of  original  sin,  a  fact  which  explains  why  no 
one,  not  even  its  mother,  ever  kisses  the  infant  before  its  bap- 
tism, after  which  it  is  said  to  have  become  a  Christian.  After 
the  application  of  the  oil,  the  Nestorians  plunge  the  child  up 
to  its  neck  in  a  vessel  of  tepid  water,  salted  with  salt,§  and  it 
is  thus  held  by  a  deacon,  while  the  priest  takes  water  with 
both  hands  and  pours  it  thrice  upon  the  head,  naming  each 
time  one  of  the  persons  of  the  Trinity. |[  The  other  sects  add 
to  this  a  form  of  exorcism  of  the  devil,  accompanied  with 
blowing  from  the  mouth,  as  if  to  blow  him  away.  When  a 
babe  appears  to  be  dying,  the  rite  is  administered  by  simply 
dipping  the  hand  in  water  and  passing  it  over  its  body.^ 

Baptism  is  sometimes  administered  to  adults  being  converts 
from  Judaism  or  from  the  faith  of  Islam.  We  have  known 
several  such,  of  both  sexes,  who  were  received  into  the  Arme- 
nian Church,  though  the  occurrence  is  by  no  means  common. 
In  such  cases  the  same  form  is  used,  the  candidate  wearing  for 
the  occasion  a  simple  cloth  around  the  waist.  The  practice  is 
not  to  dip  the  entire  person  under  water,  but  to  cause  the  neo- 


*  Rom.  vi.,  .3.  t  1  Kings  xix.,  1.5,  16,  etc.  t  Rev.  i.,  6. 

§  Mark  ix.,  49.  ||  Perkins,  p.  45.5.  1  Pococke,  vol.  i..  p.  24: 

37 


572  BIBLE   LANDS. 

phyte  to  sit,  kneel,  or  stand  in  it,  while  the  water  is  poured 
three  times  upon  his  or  her  head.  This  appears  to  be  a  very 
old  custom,  handed  down  from  an  early  period  in  the  history 
of  the  Christian  Church.  There  is  at  Nice  a  church  of  great 
antiquity,  though  not,  as  some  have  claimed,  the  same  build- 
ing as  that  in  which  the  famous  Nicene  Council  was  held,  but 
must  have  been  erected  near  that  time,  as  is  proved  by  the 
cathedra,  or  seat,  the  semicircular  steps  at  the  end,  and  the  mo- 
saic pavement.  In  the  vestibule  of  this  church  is  an  old  fres- 
co painting,  representing  the  baptism  of  Constantine  in  the 
manner  we  have  described.  But  older  yet  is  the  baptismal 
font  lying  among  the  ruins  of  Ephesus,  which  affords  a  strong 
confirmation  of  the  antiquity  of  this  mode  of  administering  the 
ordinance.  Pococke,  who  saw  it  in  1739,  gives  a  sufficiently 
accurate  drawing  of  it ;  but  he  acknowledges  that  "  it  lies  on 
the  ground  which  has  grown  up  around  it,  though  doubtless 
it  was  originally  somewhat  raised,"  so  that  the  portion  of  the 
structure  which  supported  the  basin  was  out  of  sight.  He  fur- 
ther describes  it  as  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  of  red  and  white 
marble  (Brescia),  "shaped  within  in  a  particular  manner,  some- 
thing like  that  of  St.  Victor  at  Marseilles,  and  doubtless  once 
used  for  sacrifices,  though  they  have  a  tradition  that  St.  John 
baptized  in  it.*  Since  Pococke's  day  the  base  has  been  un- 
covered ;  it  consists  of  a 
brick  foundation  having 
two  pipes,  the  one  doubt- 
less   for    bringing    water, 

^^"^^  -    i::;^^^:^^^    ^^®  other  for  conveying  it 

"^"^        ""^       .   .    t  ,     -        .     --     away.     It  is  a  basin  of  cir- 
cular shape  with  a  raised 

Ancient  bixptiK-n  il  I    i  t     i  I  i  1  .•  ■,  •         -i 

portion,  also  circular,  in 
the  centre,  about  five  feet  in  diameter.  This  portion  is  sev- 
eral inches  lower  than  the  outer  rim  of  the  basin,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  trough  six  inches  in  depth.  Thus,  if  we  suppose 
this  basin  used  for  baptismal  purposes,  the  officiating  minis- 
ter might  stand  in  the  centre  of  the  font  where  the  water  was 
shallow,  while  the  neophyte  stood  or  knelt  by  his  side. 

The  law  of  Moses  gave  the  eldest  son  an  inheritance  twice 

*  Pococke,  vol.  iii.,  p.  50. 


LIFE   IN   THE   FAMILY. 


573 


as  large  as  that  of  the  other  children.*  But  Mohumiued,  wish- 
ing to  put  an  end  to  the  divisions  that  existed  among  the 
Arabians,  annulled  this  custom,  which  then  prevailed  among 
them,  and  provided  that  the  sons  should  receive  equal  portions, 
and  the  daughters  half  as  much  as  the  sons.  The  ancient 
practice,  however,  still  prevails  among  the  Arabs  of  the  Desert, 
and  the  Druses  of  Mount  Lebanon  and  the  Houran. 

The  games  of  children  are  pretty  nearly  the  same  the  world 
over.  Wilkinson  has  described  some  of  the  toys  of  the  an- 
cient Egyptians,  found  among  the  ruins  and  tombs  of  that  re- 
markable land.f  Similar  remains  are  found  in  various  parts 
of  Western  Asia,  the  more  graceful  being  the  work  of  the 


Children's  ancient  Terra-cotta  Toys. 

Greek  race  and  of  their  nearest  neighbors  in  the  western  part 
of  the  peninsula.  Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia,  was  celebrated 
of  old  for  its  manufactures  of  children's  toys,  as  Nuremberg  is 


*  Deut.  xxi.,  17. 


t  Vol. 


574  BIBLE   LANDS. 

in  Germany  now.  In  that  same  region  a  great  variety  of  arti- 
cles in  terra  cotta  are  found,  exhibiting  no  little  taste  in  the 
imitation  of  nature's  models.  Miniature  horses,  cattle,  dogs, 
fish,  chickens,  lions,  and  deer,  an  ass  with  its  pack-saddle,  dolls 
with  arms  and  legs  that  could  be  moved  by  the  pulling  of  a 
string,  comic  figures  or  caricatures  of  hunch- 
backs, deformed  negroes,  satyrs,  and  idiots; 
also  whistles,  marbles,  and  many  other  things  in 
a  sufficiently  good  state  of  preservation,  which 
compare  well  with  similar  products  of  our  mod- 
ern civilization.  The  religion  of  Islam,  indeed, 
forbids  such  representations  now,  yet  it  can  not 
prevent  little  girls  playing  with  dolls,  nor  boys 
amusing  themselves  with  mimic  horses,  sheep, 
or  carts ;  nor  both  from  eating  the  sugar  birds, 
Ancient  Teira-cotta  horscs,  and  men  of  the  candy -seller,  himself 
Flageolet.  ^  Muslim.  A  similar  state  of  things  existed, 
doubtless,  among  the  Hebrews ;  but  though  the  prohibition  to 
make  images  could  not  be  strictly  carried  out  in  the  case  of 
children,  yet  it  must  have  tended,  as  now,  to  encourage  more 
active  sports. 

Children  of  both  sexes  attend  the  same  school,  remaining  un- 
der instruction  until  the  age  of  ten  or  soon  after.  The  extent 
of  their  learning  is  the  committing  to  memory  of  the  prayers 
and  other  formulas  required  by  their  religion.  Among  the 
Christians  such  schools  are  upon  the  church  premises,  while 
with  the  Muslims  they  are  kept  in  some  room  attached  to  the 
mosk.  Each  child,  as  he  enters,  leaves  his  shoes  at  the  door, 
and  then  squats  down  upon  the  floor,  which  is  sometimes  cov- 
ered with  a  mat  or  an  old  carpet  or  rug.  The  teacher  sits  upon 
a  small  mattress,  and  leans  against  a  cushion.  Books  are  rare. 
The  letters,  syllables,  and  words  are  written  upon  a  board,  and 
the  process  of  learning  is  slow  and  tedious.  The  scholars  study 
their  lesson  aloud,  and  he  who  makes  the  most  noise  is  esteemed 
the  best  student;  and  thus  the  incessant  din  of  the  school  an- 
nounces to  the  passer-by  its  near  vicinity.  The  teacher  is  paid 
by  the  community,  and  usually  combines  the  offices  both  of 
priest  and  teacher.  He  also  receives  presents  occasionally  from 
the  parents  on  feast  days,  and  sometimes  on  the  first  day  of 
each  week,  in  order  to  secure  his  special  attention  to  their  chil 


LIFE   IN   THE   FAMILY.  575 

dren's  lessons.  The  punishments  for  misdemeanor  are  com- 
plaints to  the  parents,  blows,  and  especially  the  bastinado  ap- 
plied to  the  soles  of  the  feet.  Besides  these  elementary  schools, 
however,  there  are  teachers  called  "  ma'alems,"  who  devote 
themselves  to  the  higher  departments  of  instruction,  being  sup- 
ported by  a  fund  given  for  that  purpose  by  some  pious  indi- 
vidual, or  by  the  liberality  or  munificence  of  a  sovereign.  The 
students  live  a  very  simple  life.  They  are  mostly  too  poor  to 
provide  for  themselves,  and  are  lodged,  free  of  charge,  in  build- 
ings erected  for  the  purpose,  called  "mdreseh,"  which  are 
found  in  certain  cities  thus  favored,  as  with  us.*  A  plain  meal 
is  furnished  them  once  a  day  from  the  college  fund.  They  oft- 
en enter  the  service  of  a  teacher,  to  enjoy  better  opportunities 
of  instruction  by  listening  to  his  conversation.  This  service 
consists  merely  in  waiting  upon  him,  and  the  compensation  is 
food,  lodging,  and  the  occasional  presents  of  visitors.f  The 
ma'alem  lectures  or  comments  on  some  author,  usually  in  pub- 
lic, and  often  in  the  mosk,  occupying  the  pulpit,  while  the  schol- 
ars sit  cross  -  legged  below.  This  was  probably  the  manner 
adopted  in  the  "schools  of  the  prophets"  as  long  as  they  were 
countenanced  by  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  ;:j:  but  they  fre- 
quently suffered  want,§  and  were  even  compelled  by  persecu- 
tion to  hide  in  caves  of  the  earth. |  Such  also,  in  substance, 
were  the  schools  of  Shammai  and  Hillel,  after  the  return  from 
Babylon ;  ^  and  thus  did  Gamaliel  teach,  in  Jerusalem,  Paul  and 
others,  who  literally  "  sat  at  his  feet."** 

The  climate  of  Western  Asia  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world, 
and  so  varied  as  to  suit  every  constitution.  The  slopes  of  Leb- 
anon, for  example,  and  the  plains  that  lie  at  its  feet,  afltbrd  within 
a  remarka:bly  small  space  the  greatest  variety  of  temperature, 
while  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  gradual  changes 
of  heat  and  cold  are  highly  favorable  to  health.  Undrained 
marshes,  indeed,  exist  as  elsewhere,  producing  malaria,  which 
renders  the  surrounding  region  almost  uninhabitable.  The  lo- 
calities of  this  character  nearest  to  Palestine  are  Alexandretta 
and  Mersin,  the  nearest  ports  of  Aleppo  and  Tarsoos ;  but  the 
existence  of  these  nests  of  disease  is  owing  to  the  supineness 

*  2  Kings  ii.,  3,  5.  t  1  Kings  xix.,  21.  t  1  Sam.  xix.,  20. 

§  2  Kings  iv.,  38.  II  1  Kings  xvlii.,  13. 

%  Prideanx,  vol.  iv.,  p.  211,  etc.  **  Acts  xxii.,  3. 


576  BIBLE    LANDS. 

of  a  government  which  not  only  fails  to  provide  for  the  health 
of  its  subjects,  but  even  forbids  others  to  do  it.*  After  all, 
however,  the  climate  of  these  lands  may  be  considered  one  of 
the  healthiest  in  the  world.  It  is  here  that  man  has  reached 
the  greatest  longevity,  not  only  in  the  abnormal  antediluvian 
age,  but  during  the  succeeding  four  thousand  years.  Moses, 
thirty-two  centuries  ago,  and  Solon  eight  hundred  years  later, 
pronounced  the  ordinary  limit  of  man's  age  to  be  "  three-score 
years  and  ten."f  But  Terah,  the  father  of  Abraham,  lived  to 
the  age  of  two  hundred  and  five  years  in  Mesopotamia;  and 
the  patriarchs  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  attained  to  the  re- 
spective ages  of  one  hundred  and  seventy -five,  one  hundred 
and  eighty,  and  one  hundred  and  forty-seven  years;  even  Moses 
was  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  old  when  he  died,  "his  eye 
not  yet  being  dim  with  age  nor  his  natural  force  abated.":): 
Later  historians  have  also  mentioned  more  recent  instances, 
the  like  of  which  may  be  frequently  met  with  at  the  present 
time,  so  that,  while  seventy  is  a  common  age,  we  have  known 
a  number  who  have  lived  ninety  and  a  hundred  years;  there 
are  well -authenticated  cases  of  persons  arriving  to  the  ages 
of  one.  hundred  and  twenty-five  and  one  hundred  and  thirty 
years.  There  are,  indeed,  no  public  records  kept  either  of 
births  or  of  deaths.  But  some  Christian  parents  are  in  the 
habit  of  writing  these  memorials  in  a  Family  Bible  or  some 
other  favorite  book ;  in  other  cases,  the  fact  is  ascertained  by 
the  date  of  some  remarkable  events,  or  the  reigns  of  the  sul- 
tans. 

It  can  not  be  said  that  Western  Asia  is  more  liable  to  epi- 
demics than  other  countries;  on  the  contrary,  the  great  loss 
of  life  which  history  sometimes  records  is  usually  attributable 
to  other  causes.  The  instances  mentioned  in  Holy  Writ  were 
more  or  less  of  a  miraculous  character,  and  the  natural  causes 
which  may  have  been  brought  into  play  evidently  acted  with 
unwonted  energy.  Such  were  the  plagues  of  Egypt,  and  such 
the  pestilences  which  carried  off  thousands  of  Israelites  in  the 

*  A  European  gentlem:in  not  long  since  offered  to  drain  the  Alexandretta  swamp 
on  condition  that  he  be  permitted  to  cultivate  the  ground  thus  rescued  for  a  limited 
number  of  years,  but  the  Government  rejected  tlie  offer  ! 

t  Psa.  xc,  10 ;  Herodotus,  bk.  i.,  chap.  32. 

t  Gen.  XXV.,  7;  xxxv.,  28;  xlvii.,  28;  Deut.  xxxiv.,  7. 


LIFE    IN   THE   FAMILY.  577 

wilderness  or  in  their  own  land,  whether  the  second  causes 
were  quails,  or  fiery  serpents,  or  pestilence.*  The  destruction 
of  Sennacherib's  army  was  probably  produced  by  a  simoom, 
just  as  has  been  the  case  with  many  armies  since  that  time  in 
regions  subject  to  the  same  influences  and  the  action  of  the 
same  causes. f  Thus  perished  many  of  the  soldiers  of  Cam- 
byses  in  the  deserts  of  Libya  (b.c.  525).  The  plague  which 
for  many  years  afflicted  the  Levant  was  not  confined  to  its 
limits,  but  spread  all  over  Europe.  Its  first  appearance  in 
Egypt  led  to  the  supposition  that  it  found  its  origin  in  some 
natural  cause  existing  in  that  country  which  was  latent  in  an- 
cient times ;  but  the  fact  that  it  has  now  wholly  disappeared 
disproves  the  correctness  of  this  surmise.:}: 

Western  Asia  has  suffered  much  from  earthquakes  almost 
from  time  immemorial,  although  only  one  volcano  exists  in  its 
neighborhood.  This  is  Santorino,  whose  last  great  eruption  is 
described  by  Strabo,§  since  which  period  it  has  shown  no  sign 
of  life  till  quite  lately.  The  volcanoes  of  the  Katakekaumene 
(a  part  of  Lydia)  have  long  been  extinct.  But  many  cities,  once 
prosperous  and  renowned,  have  in  a  moment's  time  been  ut- 
terly destroyed  by  earthquakes,  and  many  of  their  inhabitants 
buried  under  their  ruins;  chief  among  these  were  Antioch, 
Sardis,  and  Nicomedia.  Constantinople  has  also  suffered  se- 
verely from  the  same  cause,  and  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia  was 
leveled  with  the  ground,  but  was  afterward  rebuilt  with  great- 
er splendor  than  before  by  the  Emperor  Justinian  (a.d.  548). 
It  was,  perhaps,  by  such  an  agency  that  the  walls  of  Jericho 
were  miraculously  overthrown  at  the  sounding  of  the  trumpets 
of  the  Israelites.il 

But  the  chief  cause  of  the  loss  of  life  in  these  lands,  one 
which  has  kept  down  the  rapidly  increasing  population,  and 
turned  the  most  fertile  districts  into  deserts,  has  been  the  re- 

*  Numb,  xi.,  31;  xiv.,  37;  xvi.,  46-48;  xxi.,  6,  etc.  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.,  15. 

t  2  Chron.  xxxii.,  21. 

X  The  terrible  famine  by  which  many  tens  of  thousands  of  the  popuhition  of 
Persia  perished  in  1872  proves  that  those  regions  are  as  liable  to  drought  at  the 
present  day  as  they  were  in  the  time  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xli.,  56)  and  Elijah  (1  Kings 
xviii.,  2).  Egypt,  however,  is  less  subject  to  this  scourge,  on  account  of  her  being 
watered  by  the  overflowings  of  the  Nile,  which  have  been  brought  under  more 
perfect  control  than  they  were  before  Joseph's  vizierate. 

§  "  Geogi'aphy, "  bk.  i.,  chap.  16.  ||  Josh,  vi.,  20. 


578  BIBLE   LANDS. 

lentless  wars  of  which  they  have  ever  been  the  theatre.  We 
shall,  however,  speak  at  sufficient  length  on  this  point  when 
we  come  to  consider  the  form  of  civil  government  which  has 
here  exercised  sway  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present. 

The  art  of  healing  has  never  flourished  among  these  people, 
and  their  notions  upon  this  subject  are  still  very  crude.  Talis- 
mans and  magic  are  still  in  use,  while  religious  ceremonies  and 
vows  are  greatly  relied  upon.  Herodotus  describes  a  custom 
among  the  ancient  Babylonians,  which  he  considers  the  wisest 
of  their  institutions.  "  They  have  no  physicians,"  says  he  ; 
"  but  when  a  man  is  ill  they  lay  him  in  the  public  square,  and 
the  passers-by  come  to  him ;  and  if  they  have  ever  had  this 
disease  themselves,  or  have  known  any  one  who  has  suffered 
from  it,  they  give  him  advice,  and  no  one  is  allowed  to  pass 
the  sick  man  in  silence  without  asking  him  what  his  ailment 
is."*  This  is,  indeed,  an  excellent  sketch  of  the  state  of  things 
at  the  present  day  in  all  parts  of  the  land,  excepting  that  the 
sick  man  remains  at  home.  But  Herodotus  was  certainly  ig- 
norant of  the  actual  working  of  the  system  he  so  much  ad- 
mired, or  he  never  would  have  recommended  it,  for  nothing 
can  be  more  pernicious.  Every  body  has  a  right  to  give  ad- 
vice, and  indeed  one  is  often  compelled  to  do  it  on  the  ground 
that  "  he  or  some  of  his  friends  have  suffered  from  the  same 
malady,"  and  been  cured  in  this  or  that  way.  The  consequence 
is,  that  the  poor  patient  is  frequently  made  to  swallow  a  differ- 
ent drug  every  half-hour,  and  is  consequently  dispatched  with 
the  greatest  possible  celerity.  Drugs  are  abundant  and  cheap. 
They  now  form  the  principal  articles  of  exportation,  and  have 
figured  largely  in  the  various  "World's  Exhibitions"  held  in 
different  parts  of  Europe.  Any  one  can  be  a  doctor  who 
chooses,  and  a  druggist  (akhtar)  is  so  of  necessity.  Neither 
study  nor  diploma  is  required.  The  doctor  often  adds  this 
calling  to  that  of  a  dervish,  and  deals  largely  in  charms.  He 
travels  about,  and  when  driven  from  one  city  by  his  disap- 
pointed patients,  flees  unto  another.  When  called  to  the  bed- 
side of  the  sick,  his  favorite  trick  is  to  strike  a  bargain  to  cure 
the  sufferer  within  a  given  time  for  a  specified  sum,  secure  all 
he  can  in  advance  for  drugs,  etc.,  and  then  drop  the  case.     Dis- 

*  Herodotus,  l)k.i.,clK4..  197. 


LIFE    IN   THE   FAMILY.  579 

eases  of  the  eyes  and  skin  are  generally  prevalent  in  Egypt, 
and,  to  a  less  degree,  in  some  parts  of  Arabia  and  Palestine. 
This  is  doubtless  owing  to  the  very  fine  and  almost  impercep- 
tible sand  which  fills  the  atmosphere  when  the  wind  blows 
from  the  south  and  south-west.  The  only  water  used  in  Egypt 
is  taken  from  the  Nile,  and  is  charged  with  soil  and  vegetable 
matter,  increasing  the  irritation  of  the  eye  to  such  a  degree  that 
the  natives  never  wash  an  inflamed  eye.  The  same  causes  are 
favorable  to  the  increase  of  vermin,  and  to  the  development 
of  diseases  of  the  skin.  Some  of  the  latter,  of  an  incurable  na- 
ture, were  peculiar  to  Egypt ;  and  Moses  threatened  that  they 
would  be  sent  upon  the  Israelites  if  they  proved  disobedient.* 
We  accordingly  meet  with  these  diseases  among  the  Jews  at 
various  points  in  their  history.f  There  is  now  comparatively 
little  leprosy  in  the  East,:}:  owing  probably  to  the  influence 
of  the  Mosaic  regulations,  perpetuated  by  Christianity  and 
Islam.  It  is,  however,  worthy  of  notice  that  the  Jews  are, 
of  all  ihe  nations  of  the  East,  the  most  generally  affected  with 
diseases  of  the  skin,  which  would  seem  to  be  a  fulfillment  of 
prophecy. 

Some  changes  have  evidently  been  introduced  in  the  manner 
of  disposing  of  the  dead  since  the  earliest  times,  but  they  chief- 
ly relate  to  the  wealthy,  for  the  poor  seem  to  have  always  been 
simply  buried  in  the  ground.  The  rich  were  laid  in  tombs, 
similar  to  what  we  now  call  vaults ;  these  were  either  natural 
caves,§  or  as  often  excavated  or  dug  out  of  the  rock,||  or  built 
of  hewn  stone  of  various  forms ;  some  were  even  covered  over 
by  costly  mounds  or  pyramids.  The  only  stone  pyramids  of 
this  kind  are  those  still  found  in  Egypt,  but  many  more  exist 
in  the  same  country  which  are  built  of  baked  or  sun-dried 
bricks ;!"  the  latter  are  found  also  at  Nineveh,  Ooroomia,  Tar- 
soos,  and  Sardis.  There  are  similar  mounds  of  earth  covering 
the  remains  of  the  dead,  extending  from  the  plains  of  the  Lower 


*  Dent,  xxviii.,  27,  60;  Stanley,  "Jewish  Church,"  vol.  i.,  p.  104. 

t  2  Kings  vii.,  8 ;  2  Chron.  xxvi.,  21 ;  Matt,  x.,  8  ;  Luke  xvii.,  12. 

J  There  are  a  few  lepers  at  Jerusalem,  Nabloos,  Damascus,  and  Aleppo.  They 
marry  among  themselves :  their  children  appear  healthy  until  ten,  when  the  dis- 
ease appears,  and  soon  covers  the  whole  body. — Leon  Paul,  p.  44. 

§  Gen.  xxiii.,  19,  20.  ||  I.-^a.  xxii.,  IG ;  Matt,  xxvii.,  GO. 

^  Pococke,  vol.  i.,  p.  53. 


580 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Danube,  through  the  Crimea,  Daghestan,  the  great  steppes  of 
Russia,  and  on  to  Central  Asia,  marking  the  route  pursued  for 
many  centuries  by  the  migrations  of  Eastern  tribes  westward 
toward  Europa  The  Greeks  and  Romans  burned  their  dead, 
and  their  tombs,  as  well  as  those  of  cognate  races,  contain  hu- 
man bones  inclosed  in  vases  with  charcoal-ashes.  The  sites  of 
many  ancient  cities  in  Palestine,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  that 
of  Jerusalem  in  particular,*  contain  an  extensive  necropolis 
(city  of  the  dead),  consisting  of  numerous  excavations  in  the 
neighboring  rocks  in  the  form  of  rooms  or  vaults  with  side 
shelves,  upon  which  the  bodies  were  laid.  The  entrance  is 
closed  by  means  of  a  solid  door,  apparently  cut  out  of  the  same 
rock,  so  as  to  turn  on  its  prominent  points,  which  fit  into  holes 
or  sockets  above  and  below.f  This  will  be 
understood  by  examining  the  accompanying 
sketch  of  one  of  the  three  doors  found  in  the 
sepulchre  of  the  kings  at  Jerusalem,  where  they 
were  intended  to  close  the  entrance  into  the  in- 
ner rooms  of  the  tomb.  This  will  illustrate  the 
nature  of  the  obstacle  which  Mary  Magdalene, 
and  Mary  the  mother  of  James,  and  Salome  ex- 
pected to  encounter  in  their  attempt  to  embalm 
the  body  of  Jesus.:}:  The  obstacle  consisted  in 
the  weight  of  the  door,  and  its  closely  fitting  the 
door-way.§  The  "new  tomb"  cut  out  of  the 
rock  in  which  our  Lord  was  laid  consisted  of  a  single  chambeT, 
as  do  most  of  the  similar  tombs  at  Jerusalem  ;  and  the  door 
was  low,  as  usual. ||  The  angel  who  swung  open  the  heavy 
stone  door  for  Jesus  to  come  forth,  sat  or  rested  upon  it,  with 
his  feet  on  the  ground.  Many  suppose  that  the  door  was 
closed  by  means  of  a  large  boulder,  which  was  "rolled"  up  to 
the  entrance,  or  a  huge  block,  which  was  made  to  lean  upon  it. 
But  nothing  of  this  sort  appears  ever  to  have  been  in  use. 
The  Greek  uses  both  anoKv\i(Tet  and  avoKtKvXKjTat,^  the  former 
of  which  is  used  by  the  Septuagint,  in  Gen.  xxix.,  10,  in  the 
sense  of  "cause  to  slide  off."     Many  of  the  doors  of  ancient 


|''i^-^y 


clue.      cMurk  xvi., 
1-3.) 


*  Porter,  "Giant  Cities,"  p.  1.39. 

t  Pococlie,  vol.  ii.,  p.  23  ;  Thevenot,  part  i.,  chap.  xi.  J  Mark  xvi.,  1-3. 

§  Pococke,  vol.  ii.,  p.  21 ;  Maundreli,  p.  7G,  who  visited  Jerusalem  in  1G97. 
II  John  XX.,  5.  T[  Mark  xvi.,  3,  4. 


LIFE   IN   THE   FAMILY.  581 

sepulchres  have  lost  their  hinges,  which  have  been  broken  in 
order  to  rifle  their  contents ;  but  some  are  yet  in  a  good  state 
of  preservation,  while  most  show  the  grooves  in  which  the 
doors  once  turned.  It  would,  moreover,  be  hard  to  conceive 
of  the  "  sealing"  of  any  other  kind  of  door.* 

It  was  customary  in  Palestine,  as  in  Egypt,  to  seal  the  door 
of  tombs  to  prevent  their  being  rifled  ;  for  seals  are  often  found 
in  the  latter  country,  stamped  upon  clay,  which 
had  evidently  been  thus  used.     We  copy  such 
an  Egyptian  tomb  seal  from  Wilkinson  (vol.  ii., 
p.  364).     Seals  impressed  upon  wax  are  now  put 
upon  chests  and  doors  by  the  authorities  in  all  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^ 
parts  of  Turkey,  and  upon  magazines  or  store-     door.      (Matt. 
rooms.f      But   there   is   no   longer   occasion   to     ^^"••*'^> 
place  them  upon  tombs,  the  body  being  buried  in  the  ground. 

But  it  was  only  the  rich  who  could  thus  afford  to  bury  their 
dead;  had  it  been  otherwise  the  whole  land  would,  by  this 
time,  have  been  turned  into  a  vast  cemetery.  Ordinarily,  as 
has  been  already  remarked,  the  dead  were  laid  in  the  ground, 
as  now,  and  covered  over  with  earth.  A  stone  was  sometimes 
placed  over  the  spot,  to  designate  the  last  resting-place  of  man. 
The  form  and  materials  of  these  simple  graves  has  differed  in 
different  epochs.  Sometimes  the  body  was  placed  in  a  hole  in 
the  ground,  and  sometimes  in  a  box  of  burned  clay  with  its  lid. 
The  latter  was  especially  used  in  Mesopotamia,  where  the  body 
was  neither  embalmed  nor  burned.  Abraham,  Sarah,  and  Isaac 
were  probably  buried  in  this  manner  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah  ; 
but  their  posterity  generally  adopted  the  practice  of  embalm- 
ing from  the  Egyptians,  as  more  consonant  with  their  faith  in 
a  future  life.  The  plainest  graves  have  a  rough  upright  stone 
at  the  head  without  inscription;  and  such  are  commonly  those 
of  the  Bedawin  of  the  Desert.  The  better  class  have  a  pillar 
or  regularly  hewn  stone  erected,  with  a  few  words  inscribed, 
either  at  the  head  alone,  or  at  the  head  and  foot  of  the  grave. 
Such  was  the  grave  of  Kachel.:]:  Again,  large  tiles  were  placed 
like  a  ridge  over  the  body,  or  it  was  inclosed  in  rude  masonry, 
and  covered  with  a  slab.     The  body  is  now  uniformly  placed 

*  Matt,  xxvii.,  66  ;  Ussher,  p.  549.  t  Pococke,  vol;  i.,  p.  26. 

X  Gen.  XXXV.,  20. 


582 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


in  the  ground  in  immediate  contact  with  the  earth.  In  Arme- 
nia and  Persia  the  grave-stone  is  sometimes  cut  in  the  shape 
of  a  sitting  ram,  or  of  a  lion,  according  as  the  dead  man  was 
a  shepherd  or  a  soldier;  or  a  flat  slab  bears,  besides  an  in- 
scription, a  representation  of  the  tools  used  by  the  deceased 
in  his  trade.  The  grave-stones  of  those  who  have  lost  their 
lives,  as  it  is  supposed,  for  their  religion,  bear  the  figure  of  a 
man  holding  his  own  head  in  his  hand.  The  graves  of  learn- 
ed or  great  men,  and  especially  of  reputed  saints,  are  built  of 
masonry,  and  thickly  plastered  over  with  mortar,  which  is  kept 


Orieuial  Graves.    (Gen.  xxxv.,  20.) 

bright  by  frequent  whitening.*  Such  is  the  so-called  grave  of 
Polycarp  at  Smyrna,  venerated  alike  by  Christians  and  Mus- 
lims, the  latter  of  whom,  however,  claim  it  to  be  the  tomb  of 
one  of  their  own  saints.  There  is  often  a  recess  in  the  mason- 
ry, as  in  the  present  case,  where  wax  tapers  or  lamps  are  light- 
ed in  honor  of  the  saint,  sometimes  in  the  fulfillment  of  a 
vow.  When  still  greater  honor  is  to  be  shown  to  the  dead,  a 
building  is  erected  over  the  grave,  which  may  be  sufficiently 
line  to  deserve  the  name  of  a  mausoleum.  Such  is  the  cele- 
brated shrine  of  Ilosein  at  Kerbelah,  near  Bagdad.  Every  one 
knows  the  so-called  tombs  of  Absalom  and  of  Zechariah  at 


*  Matt,  xxiii.,  27. 


LIFE   IN   THE   FAMILY. 


58a 


Tomb  of  Polycarp  at  Smyrna.    ^Maii.  xxiii.,  'Zl.) 

Jerusalem,  The  Muslim  mausoleums  are  very  similar,  the  only 
difference  being  that  the  former  represent  the  Egyptian  pyra- 
mid, and  the  latter  the  Saracenic  dome.  Such  structures  are 
erected  by  the  sultans  for  themselves  and  their  families  during 
their  lifetime.  Upright  stones,  carved  with  inscriptions,  stand 
at  each  end  of  a  tomb  of  masonry,  which  covers  the  remains 
of  the  sultan  himself,  one  of  which  bears  his  official  head-dress. 
The  grave  is  covered  with  the  richest  carpets,  shawls,  and 
cloths  embroidered  with  gold  and  pearls;  and  several  priests 
are  engaged  in  reciting  or  reading  the  Koran,  or  in  saying 
prayers  to  be  put  to  the  credit  of  the  dead  at  the  judgment* 
This  is  done  at  the  tomb  of  Mohammed.  The  sultan  and  many 
other  rich  sinners  send  a  yearly  offering  of  Cashmere  shawls, 
and  cloths  embroidered  with  pearls  and  precious  stones,  to 
be  spread  over  his  grave,  and  finally  become  the  property  of 
the  priests  who  have  charge  of  the  premises.     There  are,  also. 


Thevenot,  p.  21 ;  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  157. 


584  BIBLE   LANDS. 

massive  candlesticks  of  nearly  the  height  of  a  man  set  at  the 
head  and  foot  of  the  grave,  surmounted  by  wax -candles  of 
prodigious  size,  which  are  lighted  only  on  special  occasions. 
The  grave  of  Cyrus,  we  read,  was  covered  with  purple  carpets, 
Babylonish  garments,  and  drapery. 

The  practice  of  burning  lights  at  the  graves  of  the  dead  is 
not  confined  to  the  instances  we  have  mentioned,  nor  to  the 
Muslims.  Christians  also  observe  it  for  several  days  after  the 
burial,  and  on  its  anniversary.  They  burn  lamps  also,  both 
day  and  night,  before  the  images  of  dead  saints  in  private 
houses  and  in  the  churches.  At  the  so-called  sepulchre  of  our 
Lord  at  Jerusalem,  the  spot  where  he  is  thought  to  have  been 
buried  is  covered  over  with  a  small  chapel,  from  whose  ceiling 
hang  forty-four  lamps  of  silver  gilt,  which  are  kept  constantly 
burning.*  Particular  spots  are  thought  holy,  and  whoever  is 
buried  there  is  sure  of  a  place  in  heaven.  The  Hebrews,  es- 
pecially since  the  captivity,  have  always  desired  to  be  buried 
at  Jerusalem,  believing  that  such  alone  are  to  reign  with  the 
Messiah  when  he  comes.  This  accounts  for  the  unusual  num- 
ber of  graves  around  the  Holy  City.  Every  Persian  who  is 
able  provides  that  his  body  shall  be  conveyed  to  the  shrine  of 
their  chief  saint,  Hosein,  at  Kerbelah.  The  rich  pack  up  the 
bodies  of  their  relatives  as  soon  as  dead,  and  send  them  by 
caravan,  while  the  poor  bury  their  dead  at  home,  and,  after  a 
year  disinter  their  bones,  and  put  them  up,  half  a  dozen  in 
a  box,  the  diminished  expense  coming  within  their  means.f 
Greek  Christians  have,  from  time  immemorial,  buried  their 
dead  in  the  yard  of  their  churches,  the  old  bones  being  taken 
up  from  time  to  time,  on  account  of  the  limited  number  of 
graves,  to  make  room  for  new  burials,  and  being  laid  up  in  a 
vaulted  chamber.  Something  like  this  may  be  alluded  to  in 
Ezek.  xliii.,  7-9. 

*  Thevenot,  part  i.,  p.  187.  As  we  have  had  repeated  occasion  to  refer  to 
Thevenot,  we  must  say  a  word  upon  its  alleged  plagiarism.     Moreri  says :   "II 

ne  vit  pourtant  qu'u  ne  partie  do  I'Europe Ce  fut  des  instructions  qu'il  re9ut 

de  leur  bouche,  et  des  memoires  qu'ils  lui  communiqu^rent,  qu'il  coniposa  les 
voyages  qu'il  donna  au  public"  ("Dictionaire  Ilistorique,"  vol.  x.,  p.  i;5S;  Paris, 
17.">9).  However  this  may  be,  his  statements  bear  the  stamp  of  authenticity  to  all 
who  know  the  East,  whoever  be  their  real  author.  AVe  have  not,  moreover,  made 
a  quotation  which  we  could  not  prove  from  other  authoritiea. 

+  Exod.  xiii.,  19. 


LIFE   m   THE    FAMILY. 


585 


There  is  a  very  peculiar  form  of  tomb  in  use  among  a  cer- 
tain class  of  people,  of  which  we  annex  a  representation,  not 
on  account  of  its  being  referred  to  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
but  because  it  must  have  been  in  use  in  Persia  and  Chaldea 
during  the  Jewish  captivity.     It  is  a  Parsee  cemetery.     The 


Parsee  Cemetery. 

people,  who  are  followers  of  Zoroaster,  adhere  to  his  doctrines 
in  spite  of  terrible  persecution,  and  are  now  mostly  found  in 
the  region  of  Bombay,  where  they  enjoy  the  protection  of  the 
British  Government.  Their  cemeteries  consist  of  'a  circular 
wall,  with  vaults  under  an  open  terrace,  upon  which  the  bodies 
of  the  dead  are  laid.  When  the  flesh  has  been  devoured  by 
the  birds  of  prey,  which  are  ever  hovering  about,  the  bones 
fall  through  the  grated  openings  into  the  vaults  beneath,  where 
they  remain  untouched  as  long  as  the  building  stands.*  It  is 
singular  that  the  custom  of  the  savage  New  Zealanders  is  es- 
sentially the  same;  for  they  bury,  indeed,  their  dead  in  the 
ground,  but  leave  them  there  only  long  enough  for  the  flesh 
to  decay,  when  the}''  disinter  them,  carefully  clean  every  bone, 
and  lay  them  away  in  natural  caves  or  artificial  tombs;  nor 
can  the  disturbance  of  these  bones  in  their  resting-place  be  ex- 
piated by  any  thing  short  of  the  death  of  the  guilty.f 

*  Rawlinson,  "Herodotus," vol.  i.,  p.  273,  note. 

t  Kienzi,  "Oceanic,"  vol.  i.,  p.  .58.     See  an  interesting  account,  from  The  Times 
of  India,  in  Littell's  "Living  Age,"  No.  1531  (1873),  p.  127. 


586 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


There  appccars  to  be  little  or  no  difierence  between  the  fu- 
neral rites  of  the  ancients  and  those  of  the  moderns.  The 
mourning  for  the  dead  is  also  essentially  the  same.*  As  soon 
as  death  takes  place,  the  female  members  of  the  household  and 
the  professional  mourning-womenf  announce  it  to  the  neigh- 
borhood by  setting  up  their  shrill  and  piercing  cry,  called  the 
"tahlii,"  which  is  heard  at  a  great  distance,  and  above  every 
other  noise,  even  the  din  of  battle,  and  is  quite  characteristic 
of  the  East.  This  shriek  is  uttered  by  the  Arab  women  on  all 
occasions  of  excitement,:}:  and  is  probably  referred  to  in  Mark 
v.,  39,  and  in  Micah  i.,  8,  where  it  is  compared  to  the  cry  of 
the  screech-owl.  In  mourning  for  the 
dead,  the  women  also  weep,  beat  their 
breasts,  tear  off  handfuls  of  their  hair, 
and  throw  dust  upon  their  heads,  as  is 
well  represented  in  the  Egyptian  picture 
of  a  woman  mourning  before  a  mummy. 
Among  the  different  nations  which 
dwell  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  through- 
out its  course,  the  women  leave  the  nail 
of  their  little  finger  to  grow  very  long 
in  order  to  cut  their  faces  with  it  when 
mourning,§  a  practice  forbidden  to  the 
Hand  upon  the  Head,'and  cry-  Israelites  by  the  Mosaic  law. II  In  Per- 
iDg.   (2  Sam.  xiii.,  19.)  gj^^  ^i^g  ^j,  ^^Q  priests  take  their  station 

on  the  flat  roof  of  a  house  of  mourning,  and  in  plaintive  strains, 
and  with  much  show  of  sorrow,  recapitulate  the  circumstance 
of  the  decease.^  Meanwhile  the  entire  household,  and  the  as- 
sembled relatives  and  friends,  join  in  frantic  and  noisy  demon- 
strations of  grief  The  practice  of  tearing  one's  clothes  as  a 
sign  of  sorrow  is  strictly  adhered  to  on  such  occasions.**  Care 
is  taken,  however,  not  to  injure  the  garment  by  this  operation, 
for  the  undertaker,  who  had  immediately  assumed  the  arran- 
ging of  every  detail,  goes  round  to  every  mourner,  and  careful- 
ly rips  the  central  seam  of  his  kuftan,  or  robe,  three  or  four 
inches  down  the  breast:  this  is  afterward  easily  repaired  with 


Ancient  Mourning:   laying  the 


*  Churchill,  "Lebanon, 
t  Layard,  vol.  ii.,  p.  69. 
II  Deut.  xiv.,  1. 
**  Lev.  X.,  0  ;  2  Sam.  s 


rol.  ii.,  p.  299. 


31 ;   2  Chron.  xxxiv. 


t  Jer.  ix.,  19,  20. 
§  Bruce,  vol.  iii.,  p.  680. 
t  Perkins,  p.  3-tl. 
7,  etc. 


LIFE   IN   THE   FAMILY.  587 

a  needle  and  thread  *  Mourners  sometimes  take  off  their  out- 
er clothing,  and  cover  themselves  from  head  to  foot  with  a 
piece  of  brown,  coarse  sackcloth,  such  as  is  worn  by  slaves 
while  offered  for  sale;  and  occasionally  they  throw  dust  or 
ashes  upon  their  heads  when  thus  covered,  as  a  token  of  grief 
and  humiliation.f 

In  Persia  they  still  bottle  up  their  tears  as  of  old.  This  is 
done  in  the  following  manner:  as  the  mourners  are  sitting 
around  and  weeping,  the  master  of  ceremonies  presents  each 
one  with  a  piece  of  cotton-wool,  with  which  he  wipes  off  his 
tears;  this  cotton  is  afterward  squeezed  into  a  bottle,  and  the 
tears  are  preserved  as  a  powerful  and  efficacious  remedy  for  re- 
viving a  dying  man  after  every  other  means  has  failed.:}:  It  is 
also  employed  as  a  charm  against  evil  influences.§  This  cus- 
tom is  probably  alluded  to  in  Psa.  Ivi.,  8 :  "  Put  thou  my  tears 
into  thy  bottle."  The  practice  was  once  universal,  as  is  proved 
by  the  tear- bottles  which  are 
found  in  almost  every  ancient 
tomb,  for  the  ancients  buried 
them  with  their  dead  as  a  proof 
of  their  affection.  The  body  is 
neither  burned,  as  was  practiced 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
is  still  done  by  the  Hindoos  ;|1 

.     .  ''  '"  Ancient  Tear-bottles.    (Fsa.  Ivi.,  8.) 

nor  IS  it  embalmed,  according  to 

the  custom  of  the  Egyptians,  which  was  often  done  by  the  He- 
brews.l"  His  best  clothes  are  put  upon  the  body  of  the  dead, 
and  it  is  laid,  not  in  a  coffin,  but  on  nn  open  bier,**  fully  ex- 
posed to  view.  The  Greeks  adorn  it  with  flowers,  especially 
in  the  case  of  young  people  of  both  sexes.  The  funeral  pro- 
cession is  silent  with  the  Turks,  while  in  a  Christian  burial  the 
priest  softly  hums  prayers  on  the  way  to  the  grave.  Both 
Christians  and  Muslims  repeat  prayers  at  the  grave.  Every  val- 
uable garment  or  other  article  is  then  taken  off  the  body,  and 
it  is  buried  without  a  coffin,  in  a  shallow  grave,  and  covered 

*  Morier,  "Hadji  Baba,"p.  114. 

t  Perkins,  p.  210;  Gen.  xxxvii.,  34 ;  2  Sam.  iii.,  31 ;  Job  ii.,  12;  Psa.  xxx., 
11;  Jonah  iii.,  G. 

t  Morier,  vol.  ii.,  p.  179.  §  Perkins,  p.  209.  |i  1  Sara,  xxxi.,  11-13. 

t  Gen.  1.,  2,  26.  **  2  Sam.  iii.,  31 ;  2  Chron.  xvi.,  14. 


688  BIBLE   LANDS. 

over  with  soil.  The  women  of  the  household  do  not  accom- 
pany the  procession  on  its  way  to  the  cemetery;  they  merely 
set  up  the  tahlil  as  it  leaves  the  house.  They  afterward  visit 
the  grave  from  time  to  time,  in  order  to  weep  and  pray,^  and 
priests  are  hired  to  do  the  same.f  The  family  and  relatives  of 
the  dead  observe  mourning  by  wearing  their  oldest  garments 
or  clothes  of  dull  colors,  and  by  laying  aside  their  ornaments.:}: 
Among  some  Armenian  Christians  a  sacrifice  is  offered,  which 
is  distinctly  stated  not  to  be  propitiatory,  but  an  act  of  charity 
to  the  living  for  the  benefit  of  the  dead.  The  priests  bring  an 
ox,  or  sheep,  or  other  clean  animal,  or  fowl,  to  the  door  of  the 
church,  as  well  as  some  salt,  which  is  placed  on  the  altar; 
prayers  are  said  in  which  the  deceased  is  specially  mentioned, 
and  forgiveness  is  asked  for  his  sins.  The  salt  is  given  to  the 
animal,  after  which  it  is  slain.  A  portion  of  it  belongs  to  the 
priest,  and  some  is  given  to  the  poor;  of  the  remainder  a  feast 
is  made  for  the  assembled  friends.  Kone  of  it  must  remain 
until  the  morrow. §  These  practices  are  evidently  Jewish  in 
their  origin,  but  seem  aimless  and  insignificant.  It  is  the  cus- 
tom among  all  classes  to  entertain  the  company  who  have  at- 
tended the  funeral  with  a  supper  on  their  return  from  the 
grave,  as  well  as  to  distribute  food  and  money  to  the  poor,  with 
the  request  that  they  pray  for  the  repose  of  the  soul  of  the  dead. 
This  is  often  repeated  on  the  seventh,  fifteenth,  thirtieth,  and 
fortieth  days  after  the  funeral,  and  on  the  anniversary  of  the 
event  for  several  years  afterward. ||  The  ancients  observed  the 
same  custom,  and  the  Greeks  now  call  this  food  by  the  same 
name  as  their  ancestors.  Among  the  heathen  Circassians  the 
anniversary  of  the  death  of  one  of  their  chieftains  is  celebrated 
with  religious  rites,  followed  by  games  and  athletic  sports, 
which  recall  those  performed  at  the  funeral  of  Homer's  heroes.^" 
But  the  feast  for  the  dead  was  forbidden  to  the  Jews  by  the 
Mosaic  law.** 

*  John  xi.,  31. 

t  Porter,  "  Giant  Cities,"  p.  39  ;  Thevenot,  p.  58 ;  Lynch,  p.  391. 

t  Exod.  xxxiii.,  4-fi.  §  Smith,  vol.  i.,  p.  172  ;  Lev.  ii.,  13  ;  xxii.,  30. 

II  Thomson,  "The  Land  and  the  Book,"  vol.  i.,  p.  149;  Tavernier,  p.  86. 

1  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  350.  **  Ueut.  xxvi.,  14;  Jer.  xvi.,  6,  7. 


SOCIAL   LIFE.  589 


CHAPTER  VIIL 

SOCIAL  LIFE. 

Orientals  possess  an  eminently  social  disposition.  No 
distinctions  of  rank  or  fortune  are  ever  allowed  to  interfere 
witti  the  gratification  of  this  taste,  although  no  people  on  earth 
are  more  particular  in  observing  the  conventional  forms  which 
govern  social  life.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  that  from  among 
a  people  so  thoroughly  social  there  should  have  arisen,  dur- 
ing the  earlier  centuries  of  our  era,  the  numerous  mute  her- 
mits described  by  history,  whose  solitary  cells,  caves,  and  pil- 
lars still  attest  the  truth  of  its  statements.  But  the  warmth  of 
the  Oriental  temperament,  and  the  depth  of  its  religious  con- 
victions, sufficiently  account  for  the  apparent  contradiction. 
This  social  peculiarity  is  the  mainspring  of  that  hospitality 
which  has  ever  characterized  the  East.  It  is  not  a  land  of 
books  nor  of  newspapers ;  the  living  voice  is  the  only  medium 
of  information,  and  he  who  happens  to  have  laid  up  a  store  of 
the  latter  is  sure  to  be  feasted  until  he  has  exhausted  his  stock. 
The  people  are  inquisitive,  quick  of  apprehension,  and  fond  of 
knowledge  of  every  kind;  and  when  the  long  evenings  come, 
the  man  who  can  best  entertain  the  company  by  the  flickering 
light  of  the  camp-fire,  or  of  the  pine -chip  wedged  in  a  crack 
of  the  wall,  or  in  the  rich  man's  hall  where  the  guests  recline 
upon  the  cushioned  divan,  and  the  apartment  is  lighted  by  the 
tall  candlestick  set  in  the  midst,  that  man  becomes  the  centre 
of  the  group,  and  is  regaled  with  the  best  pipe  and  the  choi- 
cest coffee.  Hospitality  has  thus  grown  to  be  an  important 
institution,  practiced  as  a  matter  of  course.  The  host  of  to- 
day ever  expects  to  be  himself  a  guest  to-morrow.  There  are 
no  hotels;  the  caravanseray,  as  its  name  sufficiently  denotes, 
is  a  house  {sardi)  intended  for  the  accommodation  of  the  pass- 
ing caravan,  composed  of  merchants  traveling  with  their  mer- 
chandise, who  could  not  conveniently  be  accommodated  in  pri- 
vate houses.  The  solitary  traveler,  or  the  small  company  who 
journey  on  business  unencumbered  by  baggage,  stop  at  the 


590  BIBLE   LANDS, 

Arab's  tent,  or  alight  at  the  "guest-chamber"  (page  442)  of 
the  mountain  village,  and  sit  down  at  the  unaltered  board  of 
the  sheikh,  or  kiahaya.  Thus  did  Abraham  entertain  "angels 
L-^nawares."*  So  it  was  with  Nehemiab,  who,  while  he  govern- 
ed the  returned  captives  of  Israel  without  taxation,  lest  they  be 
overburdened,  yet  practiced  an  almost  regal  hospitality,  daily 
entertaining  at  his  table  "a  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  Jews  and 
rulers,  besides  those  that  came  unto  him  from  among  the  hea- 
then that  were  about;"  so  that  the  provisions  daily  consumed 
in  his  household  consisted  of  "  one  ox  and  six  choice  sheep,  also 
fowls,"  "  and  once  in  ten  days  store  of  all  sorts  of  wine.''f  And 
the  Hebrew  legislator  deemed  the  practice  of  hospitality  of  so 
great  importance,  that  he  frequently  enjoined  it  upon  his  peo- 
ple to  "love  the  stranger,"  reminding  them  that  they  them- 
selves had  been  strangers  in  the  land  of  Egypt.:}: 

In  performing  the  duties  of  hospitality  to  a  traveler  or  visit- 
or, be  he  a  stranger  or  a  friend,  the  host  receives  him  in  his 
best  room  or  in  his  liwan,  if  the  weather  be  mild.  The  recep- 
tion-room becomes  his  apartment  for  the  time  being.  Here  his 
friends  call  upon  him,  and  here  he  transacts  his  business;  here, 
also,  he  takes  his  meals,  his  host  himself  waiting  upon  him  if 
he  desires  to  show  him  special  respect  ;§  and  here  he  sleeps 
at  night,  upon  bedding  kept  for  the  purpose  in  a  closet  of  the 
same  room.  Before  his  arrival,  a  messenger  announces  his 
approach  to  the  master  of  the  house,  who  hastens  to  his  gate, 
holds  the  bridle  and  stirrup,  and  helps  him  dismount.  If  they 
are  old  friends,  or  of  rank  nearly  equal,  they  embrace,  each 
placing  his  right  hand  upon  the  other's  left  shoulder,  and  kiss- 
ing him  on  the  right  cheek,  then  putting  the  left  hand  on  the 
other's  right  shoulder,  and  kissing  him  on  the  left  cheek.||  It 
is  thus  that  treacherous  Joab  embraced  Amnsa,  and  instead  of 
placing  his  right  hand  upon  his  shoulder,  seized  him  by  the 
beard,  and  stabbed  him  "with  the  sword  in  his  left,"  "in  the 
fifth  rib.''T     And  thus  did  Judas  Iscariot  kiss  our  Lord.** 

The  salaam  is  now  exchanged.  "Peace  be  unto  thee;"  an- 
swer: "And  unto  thee  be  peace,"ff     But  if  the  visitor  be  of 

*  Heb.  xiii.,  2.  t  Neb.  v.,  17, 18, 

X  Exod.  xxii.,  21 ;  xxiii.,  fl ;  Dent,  x.,  10.  §  Gen.  xviii.,  8. 

II  Luke  vii.,  45;  xv.,  20;  Terkins,  p.  G9.  t  2  Sam.  xx.,  9,  10. 

**  Matt,  xxvi.,  41).  tt  1  Sam.  xxv.,  G ;  Luke  xxiv.,  36,  etc. 


SOCIAL   LIFE.  591 

a  higher  rank  than  his  host,  the  latter  kisses  him  not,  but 
"bows  down  to  the  earth"  when  he  salutes  him,  touching  the 
ground  with  his  hand,  which  he  then  brings  to  his  lips  and  his 
head.*  This  mode  of  salutation 
existed  both  in  Persia  and  Egypt, 
being  pictured  upon  the  monu- 
ments, as  may  be  seen  in  the  ac- 
companying illustration.  The  host 
now  leads  the  way  into  the  house, 
places  his  friend  in  the  seat  of  hon-  The'audeut  saiaam,  or  t^^^^iu 
or,  the  chief  corner  of  the  divan ;  Egypt  and  Persia, 

then  takes  a  seat  by  his  side,  if  on  a  footing  of  equality,  or 
kisses  his  hand,  the  hem  of  his  garment,  or  even  his  feet,f  ac- 
cording to  his  rank,  and  retiring  a  few  steps,  crosses  his  hands 
upon  his  girdle — the  habitual  posture  of  a  servant — thus  signi- 
fying that  he  is  waiting  for  orders.:}:  The  guest,  on  the  other 
hand,  seeks  not  to  be  outdone  in  politeness;  he  accepts  the 
honors  due  to  his  position,  but  endeavors  to  make  his  host 
feel  at  ease,  by  insisting  upon  his  sitting  down  :  "  No,  not  on 
the  floor,  I  beg  you ;  nor  there  on  the  farthest  corner  of  the 
divan,  but  here  by  my  side."  Then  follow  salutations,  always 
begun  by  the  man  of  higher  rank,  with  inquiries  concerning 
health,  and  a  host  of  empty  phrases  which  display  the  good- 
breeding  of  the  parties.§  The  Persians  excel  all  other  Orient- 
als in  the  use  of  these  phrases  and  forms  of  etiquette,  which 
they  carry  to  a  pitch  often  ridiculed  by  their  neighbors.!  It 
is  curious  to  find,  Herodotus  (B.C.  450)  states,  that  the  Persians 
in  his  day  "  paid  so  great  attention  to  forms  of  address  that  one 
could  thereby  at  once  ascertain  the  rank  of  a  stranger:  when  of 
equal  rank,"  he  says,  "  instead  of  speaking,  they  kiss  each  other 
on  the  lips ;  when  one  is  a  little  inferior  to  the  other,  the  kiss 
is  given  on  the  cheek;  and  when  the  difference  of  rank  is 
great,  the  inferior  prostrates  himself  upon  the  ground."^  He- 
rodotus lived  and  wrote  when  the  Persian  empire  embraced  all 
the  lands  of  the  Bible  in  Asia  and  Africa  (B.C.  450),  so  that  his 
description  applies  to  all  the  East,  and  was  doubtless  as  gener- 
ally true  in  his  day  as  in  our  times. 

*  Gen.  xviii.,  2 ;  1  Sam.  xxiv.,  8,  etc.  t  Luke  vii.,  38,  45. 

t  Deut.  X.,  8 :  1  Sam.  xvi.,  22,  etc.  §  Chtirchill,  "  Lebanon,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  28.5. 

II  Bawlinson,  "Herodotus,"  vol.  i,,  p.  218,  note.         t  Herodotus,  bk.  i,,  §  134. 


592  BIBLE   LANDS. 

The  custom  of  washing  the  feet  of  a  guest  is  not  so  exten- 
sively practiced  at  the  present  time  as  it  was  anciently.* 
This  is  probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  ancients  mostly 
wore  sandals ;  whereas,  among  the  moderns,  the  more  conven- 
ient morocco  shoe  and  boot  have  almost  wholly  superseded 
them,  except  in  the  Desert,  or  among  the  fellah  in  and  other 
peasants.  Yet  the  custom  of  washing  the  feet  is  still  practiced 
in  the  rural  districts,  and  among  people  farthest  removed  from 
the  reach  of  foreign  innovations,  such  as  the  inhabitants  of 
Koordistan,  of  Greater  and  Lesser  Armenia,  and  of  Circassia.f 

We  have,  in  the  preceding  chapter,  described  the  permanent 
portion  of  the  family — the  husband,  wife,  children,  and  slaves; 
and  now,  before  proceeding  to  delineate  their  relations  with 
the  outer  world,  we  shall  speak  of  the  "hired  servants,"  those 
transitory  members  of  the  household  whose  management  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  momentous  questions  of  the  day  in  our  own 
country.  In  the  East,  where  oppression  and  wrong  have  al- 
ways prevailed,  there  has  never  been  any  difficulty  in  finding 
people  willing  to  be  hired  for  the  regular  work  of  the  house. 
The  supply  has,  indeed,  been  so  much  greater  than  the  de- 
mand, as  to  cause  a  minute  division  of  labor,  greatly  increas- 
ing the  number  of  servants  in  a  household.:}:  In  an  ordinary 
family,  female  slaves  do  the  cooking,  washing,  scrubbing,  etc. 
But  a  man  whose  position  requires  the  entertaining  of  much 
company  hires  a  male  cook  and  a  seis  (groom),  whose  work  is 
confined  to  the  selamlik,  or  men's  apartments.  Besides  these, 
however,  there  are  waiters,  pipe-bearers,  messengers,  and  serv- 
ants of  light  work,  whose  number  is  increased  on  special  oc- 
casions. None  of  these  receive  any  wages,  but  the  master 
presents  each  with  a  suit  of  clothes  at  the  great  yearly  festival, 
and  gifts  are  also  bestowed  upon  them,  mostly  in  money  (bak- 
shish), from  such  visitors  as  have  business  with  their  master, 
and  desire  a  good  word  spoken  to  him  at  the  opportune  mo- 
ment. Hence  the  number  of  these  waiters  and  retainers  de- 
pends on  the  amount  of  business  done  by  the  master.  Should 
he  desire  to  retain  any  of  them  whose  income  does  not  prove 
sufficient,  he  himself  makes  presents  to  them,  or  favors  them  in 

*  Gen.  xviii.,  4  ;   1  Sam.  xxv.,  41 ;  Luke  vii.,  44  ;  John  xii.,  3,  etc. 

t  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  202. 

t  Exod.  xii.,  45  ;  Lev.  xxv.,  40;   Luke  xv.,  19. 


I 


SOCIAL   LIFE.  593 

their  business  by  means  of  his  influence,  but  never  pays  them 
wages.*  Tlie  position  of  these  retainers  is  always  more  hon- 
orable than  that  of  mere  hired  servants;  for  they  are  often 
near  relations,  thus  employed  as  a  stepping-stone  to  something 
better;  indeed,  the  master's  own  sons  often  fulfill  these  duties 
in  the  selamlik,  and  his  wife  and  daughters  in  the  harim,  all 
of  whom  are  forbidden  by  custom  to  sit  in  his  presence.  Rank 
or  position  in  society  make  no  difference  whatever  in  these 
matters ;  hence  this  class  of  servants  enjoy  a  familiarity  with, 
and  exert  an  influence  upon,  their  masters  which  hired  nti^n 
can  never  acquire;  and  they  are  treated  by  him  like  so  many 
sons.  Compare  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  and  particu- 
larly Luke  XV.,  28 ;  also  1  Kings  xix.,  21. 

When  waiting  upon  his  master,  the  servant  stands  upon  the 
farthest  edge  of  the  raised  platform,  hav- 
ing left  his  shoes  at  the  door;  his  hands 
are  folded,  and  rest  upon  the  centre  of 
his  girdle;  and  he  watches  closely  every 
movement  of  his  master,  prompt  to  at- 
tend to  all  his  wants,  which  are  express- 
ed by  a  nod  or  a  sign.f  He  fills  his 
pipe  and  hands  him  his  coffee;  he  sets 
his  food  before  him,  and  it  is  his  special    The  servam^HaudB  before 

'  1  •      1         T    n  b'^  Master. 

duty  to  "pour  water  on  his  hands     to 

wash.:}:  Should  he  happen  to  be  missing  when  wanted,  his 
master  summons  him  by  clapping  his  hands  so  effectually  that 
the  sound  is  heard  throughout  the  house,  especially  as  the  doors 
and  windows  generally  stand  open.§  We  have  already  stated 
that  it  is  the  habit  of  the  men  and  women  to  gird  themselves 
when  at  work,  and  this  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  serv- 
ant; for  he  often  has  occasion  to  roll  up  his  sleeves  and  to 
draw  up  his  sharwar,  tightening  it  with  his  girdle,  and  some- 
times to  bind  an  apron  around  his  waistf 

When  an  entertainment  is  given  to  which  guests  are  special- 
ly invited,  it  is  customary  to  send  them  a  servant,  sometimes 
more  than  one,  in  order  to  request  them  to  "come,  for  all 
things  are  ready."!" 

*  Acts  xii.,  20.     t  Psa.  cxxiii.,  2.      J  2  Kings  iii.,  11.      §  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  254. 
II  John  xiii.,  4.     See  Pliilo's  account  of  the  Essenes,  quoted  hy  Prideaux,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  473.  1  Matt,  xxii.,  2-4  ;  Luke  xiv.,  16,  17. 


oU 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


When  the  master  of  the  house  desires  specially  to  honor  his 
guests,  he  offers  them  fumes  of  incense  before  the  indispensa- 
ble coffee  and  pipes  are  brought  in.  The  perfume  usually  em- 
ployed is  the  "lignum  aloes,"  a  small  bit  of  which  is  dropped 
upon  burning  coals  in  a  little  chafing-dish  of  silver  or  gold 
filigree,  sometimes  adorned  with  precious  stones;  the  fumes 
escape  through  the  perforated  cover.  This  is  simply  set  in 
some  part  of  the,  room,  or  it  is  presented  to  each  guest  to  inhale 
in  turn,  an  embroidered  handkerchief  being  thrown  over  his 
head,  which  he  himself  removes  when  satisfied.     The  accom- 


Jeweled  Ceusers. 


panying  cuts  represent  silver  censers  of  exquisite  workman- 
ship. Sometimes  they  are  seen  with  a  long  handle,  like  those 
drawn  upon  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  monuments.  Sprinkling 
with  rose-water  frequently  precedes  the  offering  of  incense. 
The  vessel  employed  is  a  small  bottle,  with  a  long,  narrow 
neck,  perforated  at  the  end,  and  is  usually  made  to  match  the 
censer  in  material  and  workmanship.  A  little  rose-water  is 
poured  upon  the  hands  of  each  guest,  who  passes  them  over  his 
face,  head,  and  beard,  after  which  comes  the  incense,  whose  fumes 
cling  the  more  tenaciously  to  a  damp  surface.  In  acknowl- 
edging this  attention,  each  guest  exclaims  "  Elhamd  ulillah" 
(thanks  be  to  God).*     Rose-water  is  in  general  use  on  festive 


Taveniier,  "  Seraglio,"  p.  47  ;  Prov.  xxvii.,  9. 


SOCIAL   LIFE. 


595 


occasions,  and  is  freely  sprinkled  upon  a  passing  bridal  party. 
Incense  is  also  in  great  favor  throughout  the  East.  It  is  burned 
in  religious  ceremonies,  and  while  the  body  of 
the  dead  is  lying  in  the  house  awaiting  inter- 
ment, a  practice  which  doubtless  contributes  to 
neutralize  the  noxious  vapors  which  might  oth- 
erwise prove  deleterious  in  that  dry  and  hot 
climate.  The  wealthy  often  throw  a  small  piece 
of  ambergris  upon  the  burning  coals  of  the  bra- 
zier, for  the  sake  of  the'  perfume,  or,  as  they 
sometimes  say,  to  counteract  the  pernicious  ef- 
fects of  the  charcoal.*  Mastic  and  ambergris 
are  often  burned  in  the  pipe  with  the  light 
Volo  tobacco,  giving  it  a  still  finer  flavor;  and 
the  same  substances  are  not  unfrequently  used 
to  flavor  coffee.f  Guests  are  often  refreshed 
with  sherbet,  a  grateful  drink,  sometimes  cooled 
with  snow,  consisting  of  water  flavored  with  sir- 
up, usually  of  acid  cherries  [fishneh)  or  apri- 
cots; or  it  is  simply  sweetened,  and  flavored 
with  lemon-juice,  rose  or  orange-flower  water, 
musk,  or  ambergris.:]:  Ice  is  never  used  to  cool 
drinks,  from  fear  that  the  frozen  water  may 
have  been  impure,  whereas  snow  is  formed  of 
rain-water. 

While  the  refreshments  we  have  described  are  being  served, 
the  flow  of  conversation  is  uninterrupted;  and  as  Orientals  are 
never  in  a  hurry,  much  time  is  taken  up  in  this  manner,  the 
master  of  the  house  meanwhile  lavishing  every  attention  upon 
his  guests,  and  at  the  same  time  maintaining  his  own  dignity. 
The  polite  phraseology  in  use  among  Orientals,  especially  of 
the  higher  classes,  enables  them  to  talk  long  without  accom- 
plishing any  higher  object  than  to  while  away  the  time.  One 
is  particularly  struck  with  the  numberless  religious  expressions 
and  pious  ejaculations  employed  on  all  occasions,  their  frequent 
allusions  to  the  Deity,  his  superintending  providence,  and  their 
dependence  upon  him.  Unfortunately,  few  of  them  ever  re- 
flect on  the  meaning  of  such  language;  while  many  are  doubt- 


Rose-water  Bottle. 


Prov.  vii.,  i: 


t  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  175. 


X  Thevenot,  p.  34. 


596  BIBLE   LANDS. 

less  ignorant  of  its  sense,  as  is  the  case  among  us  with  the  ma- 
jority of  those  who  use  the  expressions,  "Adieu"  and  "Good- 
bye." This  habitual  "  taking  of  the  name  of  God  in  vain"  has 
led  to  a  great  deal  of  profanity,  for  which  both  sexes  as  well 
as  all  classes  and  ages  are  notorious. 

We  must  also  remark  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  vulgarity 
in  conversation,  especially  in  large  assemblages  of  men,  par- 
ticularly Muslims,  on  festive  occasions,  and  when  the  fumes  of 
wine,  or  of  the  still  stronger  arrack,  have  begun  to  affect  their 
brains.  We  have  been  repeatedly  assured  that  this  is  the  case 
even  with  the  fair  sex  in  similar  circumstances;  and  hence 
the  inference  is  a  perfectly  reasonable  one  that  the  mingling 
of  the  sexes  in  society  exerts  a  refining  influence  upon  both. 
This  fact  will  serve  to  explain  certain  expressions  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  which  occur  far  more  frequently  in  contemporary 
secular  works,  and  reflect  the  condition  of  society  at  that  pe- 
riod. 

But  there  are  more  agreeable,  or  at  least  less  objectionable, 
characteristics  noticeable  in  the  conversations  at  a  social  gath- 
ering. The  language  is  often  metaphoric,  and  interspersed 
with  proverbs  and  parables,  of  which  one  or  more  of  the  guests 
has  a  store  laid  up  for  such  occasions.  A  few  specimens  of 
these  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix.  As  to  parables,  the 
Scriptures  contain  by  far  the  finest,  uttered  by  Him  "  who 
spoke  as  never  man  spake."  A  story,  whether  long  or  short, 
true  or  fictitious,  original  or  second-hand,  is  always  welcome; 
and  whoever  has  a  good  stock  of  these,  and  can  tell  them  well, 
is  sure  of  invitations  to  weddings,  festivals,  and  all  sorts  of  so- 
cial gatherings.  One  class  of  these  stories  is  in  the  style  of  the 
"Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments."  A  very  large  collection 
might  be  made  of  tales  of  this  kind,  which  have  never  been 
committed  to  writing,  but  are  traditionally  preserved  with 
great  fidelity. 

And  there  is  another  class  of  stories  and  anecdotes,  contain- 
ing no  allusion  to  the  supernatural,  but  dealing  only  with  mat- 
ters of  fact,  whose  object  is  simply  merriment.  These,  also, 
are  mostly  preserved  in  the  memories  of  men,  the  only  writ- 
ten collection  in  existence  being  the  so-called  witticisms  of 
Noosrcddin  Hojah  of  Konieh  (Iconium),  in  Asia  Minor;  the 
language  is  Turkish,  and  the  style  pithy  and  concise.     The 


SOCIAL   LIFE.  597 

professed  story-teller  sometimes  entertains  a  select  audience  in 
the  houses  of  the  great,  but  is  more  commonly  found  at  a  pub- 
lic cafi^  where  he  attracts  customers  and  collects  his  fees  among 
the  crowd  of  eager  listeners.  There  he  holds  forth  with  inim- 
itable action,  accompanying  the  description  of  every  scene  with 
a  peculiar  and  highly  expressive  pantomime,  an  ever-changing 
expression  of  countenance,  an  occasional  shrug  of  the  shoul- 
ders, a  nod  or  knowing  shake  of  the  head,  a  sudden  throwing 
out  of  the  five  fingers,  a  shaking  of  the  garment,  and  even 
spitting,  or  protruding  the  tongue  —  gestures  and  signs  whose 
full  force  and  meaning  can  be  appreciated  only  by  a  native- 
born  Oriental.  And  when  he  has  wrought  up  his  audience  to 
the  highest  pitch  of  expectation — when  the  charming  princess 
is  just  on  the  point  of  dropping  into  the  jaws  of  the  horrid 
dragon,  which  licks  his  lips  in  eager  anticipation  of  the  pre- 
cious morsel — the  narrator  suddenly  pauses,  and  passes  round 
the  contribution-plate,  pleading  that  he  is  too  much  exhausted 
immediately  to  proceed. 

But  we  must  now  consider  the  dinner,  the  most  important 
part  of  an  entertainment  in  every  land.  The  people  of  the 
East  take  but  two  regular  meals  a  day,  i.  e.,  a  hearty  breakfast 
early  in  the  morning,  before  going  to  their  business,  and  the 
principal  meal  at  night,  after  they  come  home.  Eich  people 
often  eat  a  regular  meal  at  noon  ;*  but  the  more  common  prac- 
tice is  to  take  some  light  luncheon  in  an  informal  manner. 
The  evening  meal  is  that  to  which  guests  are  usually  invited. 
It  is  alluded  to  in  our  New  Testament  under  the  name  of 
"  supper,"  in  the  sense  of  an  evening  meal.\  It  would  have 
been  better  translated  dinner.  The  distinction  becomes  evident 
in  Luke  xiv.,  12,  where  our  version  has  rendered  "  dinner  or 
supper"  what  should  have  been  translated  "breakfast  or  din- 
ner." In  John  xxi.,  12,  "come  and  dine"  should  have  been 
"come  and  breakfast." 

In  Eastern  entertainments  nothing  of  consequence  ever  takes 
place  before  the  dinner  has  been  dispatched;  music  and  dancing, 
exhibitions  and  amusements  of  all  kinds,  come  after  the  cravings 
of  appetite  have  been  satisfied,  and  all  are  in  a  mood  to  be  pleased 
by  any  thing  they  may  see  or  hear.     As  the  guests  assemble, 

*  Gen.  xliii.,  16.  t  Luke  xiv.,  24  ;   xxii.,  L'O  ;   Kev.  xix.,  9. 


598 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


they  take  their  places  on  the  divan,  lining  three  sides  of  the 
apartment,  and  not  a  few  of  them  plainly  seek  the  uppermost 
seats  at  the  feast,*  which  are  at  the  corners  of  the  divan,  for 


Ancient  Modes  of  sitting  like  the  Modern. 

they  will  there  be  served  first,  and  with  the  choicest  morsels. 
Saul's  "seat  at  table  by  the  wall"  was  doubtless  the  chief 
corner  of  the  room,  diagonally  opposite  the  door.f    The  Mool- 


♦  Matt,  xxiii.,  6. 


t  1  Sam.  XX.,  25. 


SOCIAL   LIFE.  599 

lahs,  Kiatibs,  and  Khojabs  wbo  may  be  present  are  sure  to 
make  for  tbose  places,*  for  tbey  are  proud,  bigoted,  and  gener- 
ally blessed  with  good  appetites.  But  Orientals  are  very  par- 
ticular about  rank,  and  most  men  dare  not  venture  beyond  cer- 
tain limits.  When  the  master,  anxious  to  bestow  due  honor 
upon  each  of  his  guests,  perceives  one  of  them  occupying  a 
place  inferior  to  his  comparative  rank,  he  invites  him  to  move 
up,  saying,  "  My  lord,  sit  up  higher,"  at  the  same  time  request- 
ing the  others  to  make  room  for  him ;  the  man  thus  promoted 
"  has  worship  in  the  presence  of  them  that  sit  at  meat  with 
him,"f  /.  e.,  he  receives  honor  from  the  other  guests,  who  bow 
and  proffer  compliments  to  him. 

To  Occidentals  accustomed  to  sit  upon  raised  seats,  with  their 
feet  resting  upon  the  floor,  the  Oriental  mode  of  sitting  upon  a 
divan,  a  carpet,  or  a  mat,  is  painful  in  the  extreme;  all  trav- 
elers complain  of  it.  But  the  Oriental  is  accustomed  to  it 
from  his  childhood,  and  his  limbs  acquire  a  wonderful  elastici- 
ty. He  sits  cross-legged,  or  upon  his  feet,  without  weariness; 
and  should  he  accept  the  proffered -chair  of  his  foreign  host,  he 
is  sure  soon  to  gather  up  his  feet  under  him,  or  to  exchange 
his  high  seat  for  the  floor  in  order  "to  rest  himself."  The 
preceding  illustrations  from  the  monuments  of  Egypt  show 
that  its  ancient  people,  and  therefore  the  Hebrews,  who  lived 
so  long  among  them,  sat  in  this  manner,  as  also  do  all  modern 
Orientals  and  Africans.  The  different  positions  here  repre- 
sented are  not  assumed  at  pleasure,  those  which  hide  the  feet 
being  the  most  respectful ;  the  others  are  taken  according  to 
the  work  to  be  done,  and  some  indicate  a  position  impractica- 
ble to  an  Occidental. 

It  is  customary  with  all,  but  oUigatorij  for  Muslims,  to  wash 
the  hands  before  eating.  The  sect  of  the  Sunnies,  which  in- 
cludes the  Turks  and  Arabs,  wash  both  hands,  but  the  Sheites, 
or  Persians,  only  the  right,  with  which  the  food  is  taken  and 
conveyed  to  the  mouth.  Thus  did  the  Pharisees  in  the  time 
of  our  Saviour.:}:  For  this  purpose  a  ewer  and  basin  are  pre- 
sented to  each  guest  in  turn  by  a  servant,  who  drops  upon  his 
right  knee  while  he  rests  the  basin  upon  the  left;  the  towel  is 
carried  upon  his  shoulder,  or  is  offered  by  another  servant. 

*  Morier,  vol.  ii.,  p.  143.        t  Luke  xiv.,  10.        X  Matt,  xv.,  2  ;  Mark  vii.,  3. 


600  BIBLE   LANDS. 

There  is  abundant  evidence  from  history,  both  sacred  and 
profane,  that  during  the  New  Testament  peiiod  many  of  the 
Jews  had  conformed  to  the  luxurious  but  inconvenient  custom 
of  taking  their  meals  in  a  reclining  attitude.  The  couch  is 
mentioned  in  Mark  vii.,  4,  and  the  narratives  contained  in 
Luke  vii.,  38.  and  John  xi.,  2,  and  xii.,  3,  clearly  imply  that 
our  Lord  sometimes  reclined  while  eating,  so  that  his  feet  lay 
at  the  outer  edge  of  the  couch.  The  custom  was  general 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  was  perhaps  adopted  by 
some  Orientals  as  early  as  the  conquests  of  Alexander  and 
the  reigns  of  his  successors,  three  hundred  years  before  our 
era.  The  table  was  usually  square  or  oblong,  and  the  couch 
either  semicircular,  as  seen  among  the  remains  of  Herculaneum, 
at  the  Naples  Museum,  or  there  were  three  couches,  set  against 
three  sides  of  the  table,  leaving  one  side  open  for  the  servants 
to  set  on  the  food  and  attend  to  the  wants  of  the  guests.  Three 
persons  usually  took  their  seats  upon  each  couch,  but  there 
were  sometimes  as  many  as  four,  or  even  five.  They  reclined 
upon  their  left  elbows,  supported  by  cushions,  the  feet  being 
extended  outwardly,  and  the  back  of  each  guest  turned  toward 
his  next  neighbor.  The  faces  and  hands  thus  verged  toward 
a  common  centre,  where  was  set  the  dish  from  which  they  all 
partook  with  their  fingers,  according  to  the  Oriental  mode. 
Thus  we  can  understand  how  John,  the  beloved  disciple,  lean- 
ed upon  Jesus's  bosom,*  and  how  it  was  practicable  for  Jesus 
to  hand  the  sop  to  either  of  the  disciples.f  These  arrange- 
ments were,  however,  inconvenient  and  clumsy,  compared  to 
the  simple  style  even  then  generally  prevalent  in  the  East. 
The  former  required  an  apartment  exclusively  devoted  to  that 
purpose,  like  our  own  dining-rooms.  Among  the  Jews  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  an  upper  room,  in  the  second  story  of  the 
house.:}:  It  would,  moreover,  seem  that  this  mode  was  adopt- 
ed only  on  occasion  of  some  special  entertainment,  for  it  is  al- 
luded to  in  the  Gospel  narrative  only  in  such  a  connection. § 
We  have  a  parallel  to  this  mingling  of  Oriental  and  Occident- 
al customs  in  the  present  practice  of  introducing  a  table,  chairs, 
knives,  and  forks  at  a  feast  where  Europeans  are  invited. 

•  John  xiii.,  2.5.  t  John  xiii.,  27. 

:  Mark  xiv.,  15.  §  Luke  vii.,  36,  38 ;  xxii.,  11.  12  :  John  xii.,  2,  3. 


SOCIAL    LIFE. 


601 


The  Oriental  mode  was  anciently  practiced  by  the  Egyptians 
before  they  adopted  chairs,  and  raised  their  tables  to  a  corre- 
sponding level.  Their  sculptures  represent  them  sitting  on  the 
ground  as  at  the  present  day,  with  the  right  knee  raised  to  sup- 
port the  right  hand, 
with  which  they  eat. 
The  accompanying 
illustration  also  in- 
dicates another  prac- 
tice which  they  had 
in  common  with  the 
moderns;  they  not 
only  ate  with  theirfin- 
gers.  but  even  carved 
achicken  without  the 
aid  of  either  knife  > 
or  fork.  They  dealt  f 
with  a  fish  in  the  ^ 
same  manner.  ^ 

The  small  table,  | 
or  stool,  already  de-  5^ 
scribed  (page  472).  = 
is  not  usually  placed  r 
in  the  centre  of  an 
apartment,  and  then 
the  guests  invited  to 
take  their  seats,  but 
is  set  before  the  prin- 
cipal guest,  as  he  oc- 
cupies the  seat  of 
honor  on  the  divan, 
and  the  others  come 
up  and  take  their 
places  around  it. 
This  is  done  in  obedience  to  a  command  similar  to  that  of 
Joseph  to  his  servants,  "Set  on  bread."*  the  very  expression 
still  used  on  such  occasions,  the  word  bread  signifying,  in 
all  Oriental  languages,  food,  or  "the  dinner."     When    there 


it: 


^f"- 


*  Gen.  xli 


602  BIBLE    LANDS. 

are  several  tables,  tbey  are  set  at  the  corners  of  the  divan, 
or  in  different  parts  of  the  room.  As  many  as  twelve  per- 
sons can  sit  at  a  single  table.*  When  the  stool  has  been 
set  in  its  place  on  the  crumb -cloth,  with  the  tray  upon  it, 
piles  of  thin,  flat  loaves,  with  a  couple  of  wooden  spoons,  are 
placed  at  intervals  around  the  edge  of  the  tray,  interspersed 
with  onions,  small  basins  o^  leben,  and  little  plates  containing 
cheese,  all  of  which  serve  as  ragoux  to  excite  the  appetite. 
Each  guest  now  takes  his  place,  and  is  provided  with  an  em- 
broidered napkin,  which  is  tucked  under  the  chin  and  spread 
upon  the  knees.  When  the  master  wishes  to  show  special 
honor  to  his  guests,  he  sits  or  stands  by,  waits  upon  them,  dep- 
recates the  meagre  fare,  and  bids  them  partake  freelj^.  As 
each  dish  is  set  upon  the  table,  he  exclaims,  ^'■TfuddalooP' 
(help  yourselves).  Scarcely  a  word  is  spoken  through  the 
entire  meal,  and  the  dinner  is  dispatched  expeditiously  and  in 
silence.  Not  unfrequently  as  many  as  a  hundred  different 
dishes  appear  upon  the  tables,  one  after  the  other,  in  quick  suc- 
cession, beginning  with  soup,  and  alternating  a  sweet  dish  with 
some  form  of  cooked  meats,  as  a  dish  of  fruit-jelly  succeeded 
by  roast  fowl,  and  finishing  at  length  with  a  huge  platter  of 
pilaw,  or  boiled  rice.  The  "^ji'ece  de  resistances^''  or  chief  dish,  is 
a  roasted  sheep  or  fatted  calf,  served  whole,  and  torn  in  pieces 
with  the  hands,  each  guest  doing  his  own  carving.f  One  is 
not  obliged  to  eat  or  even  to  taste  of  every  thing  set  before 
him.  There  is  an  order  in  the  tables,  and  the  dishes  are  pass- 
ed from  the  first  down  through  all  the  gradations,  ending  in  the 
kitchen,  where  the  servants,  retainers,  and  scullions  wait  im- 
patiently for  their  share.  Each  table  of  guests,  however,  is 
usually  furnished  with  its  separate  dish  of  soup  and  pilaw,  and 
there  are  sometimes  several  roasted  sheep.  The  servants  sup- 
ply the  guests,  whenever  called  for,  with  water,  lemonade,  or 
shorbet.  At  the  close  of  the  repast,  each  one  rises  when  it  suits 
him,  and  resumes  his  place  on  the  divan,  washes  his  hands  as 
before  the  meal,  and  is  then  served  M'ith  coffee  and  a  pipe. 

Spirit,  or  arrack,  is  sometimes  taken  before  dinner  to  stimulate 
the  appetite,  a  few  drops  of  it  being  poured  out  into  a  glass  of 


*  Morier,  vol.  i.,  p.  333 ;  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  183. 
+  Luke  XV.,  23  ;  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  302. 


SOCIAL   LIFE.  603 

water.  During  the  meal  few  drink  any  wine.  It  is  brought 
on  afterward  in  decanters,  with  glasses,  upon  a  tray,  and  the 
guests  drink  longer  or  shorter,  as  they  feel  inclined.  Some, 
however,  use  arrack  instead.  This  custom  corresponds  with 
that  practiced  by  the  more  civilized  nations  of  the  West,  who 
drink  "after  the  cloth  has  been  removed;"  the  only  difference 
appears  to  be  that  the  latter  slide  under  the  table  when  over- 
come by  liquor,  while  the  former  subside  in  their  places  on 
the  divan.  The  practice,  so  prevalent  among  a  certain  class  in 
the  East,  of  drinking  to  a  late  hour  in  the  night  seems  to  have 
been  common  among  the  Hebrews,  judging  from  the  denuncia- 
tions of  the  prophets.* 

It  is  particularly  at  weddings  that  the  use  of  wine  and  also 
of  arrack  is  considered  indispensable,  to  "  rejoice  men's  hearts." 
But  intoxication  from  too  liberal  a  supply  of  wine  on  such  oc- 
casions can  not  be  said  to  be  frequent;  the  number  of  guests 
that  must  share  in  the  distribution  of  the  beverage  serving  to 
obviate  riotous  consequences;  besides,  they  all  desire  to  keep 
sufficiently  sober  to  take  part  in  the  interesting  processions  with 
which  the  ceremony  closes.f  We  have  known  even  the  of- 
ficiating priest  to  be  carried  home  in  a  state  of  insensibility. 

The  guests  being  numerous,  and  the  feast  continuing  several 
days,  an  ample  store  of  wine  and  other  provisions  must  be  laid 
up  beforehand;:}:  and  should  the  supply  give  out  before  the 
ceremony  is  over,  it  casts  a  damper  upon  the  whole,  unless  the 
parties'have  money,  or  can  borrow  it,  in  order  to  purchase  what 
is  needed.  Many  people  incur  a  burdensome  debt  on  account 
of  wedding  expenses,  for  the  rate  of  interest  on  borrowed  mon- 
ey is,  in  the  East,  rarely  less  than  eighteen  per  cent,  and  often 
much  higher.  We  have  the  Bible  counterpart  of  the  foregoing 
statements  in  the  narrative  of  the  marriage -feast  at  Cana  of 
Galilee.§  The  quantity  of  water  miraculously  turned  to  wine 
could  not  have  been  less  than  a  hundred  gallons.  This  would 
provide  but  little  for  each  guest,  considering  the  habits  of  the 
people,  who  crowd  into  the  house  to  partake  of  the  feast  as  long 
as  the  provisions  last,||  being  pressed  to  do  so  by  their  hospita- 
ble host  or  the  master  of  the  feast,  who  also  urges,  and  some- 

*Tsa.  v.,11.  t  Perkins,  p.  236.  t  Smith,  vol.  ii..  pp.  19fi.  231. 

§  John  ii.,  1-10.  ||  Parkvns,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  40,  41. 

39 


604  BIBLE  LANDS. 

times  compels,  even  the  passers-by  to  come  in  and  drink  to  the 
health  of  the  bridegroom  and  the  bride.*  The  number  of 
guests  must  have  far  exceeded  what  had  been  anticipated,  oth- 
erwise the  provision  would  have  proved  sufficient.  It  may  also 
have  been  a  poor  family,  who  not  only  could  not  afford  to  buy 
more  wine,  but  would  be  greatly  aided  by  any  surplus  which 
they  could  sell.  In  such  case  this  miracle  of  Jesus  would  cor- 
respond with  the  miracle  of  Elisha  increasing  the  poor  widow's 
oil  to  pay  her  debts.f 

In  festivities,  either  connected  with  a  wedding  or  a  circum- 
cision, or  given  in  honor  of  a  special  guest,  the  evening  is  usu- 
ally spent  in  entertainments  provided  for  the  occasion.  The 
sexes  even  in  such  cases  are  kept  strictly  separate.  Dancing 
is  enjoyed  as  a  spectacle,  but  not  as  an  exercise  to  be  engaged 
in  for  any  pleasure  it  can  afford  to  the  performer.  Music  is 
indispensable ;  but  the  music  of  the  East  greatly  differs  from 
that  of  the  West,  and  we  must  pause  here  briefly  to  explain  its 
principles.  We  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  they  were 
anciently  adopted  universally  everywhere,  and  that  those  now 
prevailing  in  Europe  are  comparatively  of  modern  origin. 

The  impression  is  general  in  the  West  that  Oriental  melodies 
are  simply  set  to  the  minor  key,  and  that  they  differ  from  ours 
in  no  other  respect.  It  has  also  been  observed  that  they  are 
destitute  of  symphony  or  harmonizing  parts ;  but  this  has  been 
attributed  simply  to  a  want  of  musical  culture;  and  the  expec- 
tation has  been  expressed  that  their  original  melodies  would, 
either  by  introduction  among  ourselves  or  by  the  cultivation 
of  the  musical  taste  of  Orientals,  be  perfected  by  the  addition 
to  the  soprano  of  the  alto,  tenor,  and  bass.  Practical  musi- 
cians, however,  who  have  visited  those  countries,  have  never 
failed  to  discover  that  there  is  a  radical  difference  between 
their  own  scale  and  that  of  the  East,  so  that  their  viojins,  gui- 
tars, and  other  stringed  instruments  are  out  of  tune,  and  must 
be  strung  differently,  while  the  wind-instruments  must  be  made 
over,  and  the  space  between  the  notes  altered,  before  they  are 
capable  of  performing  Oriental  airs.  They  also  find  that,  after 
such  a  change,  harmony  has  become  impossible.  To  obviate 
this  difficulty  they  have  adopted  the  European  minor  key  in- 

♦  Luke  xiv.,  23.  +  2  Kings  iv.,  7. 


SOCIAL   LIFE. 


605 


stead  of  the  native  scale  as  the  nearest  approach  to  it.  This 
change,  however,  is  not  palatable  to  the  natives ;  thus  traves- 
tied, their  melodies  have  no  charm  for  them,  and  they  ever 
prefer  to  the  most  scientific  music  of  Europe  their  own  famil- 
iar airs,  whose  origin  is  lost  in  antiquity. 

To  make  this  matter  a  little  plainer,  let  the  reader  recall  the 
well-known  fact  that  sound  is  produced  by  the  vibrations  of 
the  atmosphere.  A  high  sound  or  note  is  the  effect  of  rapid 
vibrations,  and  a  low  sound  of  slow  ones.  He  may,  perhaps, 
remember  hearing  a  very  low  bass  note  of  some  large  organ 
whose  vibrations  could  almost  be  counted.  A  string  stretch- 
ed and  fastened  at  the  two  ends  produces  different  notes  ac- 
cording as  it  is  lengthened  or  shortened,  because  a  long  string 
can  not  vibrate  as  rapidly  as  a  short  one.  Now,  an  instrument 
has  been  invented  by  which  we  are  able  precisely  to  ascertain 
the  number  of  vibrations  produced  by  each  note  of  the  music- 
al scale  in  a  given  time.  We  have  thus  discovered  that  the 
upper  f/o,  for  instance,  vibrates  twice  as  fast  as  the  lower  one, 
and  the  other  notes  in  a  fixed  proportion  or  ratio.  Here,  then, 
is  a  list  of  the  number  of  vibrations  in  every  note  of  our  com- 
mon scale  produced  within  a  given  time.  "We  give  them  as 
they  stand,  and  also  reduced  as  low  as  possible,  in  order  to  show 
their  numerical  relations  or  proportions  at  a  single  glance: 

VIBRATIONS  OF  THE  EUROPEAN  SCALE. 


Notes Do 

Number  of  vibrations 420 

Reduced  numbers 24 


Re 

Mi 

Fa 

Sol 

La 

Si 

472^ 

525 

560 

630 

700 

787i 

27 

30 

32 

36 

40 

45 

Do 

840 

48 


The  progression  is  regular,  and  shows  that  the  regular  ratio 
in  the  vibrations  of  the  different  notes  is  produced  by  a  similar 
ratio  in  the  divisions  of  the  string.  Hence  the  explanation  of 
the  harmony  of  sounds  produced  by  our  notes  is  at  once  sim- 
ple and  philosophical.  It  is  caused  by  the  frequent  union  of 
the  waves  of  sound.  This  will  be  made  still  clearer  by  the 
following  arrangement  of  our  common  musical  chords: 


First  Chord. 

Do 24 

Mi 30 

Sol 36 

Do 48 

Here  all  the  vibrations  meet 
at  the  second  or  third. 


Second  Chord. 

Re 27 

Fa 32 

Sol 36 

Si 45 

Here  at  every  third  or 
fourth. 


Third  Chord. 

Re 27 

Fa 32 

La 40 

Kc 54 

Here  at  the  third  or 
fourth. 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


It  is  evident  from  this  statement  that  harmony  of  sound  is 
obtained  when  the  vibrations  of  the  different  sounds  are  fre- 
quently simultaneous;  and  the  octave  must  best  harmonize 
with  a  note  because  it  produces  exactly  two  vibrations  to  ev- 
ery one  of  the  latter. 

If  we  apply  these  principles  to  the  Oriental  musical  scale,  we 
shall  see  why,  with  them,  harmony  is  impossible  except  with 
the  octaves.  We  only  give  the  results  of  the  examination  of 
an  expert,  who  is  himself  a  professor  of  Oriental  music,  is  also 
an  Oriental,  writes  for  the  instruction  of  his  pupils,  and  is 
deemed  an  authority  in  these  matters.  We  give  the  number 
of  vibrations  of  each  note  as  he  has  them,  and  we  have  also  re- 
duced them  so  as  to  be  able  to  compare  them  the  more  easily 
with  those  of  the  European  scale,  which  are  reduced  in  a  sim- 
ilar proportion  : 

VIBRATIONS   OF  THE   OKIENTAL  SCALE. 


Notes Do 

Number  of  vibrations 420 

Reduced  numbers 24 


Re 

Mi 

Fa 

Sol 

La 

Si 

432  V 

504 

560 

630 

672 

756 

27 

29^ 

32i 

38 

41 

43^ 

Do 

840 

48 


A  mere  glance  at  this  list  shows  that  there  is  no  regular  ra- 
tio observed  in  this  arrangement.  This  fact  will  become  still 
more  evident,  and  the  impossibility  of  harmony  will  further  ap- 
pear, if  we  arrange  the  notes  in  their  regular  chords,  thus  : 


Do.... 

....24 

Re.... 

....27 

Re.... 

....27 

Mi.... 

....29^ 

Fa.... 

....33^ 

Fa.... 

....33^ 

Sol... 

....38 

Sol... 

....38 

La.... 

....41 

Do.... 

48 

Si 

....43i 

Re.... 

....54 

The  foregoing  statements  will  sufficiently  explain  the  pecul- 
iarities of  Eastern  music,  and  the  reader  will  readily  understand 
why  the  only  accompaniment  to  a  melody  consists  of  a  single 
note  struck  on  different  octaves  for  the  sake  of  variety.  The 
prominence  thus  given  to  the  key-note  makes  the  air  of  still 
greater  importance  than  with  us. 

The  Oriental  voice  is  naturally  extremely  fine,  and  is  often 
raised  to  the  falsetto.  They  have  also  modes  of  time  unknown 
to  us,  which  they  employ  in  dancing  music:  besides  our  usual 
measures,  they  alternate  one  kind  of  measure  with  another,  as, 
for  instance,  |  with  f  or  -I  with  -I,  giving  one  bar  to  each  in 
turn.  They  delight  in  this  mixed  measure,  which  appears  to 
affijct  them,  whenever  they  hear  it,  in  the  same  manner,  some- 


SOCIAL    LIFE.  607 

what,  as  a  European  dancer  is  affected  by  the  sound  of  a  well- 
known  waltz  or  polka. 

All  attempts  to  express  Oriental  music  by  our  system  of  no- 
tation must  necessarily  be  futile,  for  we  must  always  begin  by 
tuning  our  instruments  wrong  if  we  would  perform  their  music 
at  all.  Many  melodies  have  been  published  under  the  name 
of  Oriental,  but  they  are  very  incorrect  imitations  of  the  orig- 
inals. They  have,  moreover,  not  only  semitones  like  us,  but 
quarter-tones,  and  trills  upon  a  single  note,  something  like  the 
tremolo  of  an  organ,  and  neither  of  these  can,  by  our  system, 
be  properly  expressed  on  paper;  they  also  frequently  adopt,  in 
singing,  the  intonations  of  common  conversation,  in  a  manner 
which  utterly  baffles  our  power  of  reproduction. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  the  musical  scale  and  system  of  the 
ancients,  even  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was  essentially  the 
same  as  that  now  in  use  in  the  East.  Our  musical  notation, 
and  the  philosophical  principles  of  the  art  as  practiced  among 
us,  have  evidently  an  origin  comparatively  modern,*  and  the 
very  terms  employed  reveal  the  fact  that  we  owe  the  present 
system  to  the  Italian  people.  The  close  resemblance  between 
the  musical  instruments  of  the  ancients  and  those  of  the  mod- 
ern Orientals  seem  to  indicate  that  they  adopted  the  same  un- 
sound musical  principles,  and  that  these  prevented  progress; 
while  modern  Europe,  having  placed  the  subject  on  a  proper 
foundation,  has  in  consequence  progressed  during  the  past  three 
hundred  years  to  a  wonderful  degree  in  the  musical  art,  both 
as  to  composition  and  the  perfection  of  its  instruments.  Not 
so  with  the  East:  it  has  remained  in  statu  quo;  and  there  is 
little  doubt  that  essentially  the  same  melodies  are  still  in  use, 
performed  on  the  same  instruments,  and  accompanying  the 
same  dances,  whether  secular  or  religious,  as  in  the  days  of  the 
Pharaohs,  or  the  kings  of  Judah,  Assyria,  and  Babylon. 

The  musical  instruments  of  the  East  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes — those  which  are  played  out-of-doors,  and  such  as  are 
used  mostly  in  the  house.  The  former  are  loud  and  shrill,  and 
are  confined  principally  to  military  music  and  the  rural  dis- 
tricts.    They  consist  of  various  kinds  of  drums  and  of  the 

*  The  musical  scale  of  modern  Europe  was  invented  by  Guide  d'Arezzo,  an  Ital- 
ian, in  the  eleventh  century. ^Michaud,  "  Biographie  Universelle." 


608  BIBLE   LANDS. 

"zoorna,"  or  hautboy,  whose  shrill  notes  can  be  heard  at  a 
great  distance,  generally  accompanied  by  the  beating  of  the 
"davool,"  or  bass -drum.  Our  illustration  shows  the  form  of 
the  hautboy,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  played.    Tt  requires 


The  Modern  Zoorna  aud  Davool. 

a  great  deal  of  wind,  so  that  the  cheeks  of  the  performer  are 
usually  quite  inflated.  The  drum  here  represented  is  one  of 
many  kinds,  and  comes  nearest  to  the  European  form.  One 
hand  (usually  the  right,  for  our  performer  happened  to  be  left- 
handed)  holds  a  peculiarly  shaped  drum-stick,  well  represented 
in  our  picture,  while  the  other  uses  a  long,  thin,  tapering  rod, 
which  touches  at  once  the  entire  length  of  the  opposite  surface. 
There  is  another  kind  of  drum,  called  "darabukkeh"  by  the 
Arabs,  which  is  large  at  one  end  and  small  at  the  other.  It 
is  commonly  made  of  pottery,  and  is  held  under  the  left  arm 
while  struck  alternately  by  the  four  fingers  of  each  hand.  This 
drum  has  been  found  in  Egyptian  tombs,  and  is  represented  on 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  monuments.* 

*  Bononii,  p.  409,  fig.  203 ;  "Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  ]).  OS,  fig.  10.", ;  p.  08.  fig.  107. 


SOCIAL    LIFE. 


609 


When  a  public  work  is  to  be  done,  such  as  building  a  new 
bridge,  or  opening  a  new  road  in  these  days  of  modern  im- 
provements, the  Government 
makes  no  appropriation  for  it. 
The  district  is  taxed  to  pay  for 
the  material,  and  every  village 
and  town  in  the  neighborhood 
is  required  to  furnish  its  quota 
of  workmen  gratis.  Labor  thus 
extorted  is  not  carried  on  with 
mucb  spirit,  so  that,  in  order 
to  excite  the  workmen  and 
put  them  in  a  good  humor,  per- 
formers on  the  drum  and  haut- 
boy are  called  into  requisition, 
and  employed  from  morning 
till  night  in  making  the  great- 
est possible  din.  A  similar 
practice  is  illustrated  by  the 
sculptures  of  an  extremely 
ancient  monument  found  in  Phrygia,  near  the  centre  of 
Asia  Minor,  representing  the  erection  of  a  temple ;  the  work- 
men are  entertained  with  the  music  of  the  hautbo}'-,  and  the 
lute,  and  the  tricks  of  a  monkey.*    On  such  occasions  the  bag- 


The  modern  Darabukkeh. 


Ancieut  Musicians  aud  Siiowiueu  eutertaiuiug  Workmen. 

pipe  is  sometimes  employed  instead  of  the  hautboy.      This 
instrument  differs  somewhat  from  that  used  by  the  peasantry 


■Travels  in  Asia  Minor," vol.  ii.,  pp.  131-140. 


610 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Oriental  Bagpipe. 

of  Scotland,  Italy,  and  Bulgaria,  which,  besides  the  main  pipe, 
has  one  or  more  others  for  the  accompaniment  of  a  drone.  The 
Oriental  bagpipe  consists  of  an  entire  sheep-skin,  untanned  and 
divested  of  its  wool.  This  the  performer  holds  in  his  arms, 
and  presses  it,  while  at  the  same  time  he  blows  into  it.  The 
music  is  produced  by  a  double  reed  with  holes,  ending  in  a 
short  cattle-horn.  The  bagpipe  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  is  rarely  used  by  their 
modern  descendants;  it  is,  however,  found  throughout  West- 
ern Asia,  though  not  perhaps  among  the  Arabs. 

The  drum  and  hautboy  used  to  constitute,  within  our  own 
memory,  all  the  martial  music  of  the  countr3\  The  cavalry 
had  two  small  kettle-drums  fostened  to  the  sides  of  the  saddle 
in  front  of  the  rider's  knees,  and  the  performer  was  often  the 
clown  of  the  oda  (room),  or  regiment,  who  wore  a  fool's  cap  and 
bells.  This  custom  is  still  kept  up  by  some  of  the  Koordish 
chiefs.  The  military  music  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  appears 
to  have  consisted  chiefly  of  the  drum  and  hautboy,  for  their 
soldiers  are  often  represented  performing  upon  these  instru- 
ments, and  the  Hebrews  most  probably  used  the  same. 

Martial  dancing  is  performed  at  the  sound  of  the  above-men- 


SOCIAL   LIFE 


611 


Ancient  Egyptian  military  Music. 

tioned  instruments,  and  is  at  present  confined  to  the  rural  dis- 
tricts, and  the  iri'egular  militia,  or  Bashi  BozooJcs  (literally,  head- 
less). It  is  performed  by  two  armed  men,  who  simulate  a  sin- 
gle combat  or  duel,  drawing  their  swords,  and  seeming  most 
furiously  engaged  in  mortal  strife.  There  is  no  singing  during 
the  performance.  We  shall  speak  of  the  martial  dances  pecul- 
iar to  some  tribes  in  another  chapter. 

Carrying  out  the  distinction  we  have  ventured  to  make  be- 
tween out-of-door  and  indoor  music,  we  now  proceed  to  de- 
scribe the  instruments  of  gentle  sound  commonly  accompanied 
by  the  voice.  The  wind-instruments  are  few,  and  confined  to 
several  kinds  of  flute.  Of  these  the  "nay"  is  often,  though  not 
exclusively,  employed  in  religious  services.     It  is  a  reed  about 


The  Nay  (Flute),  and  Case. 

eighteen  inches  long,  pierced  throughout  evenly,  and  having 
six  holes  for  the  notes.  It  is  extremely  difficult,  for  any  one 
not  used  to  it,  to  produce  with  it  any  sound  whatever,  for  it  is 
played  by  blowing  in  a  peculiar  manner  upon  the  sharp  edge 
of  the  upper  end  of  the  instrument,  which  is  often  made  of 
horn,  and  it  is  held  somewhat  sideways  for  this  purpose.  This 
instrument  occurs  on  many  of  the  Egyptian  monuments,  and  is 
represented  as  being  played  precisely  as  now.     It  is  also  wor- 


612 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


th  J  of  note  that  both  the  ancient  and  the  modern  Orientals,  when 
playing  on  the  nay,  hold  the  right  hand  nearest  to  the  mouth  ;* 
this  is  also  the  case  with  the  bagpipe  and 
the  flageolet.  Europeans,  on  the  con- 
trary, place  the  left  hand  nearest  the  face 
in  performing  on  similar  instruments.  \\r~~— ^^^^ 

Besides   the   nay,  there  are  several      ('^  ).^^      ^"^^ 
kinds  of  flageolets  and  a  shrill  flute 
used  in  Egypt,  and  called  "  zummarah  " 

and  "argOol,"      They  Ancient  Egyptian  Performer 

are  of  various  sizes,  ^^^  ^^■' 

sometimes  double,  and  resemble  the  bagpipe 
in  sound. 

Let  us  now  speak  of  the  stringed  instru- 
ments. The  "tamboora"  is  a  sort  of  guitar, 
of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  generally  used 
throughout  the  East,  and  largely  figured  upon 
both  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  monuments.f 

Iq  its  most  complete  and  perfect  form,  this 
instrument  is  three  feet  nine  inches  long,  has 
ten  strings  of  fine  wire,  and  forty -seven  stops. 
It  is  played  with  a  plectrum,  and  is  often  in- 
laid with  mother-of-pearl  and  valuable  woods. 
It  is  oftener,  however,  of  smaller  size  and  less 
costly  materials.  With  three  or  six  strings 
it  is  called  "  sadz,"  and  is  the  usual  compan- 
ion and  solace  of  the  guardsman  in  his  little 
mud -hut  at  the  narrow  mountain  pass,  and 
of  the  policeman  in  the  town,  who  hangs  it 
up  on  the  wall  beside  his  weapons  above  his 
little  divan.  It  is  represented,  in  these  plain- 
er forms,  on  many  of  the  monuments  of  an- 
cient Egypt,  for  it  seems  to  have  been  a 
great  favorite  with  her  people,  though  it  has 
wholly  disappeared  from  among  their  poster- 
ity.:j:  Even  the  original  of  the  banjo  has 
been  found  at  Thebes,§  with  "the  wooden  body  covered  with 


The  Tamboora,  or  Lute 
(1  Sam.  xvi.,  23.) 


*  Lnne,  vol.  ii.,  p.  09. 

t  Bonomi,  p.  262,  figs.  11.'),  116  ;  p.  406,  fig.  200 ;  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  89.  fig. 
100.        t  Ibid.,  vol.  i.,  p.  124,  figs.  138,  139,  etc.       §  Ibid.,  vol.  i.,  p.  12.'-.,  fig.  140. 


SOCIAL    LIFE. 


613 


leather,  the  handle  extending  down  to  the  lower  side,  and 
part  of  the  string  remaining  to  which  the  plectrum  was  at- 
tached;" but  it  was  so  far  injured  that  "nothing  could  be  as- 
certained respecting  the  pegs  or  the  mode  of  tightening  the 
strings."  This  instrument  appears  to  be  figured  in  many  of 
the  sculptures,*  and  the  carvings  at  Euyuk  (see  illustration 
on  page  609)  may  be  intended  to  represent  it.  In  Egypt,  in- 
stead of  the  tamboora,  they  have  the  "ood,"  which  is  also 
common  in  all  the  large  cities  of  the  East.  It  is  a  guitar  two 
feet  long,  and  somewhat  bulky,  the  under  part  being  rounded 
off  and  ribbed,  instead  of  flat,  as  with  us.     The  neck  is  short, 


The  Ood,  or  Guitar. 


and  suddenly  bends  back  at  an  angle  of  seventy-five  degrees; 
on  this  part  are  set  the  keys  which  hold  the  strings,  fourteen 
in  all,  but  set  in  pairs,  two  for  each  note.  It  is  played  with  a 
plectrum,  and  performs  both  the  air  and  its  accompaniment. 
This  instrument  and  the  tamboora  are  probably  correctly  call- 
ed lute;  but  there  seems  to  be  no  evidence  that  the  ood  was 
known  to  the  ancients;  on  the  other  hand,  the  harp,  which  was 
so  common  among  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  and  IIebrews,f 
has  wholly  disappeared  from  the  entire  East. 


*  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  90,  fig.  101 ;  p.  130,  fig.  144.  etc. 
t  Gen.  xxxi.,  27:   1  Sam.  xvi.,  23;  Psa.  Ixxxi.,  2,  etc. 


6U 


BIBLE   LANDS, 


A  peculiar  interest  attaches  to  the  tamboora,  or  lute,  from 
the  fact  that  it  was  the  favorite  instrument  of  "the  sweet 
Singer  of  Israel,"  with  which  he  soothed  Saul's  troubled  spir- 
it, and  accompanied  his  own  voice,  as  is  still  done  bj  Oriental 
bards* 

There  are  several  kinds  of  violin,  all  of  which  are  called 
"kemenjeh,"  a  Persian  word,  signifying  "bow  instrument.'" 
The  form  of  it,  given  in  the  annexed  illus- 
tration, approaches  nearest  to  our  violin  ;  it 
has  six  strings,  and,  like  every  variety  of 
the  kemenjeh,  is  held  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  bass-viol  or  violoncello  with  us.  In 
the  southern  parts  of  the  country — in  Syria, 
Palestine,  Arabia,  and  Egypt — the  bodj^  of 
the  instrument  is  made  of  a  cocoa-nut  shell, 
pierced  with  small  holes,  and  having  about 
one-quarter  cut  away,  and  the  opening  cov- 
ered with  the  skin  of  a  fish,  upon  which 
rests  the  bridge.  It  has  but  two  chords, 
composed  of  horse -hair,  and  below  the  in- 
strument, which  is  three  feet  long,  is  a  rod 
pointed  with  iron,  upon  which  it  rests 
while  being  played. 

The  "kanoon"  is  the  original  of  our 
piano,  both  being  probably  derived  from 
the  lyre  and  the  harp,  whence  the  piano  was  first  called  a  harp- 
sichord. This  instrument  consists  of  a  box  two  inches  in 
depth  and  of  an  irregular  form,  its  greatest  length  being  thir- 
ty-nine inches,  and  its  width  sixteen.  There  are  only  twenty- 
four  notes,  and,  like  the  piano,  each  note  has  three  strings,  which 
are  tuned  with  a  key.  The  sounding-board  lies  under  the 
strings,  and  is  perforated,  and  covered  with  fish-skin  where  the 
bridge  rests.  The  performer  lays  the  instrument  on  his  knees, 
and  strikes  the  chords  with  the  forefinger  of  each  hand,  to 
which  is  fastened  a  plectrum  of  horn.  Another  form  of  this 
instrument,  called  "santiir,"  is  a  double  kanoon,  and  comes 
still  nearer  to  our  piano;  the  strings  are  of  wire,  and  only 
double ;   they  are  struck  with  wooden  hammers  held  in  the 


The  Kemenjeh,  or  Violin. 


*  Smith's  "  Bible  Dictionary."     See  Harp. 


SOCIAL   LIFE. 


615 


hands.  When  used  in 
a  procession,  this  instru- 
ment is  suspended  from 
the  neck  by  means  of  a 
cord. 

Besides  these  stringed 
instruments,  and  yet  be- 
longing to  the  same  cate- 
gory, is  the  "tambourine," 
or  timbre],  called  "tar" 
in  Arabic,  which  may  be 
found  in  nearly  every 
house.  It  is  a  very  an- 
cient and  favorite  form  of 
the  drum  and  cymbal  com- 
bined, and  is  much  used 
both  in  religious  and  in 
secular  dances.  It  is  held 
in  the  left  hand,  and  is 
struck  by  the  fingers  of  , 
the  right,  while  the  belt 
of  tin  pieces  attached  to 
the  frame- work  contribute 
their  jingle  to  the  music. 
The  tambourine  is  figured 
in  many  Egyptian  and 
Assyrian  sculptures,  being 
held  precisely  as  now;*  and 


The  Tambourine,  or  Timbrel.     (Exod. 
XV.,  20.) 


The  Kanoon,  or  Santur. 

frequent  references  in  the  Scrip' 
tures  show  that  it  was  common 
ly  employed  both  in  religious 
performancesf  and  on  seculai 
occasions.:}:  The  castanets,  or 
"sagat,"  are  of  brass,  and  used 
chiefly  by  professional  dancers. 
They  are  not,  however,  in  so 
general  use  in  the  East  as  in 
Spain.     They  are  doubtless  very 


*  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  92,  fig.  103  ;  p.  112,  fig.  121 ;  Bonomi,  p.  407,  fig.  201. 
t  Exod.  XV.,  20 ;  2  Sam.  vi.,  5 ;  Fsa.  cxlix.,  3  ;  cl.,  4. 
t  Judg.  xi.,  34  ;  Job  xxi.,  12  ;   Psa.  Ixviii.,  25. 


616 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


ancient,  though  we  have  no  allusion  to  them.     There  is  among 

the  Egyptian  remains  a  sculpture  of  a 

o4  (^))       (®)  (?h    "^^^   using  clappers  *  instruments  now 

1  v_-.        v®7  V^    known  only  in  Persia,  where  they  are 

oriental  bras.  Castanet..        ^^^^^^   ,,  spOOnS."t 

The  musical  instruments  enumerated  in  Daniel  iii.,  5,  are 
mostly  still  in  use  at  the  present  time ;  yet  some  of  them  have 
become  obsolete.  The  cornet  is  a  brass  trumpet  manufactured 
in  the  country,  and  used  in  martial  music.  We  have  described 
several  kinds  of  flute,  both  single  and  double.  The  harp  is  no 
longer  in  use,  nor  the  "  psaltery,"  which  is  a  smaller  instru- 
ment of  the  same  kind  ;X  they  have  been  replaced  by  the  ood, 
which  gives  a  richer  sound,  and  is  more  portable.  The  "sack- 
but"  is  a  tamboora,  and  the 

"dulcimer"   a   kanoon,  or 

V    n.  Nil 

santur.§ 

Music  is  mostly  cultiva- 
ted and  performed  by  those 
who  make  it  their  profes- 
sion and  means  of  living, 
though  many  of  them  pur- 
sue some  other  calling  at 
the  same  time.  They  go 
about,  two  or  three  togeth 
er,  o'n  great  festival  days 
like  the  Bairam  of  the  Mus 

limS,  and   Easter  or   Christ  ^^^y,,,,  ,„,  Egyptian  Tambourine-player.. 

mas    with    the    Christians, 

and  perform  at  the  doors  of  the  rich,  receiving  a  present  of 
money  or  food.  Their  instruments  are  usually  a  nay,  accom- 
panied by  a  tambourine,  or  a  kemenjeh,  and  a  tamboora;  in 
the  country  districts  they  perform  on  a  zoorna  and  a  drum, 
or  a  zummarah  and  a  darabukkeh.  These  are  not  regular 
performers,  but  beggars.  The  professionals  may  be  heard 
at  a  public  cafe,  where  they  are  hired  by  the  cafejys  in  or- 
der to  attract  customers;  but  they  chiefly  depend  upon  the 
patronage  of  the  rich,  on  occasions  of  special  festivities.     Some 

*  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  100,  fig.  109.  t  Morier,  "  First  Journey,"  p.  113. 

X  A  small  harp  is  still  used  in  religious  worship  by  the  Abyssinian  clergy.— 
"  Magasin  Pittoresqiie,"  1858,  p.  196.  §  Bonomi,  p.  405. 


SOCIAL   LIFE.  619 

wealthy  people,  however,  engage  them  at  their  houses  even- 
ing after  evening,  and  ahnost  always  entertain  company.  A 
band  of  musicians,  when  complete,  usually  comprises  the  fol- 
lowing instruments:  a  kemenjeh ;  a  nay,  or  a  double  flute; 
a  tamboora,  or  cod;  a  kanoon,  or  santiir;  and  sometimes  a 
darabukkeh,  the  number  being  increased  by  doubling  either 
or  the  whole.  They  usually  accompany  their  performances 
with  the  voice,  one  of  them  at  least  being  a  singer.  This  lat- 
ter is  commonly  a  young  lad.  He  carries  the  solos,  while  the 
rest  of  the  band  join  in  the  choruses.  The  accompanying  pic- 
ture is  a  good  illustration  of  such  a  group  of  musicians. 

And  here  let  us  add  a  word  concerning  the  songs  of  the 
East,  a  subject  of  which  we  may  speak  the  more  briefly,  since 
that  portion  referring  to  Egypt  has  been  amply  discussed  by 
one  of  the  most  accurate  of  modern  Oriental  travelers.*  We 
are  safe  in  making  the  general  statement  that  Orientals  are 
very  fond  of  music.  They  readily  catch  a  melody,  and  sing  it 
without  instruction.  Mothers  soothe  their  infants  with  plaint- 
ive lullabies ;  children  accompany  their  games  with  melodious 
rhymes;  they  swing  under  the  mulberry-trees  and  sing  a  tra- 
ditionary song  with  solo  and  chorus;  the  muezzin  chants  the 
call  to  prayers  five  times  a  day  from  the  top  of  the  minareh, 
and  the  church  beadle  in  similar  tones  exhorts  to  matins,  as  he 
passes  along  the  streets  at  early  dawn,  the  pavement  resound- 
ing to  the  strokes  of  his  heavy  stick.  The  venders  of  all  man- 
ner of  eatables  and  drinkables,  and  indeed  of  every  species  of 
manufacture,  extol  the  quality  of  their  wares  in  musical  ca- 
dences. In  no  other  country  is  this  done  to  a  similar  extent. 
The  priest,  whether  Christian,  Muslim,  Jew,  or  Gentile,  chants 
his  service,  while  the  congregation  accompany  him  with  a  con- 
tinuous drone  upon  the  key-note.  Among  all  sects  the  rite 
of  baptism  or  of  circumcision,  of  marriage  or  burial,  is  accom- 
panied by  music  and  singing.  The  traveler,  as  he  pursues  his 
journey,  singly  or  in  a  company,  over  hill  and  through  lonely 
vale,  enjoys  less  the  beauties  of  nature  than  his  own  or  his 
comrade's  song.  In  short,  no  opportunity  is  lost  by  these 
people  to  gratify  their  natural  fondness  for  music.  They  go 
soberly  at  it,  not  lightly  as  the  Greeks,  the  Italians,  or  even 


Lane,  vol.  ii.,  pp. 

40 


620  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  Spaniards ;  and  their  thorough  enjoyment  of  it  is  plainly 
seen  in  their  earnest  looks,  their  mental  abstraction,  and  some- 
times their  involuntary  sighs  and  tears.     This  trait  is  univers- 
al, and  a  stranger  visiting  an  Eastern  Protestant  place  of  wor- 
ship during  the  time  of  service  can  not  but  be  struck  with 
the  earnest  singing  of  every  man,  woman,  and  child,  as  they 
all  repeat  hymns  which  all  can  both  read  and  understand. 
Some  professionals,  while  singing,  fan  their  mouths  with  a 
^  J     sheet  of  paper,  to  increase  their 
(L**^'!  1  C^*f  1 A     wind  ;*  while  most  place  the  right 

hand  upon  the  right  cheek  and 
j^'^^^,^og3       V>^  the    thumb   upon    the   gullet,  in 

^  ■        ^     order  the  better  to  modulate  the 

voice.      This   position  is  so  well 
expressed  by  one  of  the  Egyptian 
sculptures  that  we  give  it,  both  as 
Ancient  Egyptians  Singing.  a  graphic  illustration  of  the  sub- 

ject, and  also  to  show  how  minutely  the  moderns  have  copied 
the  practices  of  their  ancestors. 

There  are  many  popular  songs,  but  their  authors  and  the  date 
of  their  composition  are  unknown.  They  are  rehearsed  by  one 
generation  to  another,  and  thus  are  preserved  from  oblivion. 
They  constitute  the  stock  in  trade  of  the  professional  singers, 
who  make  a  livelihood  by  repeating  them  to  their  audiences. 
Their  character  is  usually  either  tragical,  martial,  sentimental, 
or  comical,  and  many  of  them  display  not  a  little  poetical  talent. 
But  there  are  also  modern  compositions,  the  effusions  of  a  class 
of  men  who  answer  to  the  bards  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  Eu- 
rope, and  sing  their  own  poems,  accompanying  themselves  on 
the  tamboora,  or  lute,  or  assisted  by  a  band  of  performers. 
These  poems  are  caught  up  by  others,  and  the  best  singers 
are  ever  adding  new  compositions  to  their  store.  For  in- 
stance, soon  after  the  dreadful  massacre  of  the  Nestorians  by 
the  Koords  a  song  was  composed  in  honor  of  their  infamous 
leader,  Bedr  Khan  Bey,  which  was  for  a  time  very  popular 
among  the  Muslims  throughout  the  country.  The  refrain  was 
"Akh,  Bedr  Khan  Bey !"  In  like  manner,  not  long  after  the 
close  of  the  Crimean  war,  we  listened  to  a  song  of  unwonted 


*  Morier,  vol.  ii.,  p.  92. 


SOCIAL    LIFE.  621 

popularity,  according  to  which  the  English  and  French  armies 
would  have  been  utterly  destroyed  by  the  Russians  but  for  the 
timely  interference  of  the  brave  Turkish  legions  under  Eumer 
Pasha.  Thus  do  the  common  people  of  the  East  learn  history  ; 
so  Homer  at  once  delighted  and  instructed  the  ancient  Greeks, 
and  the  Hebrew  prophets  rehearsed  the  history  of  their  nation- 
al glory  to  their  people.*  The  customs  described  in  the  fore- 
going paragraphs  generally  prevail  through  the  whole  extent 
of  Western  Asia,  from  the  slopes  of  the  Caucasus  to  the  banks 
of  the  Nile. 

But  there  are  also  improvisers,  who  compose  their  verses 
as  they  sing,  whether  their  musical  performance  constitute  the 
whole  of  the  entertainment  or  be  accompanied  by  dancing. 
Their  theme  is  drawn  from  the  current  events  of  the  day,  or 
the  personal  prowess  or  other  attractions  of  some  one  of  the 
company. f  The  best  improvisers  generally  go  through  a  spe- 
cial training  to  fit  them  for  their  peculiar  calling.  The  aspi- 
rant to  such  honors  attaches  himself  to  a  professional  singer, 
either  as  a  servant  or  as  an  assistant,  his  wages  consisting  of 
an  occasional  suit  of  clothes,  his  food,  and  a  bakshish  from  the 
customers.  He  thus  places  himself  in  the  way  of  storing  his 
mind  with  sonnets  and  other  poems,  practices  his  voice,  and 
takes  lessons  in  Arabic  and  Persian  poetry  from  a  regular 
teacher,  or  hhojah.  He  soon  begins  to  practice  extempore 
composition,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  his 
education  is  complete.  Thenceforth  he  is  an  ashiik,  literally,  a 
lover,  which  means  an  enthusiast  fired  by  the  love  of  poetry. 
He  now  sets  forth  on  an  extensive  tour  on  foot,  going  from 
city  to  city  and  from  village  to  village,  challenging  any  rival 
to  contend  with  him  in  extemporaneous  effusions.  Most  of 
these  men  are  afflicted  with  blindness,  a  result,  it  is  popularly 
believed,  of  the  semi-frenzy  to  which  their  minds  are  worked 
up  during  the  composition  of  their  poems.  Success  and  the 
admiration  of  their  hearers  seem  to  be  their  only  object,  for 
the  contributions  elicited  at  the  close  of  each  performance  are 
barely  sufficient  for  their  simplest  wants.  Hence  they  are  al- 
ways poor,  and  depend  nearly  as  much  upon  the  charity  of 

*  See  the  Song  of  Miriam  and  Moses,  Exod.  xv.,  1-21 ;  the  Song  of  Deborah 
and  Baruch,  Jiidg.  v.,  1-31 ;  and  Psa.  cv.,  cvi.,  cxxxvL,  etc 
t  Lynch,  p.  295. 


622  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  public  as  upon  the  proceeds  of  their  calling.  It  has  been 
thought  by  some  that  Homer  was  not  the  name  of  an  individu- 
al, but  of  a  class  of  bards,  corresponding  to  the  modern  ashiiks, 
and  that  the  poems  which  bear  his  name  are  the  product  of  a 
mixed  authorship.  We  shall  not  attempt  to  dispel  the  mys- 
tery which  has  baffled  the  efforts  of  so  many  learned  men. 
But  the  existence  of  such  a  class  of  bards  as  we  have  de- 
scribed, not  only  throughout  Western  Asia,  but  particularly  in 
the  region  where  Homer  is  said  to  have  dwelt,  is  a  fact  which 
ought  not  to  be  lost  sight  of  in  the  discussion  of  the  question. 

We  have  described  the  instrumental  music  of  the  East,  and 
the  singing,  and  shall  now  speak  of  the  dancing — both  of  pro- 
fessional dancing  and  of  that  in  which  people  engage  for  their 
own  amusement.  To  the  latter,  doubtless,  belong  many  dances 
of  a  remote  origin,  chiefly  found  in  isolated  rural  districts. 
Here  the  pleasure  does  not  consist  in  simply  looking  on,  as  in 
professional  dancing;  many  join  in  the  performance,  and  as 
the  singing  and  the  music  grow  more  animated,  the  spectators 
leap  to  their  feet,  and  relieve  the  weary  ones,  or  keep  up  the 
excitement  by  clapping  their  hands  in  unison.  Sometimes 
the  sexes  form  separate  groups,  but  often  they  mingle,  holding 
each  other  by  the  hand.  Among  the  Greeks  of  the  islands 
and  the  sea-shore,  the  national  dance,  or  the  siiio  (incorrectly 
called  the  romaika),  is  still  practiced,  in  spite  of  foreign  inno- 
vations. A  man  leads  forth  some  maiden  to  the  dance  with  a 
handkerchief,  while  other  men  and  women  come  forward  and 
join  the  pair,  taking  hold  of  the  maiden's  hand  and  dancing  in 
a  line  with  her.  Presently  they  leave  the  couple  to  finish  the 
performance  alone  in  a  variety  of  figures,  accompanied  by  a 
graceful  waving  of  their  handkerchiefs. 

When  the  improvisatore  praises  the  lady  to  her  partner's 
satisfaction,  he  rewards  him  with  the  smallest  of  gold  coins, 
first  wetting  it  with  his  lips,  and  then  fastening  it  to  the  fore- 
head of  the  singer,  who  wears  it  as  a  trophy  of  his  success. 

Among  the  wild  Circassians  and  Nogay,  the  dances,  even  of 
the  women,  always  partake,  more  or  less,  of  the  martial  spirit 
of  the  people.  The  sexes  either  dance  separately  or  join  in  the 
same  performance.''^    The  Armenians  and  the  Nestorian  Chris- 

*  Ussher,  p.  150. 


SOCIAL   LIFE,  623 

tiansoPKoordistan  often  engage  in  public  dances,  both  at  wed- 
dings and  on  other  festive  occasions ;  they  "  form  a  line  com- 
posed alternately  of  a  man  and  a  woman,  who  interlock  the  fin- 
gers of  their  hands ;  the  line  then  takes  the  form  of  a  semicircle, 
and  the  dancers  move  a  few  yards  forward  and  backward,  with 
steps  measured  according  to  the  music,  accompanied  with  clap- 
ping of  hands  by  the  spectators,  and  the  jingle  of  the  metal  or- 
naments worn  by  the  girls  who  join  in  the  dance."*  Married 
women  seldom  take  part  in  these  public  dances,  the  performers 
being  usually  marriageable  maidens,  as  was  the  case  among  the 
Hebrews.f 

The  Arabs  of  the  Desert  are  particularly  fond  of  this  amuse- 
ment, but  the  women  of  one  tribe  are  not  easily  persuaded  to 
dance  before  the  men  of  another.:}:  They  form  a  circle  about 
the  musicians,  holding  each  other  by  the  hand,  and  move  slow- 
ly round,  at  first  shufiling  the  feet,  and  putting  the  body  into 
a  variety  of  attitudes.  As  the  music  quickens,  however,  the 
movement  becomes  more  active  and  lively ;  they  stamp  with 
their  feet,  yell  their  war-cry,  and  jump  lustily  as  they  hasten 
around  with  accelerated  speed.  Those  people,  like  all  the 
tribes  of  Western  Asia,  excite  the  dancers  by  the  clapping  of 
hands,  as  was  done  by  the  ancient  Egyptians. § 

The  martial  dance  is  especially  popular  among  the  Arabs, 
but  the  excitable  temperament  of  that  people  makes  it  not 
a  little  dangerous,  when  two  warriors,  belonging  to  different 
tribes,  are  pitted  against  each  other.  At  the  beginning,  indeed, 
they  go  slowly  through  the  movements  and  steps  of  the  war- 
dance,  but  ere  long  the  music  and  the  shouts  of  the  spectators 
excite  them  to  such  a  pitch  that  the  by-standers  are  obliged  to 
interfere,  and  exchange  their  shields  and  naked  cimeters  for 
stout  staves,  with  which  they  belabor  each  other  most  unmer- 
cifully, every  successful  hit  eliciting  shouts  of  applause  from 
the  tribe  to  which  the  successful  competitor  belongs. 

On  all  these  occasions  the  cry  of  the  tahlil  is  set  up  by  the 
women  during  the  height  of  the  excitement.  It  is  a  peculiar 
sound,  somewhat  resembling  the  cry  of  a  jackal,  only  much 
louder  and  continuous.     It  is  produced  by  a  peculiar  modula- 


*  Perkins,  p.  2G!).  t  Juflg.  xxi.,  21 ;  Jer.  xxxi.,  13. 

t  Layard,  vol.  i.,  p.  113.  §  Lyncli,  p.  2115. 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Dancing  to  the  clapping  of  Hands. 

tion  of  the  voice,  effected  by  the  rapid  vibrations  of  the  tongue 
and  certain  movements  of  the  hand  before  the  mouth.  The 
women  set  up  this  cry  upon  every  occasion  of  unusual  excite 
ment,  whether  grave  or  gay,  but  the  men  use  it  only  as  a  war 
cry,  and  the  sound  exerts  a  magic  power  upon  Arabs,  Koords, 
and  Circassians,  alike  rousing  them  to  an  uncontrollable  pitch 
of  frenzy.  There  appear  to  be  distinct  allusions  to  this  pecul 
iar  cry  in  several  passages  of  Scripture,  as,  for  instance,  in  con 
nection  with  dancing,*  with  rejoicing,f  with  lamentation, :{:  and 
with  death  ;§  and  these  are  the  very  occasions  on  which  the 
tahlil  is  heard  at  the  present  day. 

The  style  of  dancing  we  have  now  described  was  doubtless 
practiced  by  the  Hebrews.  It  was  not  banished  b}'^  that  of  the 
professional  almehs,  as  appears  to  have  been  the  case  ancient- 
ly, and  certainly  now  in  Egypt.  Jephthah's  daughter  testified 
her  joy  at  her  father's  victory  by  going  forth  to  meet  him, 
dancing  with  her  companions;!  and  David,  after  his  victory 
over  Goliath,  was  met  with  dances  and  songs  of  praise.^  But 
the  professional  dancing  of  single  performers,  which  has  nearly 
banished  these  innocent  pastimes  from  the  large  cities,  is  of  n 
very  different  character.  As  it  has  existed  in  Egypt  from 
time  immemorial,  and  is  copiously  pictured  on  the  monuments 


*  Exod.  xxxii.,  17-19. 

t  1  Sain,  iv.,  i;$ ;   Luke  xxiii 

II  Judg.  xi.,  34. 


t  1  Sam.  iv.,  5. 
§  Mark  v.,  38,  39. 
t  1  Sam.  xviii.,  6,  7. 


-\n    l.^.liliaU  Allllfb. 


SOCIAL   LIFE.  627 

of  that  country,  even  upon  some  that  are  older  than  the  Ex- 
odus of  the  Israelites,  it  is  highly  probable  that  it  was  thence 
introduced  into  Western  Asia  and  India.  Still  it  appears  to 
have  long  been  confined  to  the  voluptuaries  of  the  great  mon- 
archies of  Assyria  and  Egypt.  In  the  latter  country  it  is,  at 
the  present  day,  practiced  by  the  almehs,  who  are  girls  mostly 
belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Ghawazy,  and  brought  up  for  the 
venal  profession,  in  which  they  continue  even  after  marriage.* 
They  dance  unveiled  either  in  public  before  a  crowd,  or  in  pri- 
vate before  men  or  women,  and  are  accompanied  by  musicians, 
usually  their  relatives,  often  their  husbands,  fathers,  or  moth- 
ers, who  share  in  the  gains  of  their  debasing  occupation.  It  is 
very  common  among  the  rich  in  Cairo  to  call  in  one  of  these 
women  to  dance  before  their  guests  after  dinner,  and  scenes  of 
the  most  revolting  character  not  unfrequently  ensue.  These 
women  are  considered  the  handsomest  in  Egypt,  both  in  fea- 
ture and  form.  When  dancing  before  a  private  company, 
they  wear  the  ample  shintian,  or  trowsers,  and  in  addition  only 
a  tunic  of  gauze -like  texture.  Libations  of  wine  and  arrack 
are  offered  them  by  the  spectators,  of  which  they  freely  par- 
take, and,  laying  aside  the  last  vestige  of  modesty,  the  conse- 
quences may  be  easily  imagined.f  These  people  call  themselves 
Arabs,  but  they  strikingly  resemble  the  gypsies  in  their  fea- 
tures, and,  like  them,  have  a  language  of  their  own,  and  adopt 
the  prevailing  religion  of  the  country  in  which  they  live.  The 
gypsies  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  also  found  in  some  parts 
of  Eussia,  seem  to  be  the  counterpart  of  these  Ghawazies,  lead- 
ing precisely  similar  lives.  They  are  the  most  popular  musi- 
cians, and  practice  the  same  dances  and  dissolute  ways.  It  is 
a  happy  circumstance  for  Western  Asia  that  the  gypsies  that 
are  settled  upon  her  soil  do  not  exert  the  same  demorali- 
zing influence  as  the  Ghawazies,  being  distinguished  chiefly  by 
their  thieving  propensities,  and  their  life  of  squalor  and  filth. 

It  is  possible  that  the  dance  of  the  almeh  may  have  a  more 
Southern  origin  than  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  Arago  describes 
it  as  existing  in  its  grossest  form  among  the  slaves  of  Mada- 
gascar, brought  over  from  the  opposite  shore  of  Africa.  There 
both  sexes  participate  in  the  shameless  performance,  whereas 

*  Lane,  vol.  ii.,  p.  86.  t  Ibid.,  p.  88. 


628 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


in  Egypt  and  Western  Asia  it  is  a  woman  alone  that  dances, 
or  a  lad  in  feminine  apparel.  Still,  both  the  dance  and  the 
songs  accompanying  it  are  so  objectionable  that  few  respecta- 
ble persons  are  willing  to  countenance  them  by  their  presence. 
These  facts  exhibit  in  its  true  light  the  narrative  contained  in 
Matt,  xiv.,  6-11.  Herodias,  desperately  bent  on  compassing 
the  death  of  John  the  Baptist,  decks  her  own  daughter  in  the 
apparel  of  a  harlot,  and  sends  her  into  the  hall  of  feasting  to 
perform  the  shameless  alraeh  dance,  in  the  presence  of  the  king 
and  his  reveling  companions,  castanets  in  hand,  and  accompa- 
nied by  the  royal  music.  A  better  illustration  we  could  not 
have  of  the  moral  degradation  of  mother  and  daughter,  and  of 
the  whole  court.  Similar  practices  were  common  in  ancient 
Egypt  and  Palestine,*  in  confirmation  of  which  we  copy  a 
sculpture,  found  upon  an  Egyptian  tomb,  which  represents  al- 
meh  dancers  performing  in  tlie  presence  of  a  promiscuous  as- 
sembly. 


Ancient  Egyptian  Almehs. 


The  story  of  Queen  Vashti  is  an  illustration  of  the  feelings 
of  well-bred  Oriental  women  with  regard  to  appearing  unveil- 
ed before  men,  and  indicates,  therefore,  the  view  they  entertain 
of  the  performances  of  the  almehs.  The  king,  being  merry 
with  wine,  summoned  the  queen  to  appear  in  the  presence  of 
the  people  and  princes,  in  order  to  show  them  her  beauty,  but 
she  refused  to  obey  his  call,  and  was  consequently  deposed.f 
Rawlinson  supposes  the  Ahasuerus  of  the  Book  of  Estlier  to  be 
the  famous  Xerxes,  who,  having  just  returned  from  his  disas- 
trous expedition  into  Greece,  on  bis  way  robbed  the  Temple  of 


Isa.  xxiii.,  IG. 


t  Esth.  i.,  10,  11, 12, 19. 


SOCIAL    LIFE.  629 

Belus,  at  Babylon,  of  its  immense  treasures,  and  made  this  dis- 
play of  his  wealth  as  a  sort  of  cover  to  his  losses.  The  conduct 
of  the  Persian  king  in  trampling  upon  the  customs  of  his  coun- 
try likewise  accords  with  the  character  of  Xerxes  better  than 
with  that  of  any  of  his  predecessors  or  successors.*  It  may 
also  be  that  the  king,  having  just  experienced  the  superiority 
of  Western  civilization  in  military  affairs,  conceived  a  vague 
desire  to  introduce  some  of  its  peculiarities  into  the  East,  and 
went  about  it  by  introducing  startling  innovations  in  the  rela- 
tions of  the  sexes,  as  is  done  by  some  at  the  present  day — a 
subject  upon  which  Orientals  are  most  sensitive. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  fact  that  in  Western  Asia, 
unlike  the  custom  prevailing  in  Egypt,  women  rarely  dance 
before  men.  Professional  dancers  who  perform  in  public  are 
boys  or  young  men  attired  in  feminine  apparel.  A  precisely 
similar  custom  prevailed  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Ko- 
mans  at  their  bacchanalian  feasts.f 

Besides  the  dance  there  is  another  mode  of  entertainment, 
practiced  by  the  ancients  as  well  as  the  moderns,  in  which  fe- 
male slaves  are  the  performers.  When  the  Sultan  of  Turkey 
or  the  Shah  of  Persia  retires  to  his  harim,  and  especially  dur- 
ing his  meals,  a  number  of  young  girls,  especially  trained  for 
the  purpose,  perform  all  manner  of  gymnastic  exercises  for  his 
amusement,  whether  singly,  by  twos,  or  by  threes,  while  others 
toss  and  catch  several  balls  at  once,  or  exhibit  various  other 
feats  of  dexterity.  These  are,  however,  witnessed  by  the  sov- 
ereign alone,  and  occasionally  by  female  visitors  to  the  harim. 
This  custom  existed  in  ancient  Assyria  and  Egypt,  for  it  is 
abundantly  illustrated  on  the  monuments  of  the  latter  coun- 
try, and  repeatedly  alluded  to  in  history.:}: 

It  is  still  the  custom  among  the  grandees,  as  in  Europe  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  to  keep  an  ugly  dwarf  for  the  purpose  of 
merriment ;  these  dwarfs  are  often  shrewd  and  witty,  and  man- 
age to  lay  up  a  good  deal  of  property.  The  dwarf  of  Sultan 
Mahmood  had  an  uncommonly  large  head,  even  for  a  dwarf 
He  was  very  cunning,  and  quite  a  pet  of  his  master's.  Abdool- 
Mejid's  dwarf  had  a  handsome  face,  and  his  photograph  was 

*  Herodotus,  voL  iv.,  p.  215. 

t  Lucian,  quoted  by  Prideaux,  vol.  iv.,  p.  75. 

X  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  pp.  198-201. 


630  BIBLE   LANDS. 

quite  popular  at  one  time  at  Constantinople.  The  same  custom 
prevailed  in  ancient  Egypt.* 

Theatrical  representations  do  not  exist  in  the  East.  There 
is  an  approach  to  them  in  Egypt,f  and  still  more  in  Persia,  in 
the  yearly  commemoration  of  the  death  of  Hassan  and  Hosein, 
the  sons  of  Ali.  The  same  appears  to  have  been  the  case  in 
ancient  times,  the  theatre  having  been  introduced  and  sustain- 
ed only  during  the  domination  of  the  Macedonian  and  Koman 
powers.:}:  This  is  not  the  case,  however,  in  countries  still  far- 
ther to  the  east,  the  people  of  China  and  Japan  being  more 
devoted  to  this  kind  of  amusement  than  any  other  nation  in 
the  world. 

Puppet-shows  in  the  style  of  Punch  and  Judy  are,  however, 
common.  These  are  called  karageuz  ("the  black  eye"),  and 
are  exhibited  by  a  man  concealed  within  a  portable  screen. 
The  exhibition  is  low  and  vulgar,  yet  it  is  patronized  by  many 
Muslims,  and  may  not  unfrequently  be  noticed  in  front  of  the 
windows  of  a  pasha's  harim  for  the  benefit  of  the  ladies,  who 
sit  behind  the  lattice,  as  the  showman  can  not  be  admitted 
within. § 

There  are  also  athletic  sports,  in  which  professional  wrestlers 
exhibit  their  strength  and  skill  on  occasions  of  special  festivity. 
They  wear  only  small,  close-fitting  drawers,  to  leave  no  hold 
for  their  antagonist,  and  smear  their  bodies  with  oil;l|  and,  ad- 
vancing cautiously,  they  seek  to  throw  the  other  upon  his  back, 
which  always  ends  the  contest.  In  some  towns  volunteer  ex- 
hibitions of  this  kind  are  still  given  every  Friday,  after  mid- 

*  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  204.  +  Lane,  vol.  ii.,  p.  100. 

X  See  a  very  coni})lete  and  finely -illusfrated  account  of  these  Persian  theatricals 
in  the  "Tour  du  Monde," by  Vereschaguine,  for  1869,  vol.  i.,  pp.  258-278. 

§  Thevenot,  p.  35. 

II  Dent.  XXV.,  11,  12,  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  wrestlers  are  habitually  on 
the  alert  to  avail  themselves  of  a  chance  to  disable  an  antagonist  by  the  means  in- 
terdicted in  this  passage :  the  prohibition  implies  that  the  practice  was  common. 
"The  Lacedemonians  were  the  first  who  performed  their  exercises  naked,  strip- 
ping themselves  in  public,  and  anointing  with  oil  before  they  entered  the  lists ; 
tliough  the  custom  had  before  prevailed  for  the  champions  to  wear  scarfs  about 
iheir  loins,  and  it  is  only  a  few  years  that  they  have  become  wholly  disused.  But 
even  yet  among  some  barbarians,  most  especially  those  of  Asia,  where  the  matches 
of  boxing  and  wrestling  are  in  repute,  the  combatants  engage  with  scarfs  round 
their  loins"  (Thucydides,  "Teloponnesian  War,"bk.  i.).  There  is  now  no  Orient- 
al nation  that  practices  boxing. 


SOCIAL   LIFE.  631 

day,  or  at  the  festival  of  Bairam,  the  spot  chosen  being  the 
trench  around  the  city  wall,  or  some  other  locality  where  the 
sport  may  be  witnessed  by  a  large  number  of  spectators.  Wres- 
tling was  similarly  practiced  by  the  ancients,  and  the  various 
episodes  of  the  game  are  well  represented  on  the  sculptures 
of  the  Beni  Hassan.*  Nor  are  these  the  only  exhibitions  of 
strength  or  skill  made  on  such  occasions.  Dwarfs  are  some- 
times set  to  fighting,  each  endeavoring  to  throw  his  antagonist 
into  a  tank  of  cold  water.f  Even  until  a  recent  date  there 
have  been  exhibitions  of  fights  between  lions,  bears,  bulls,  rams, 
and  cocks ;  but  men  never  engaged  in  them,  as  in  the  contests 
of  the  Eoman  circus,  in  the  bull -fights  of  Spain,  or  even  in 
those  with  elephants  in  India.:}:  Eam-fights  are  still  in  vogue 
in  Persia,  as  well  as  camel-fights  in  other  parts  of  Western  Asia. 
(See  page  242.) 

On  great  occasions,  such  as  the  marriage  of  the  king's  daugh- 
ter, or  the  circumcision  of  his  son,  a  variety  of  games,  shows, 
and  other  entertainments  are  gotten  up  on  a  large  scale  to 
amuse  the  people.  Food  is  distributed  to  every  comer,  and 
the  rich  are  entertained  in  curtained  tents,  spread  with  car- 
pets and  divans.§  Bands  of  musicians,  stationed  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  grounds,  fill  the  air  with  their  din.  Young 
men,  disguised  in  female  attire,  with  plaited  hair  and  effeminate 
mien, I  dance  here  and  there,  to  the  great  delight  of  the  crowd  ; 
meanwhile  rope-walkers  exhibit  feats  unsurpassed  by  the  most 
skillful  European  acrobats.  They  ascend  a  rope  extended  at 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  tie  their  hands  to  a  ladder,  and 
leap  down  with  it,  catching  themselves  from  falling  to  the 
ground  by  the  power  of  their  wrists.  They  then  walk  on  this 
rope,  forward  and  backward,  on  high -heeled  shoes,  or  with 
their  feet  set  in  saucepans,  carrying  a  child  upon  their  backs; 
and,  finally,  hanging  from  the  rope  by  their  feet,  they  load 
and  prime  a  flint-gun,  and  fire  it  in  that  position  at  an  egg 
set  on  the  (ground  beneath  them,  piercing  it  with  the  ball. 
The  rope  on  which  they  perform  these  feats  is  stretched  much 
higher  frorti  the  ground  than  is  done  in  Europe.^  Other  men 
perform  leaps  and  .«;omersauUs  with  unsheathed  knives  and 

*  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  205.  t  Morier,  vol.  i.,  p.  113. 

X  Tavernier,  p.  1.52.  §  Estli.  i.,  5-8. 

II  Layard,  vol.  ii.,  p.  257.  1  Morier,  vol.  i.,  p.  113-116. 


632  BIBLE    LANDS. 

swords  in  their  hands  and  mouths.  Some  swallow  and  then 
disgorge  great  quantities  of  water;  while  others  take  burning 
coals  of  fire  into  their  mouths.  The  entire  display  ends  with 
fire-works  of  great  beauty  and  ingenuity,  for  Orientals  are  un- 
surpassed in  such  exhibitions,  while  the  proverbially  clear  and 
dry  atmosphere  of  Western  Asia  greatly  contributes  to  their 
success. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY  AFFAIRS,  ETC.  633 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY  AFFAIRS,  AND   THE  ADMINISTRATION 
OF  JUSTICE. 

The  tenacity  with  which  Orientals  cling  to  the  traditions 
of  their  ancestors  is  especially  conspicuous  in  their  form  of 
government.  The  idea  has  ever  pervaded  their  minds  that 
the  head  of  the  state  is  of  divine  origin,  or  that  he  at  least  en- 
joys the  special  favor  of  the  Deity.  This  notion  is  traceable 
to  the  original  patriarchal  constitution  of  society  still  preva- 
lent, not  only  among  the  nomads,  but  to  a  great  extent  among 
all  classes  of  the  people.  Their  system  of  government,  despite 
its  many  and  glaring  defects,  deserves  indeed  the  name  of 
patriarchal  more  than  any  other.  An  Oriental  republic  or 
constitutional  monarchy  would,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  be  quite 
"  a  new  thing  under  the  sun."  The  free  cities  of  Asia  Minor 
were  Greek,  and  could  not  so  long  have  maintained  their 
independence  without  the  aid  of  the  mother  country.  The 
Hebrews  had  a  sort  of  commonwealth  for  the  space  of  three 
hundred  years ;  but  it  was  a  theocracy,  which  could  not  have 
been  maintained  without  the  frequent  supernatural  interposi- 
tions of  the  Deity.  It  can  only  be  regarded  as  a  disciplinary 
anomaly,  and  a  stepping-stone  to  something  else;  it  had  to 
give  way  before  the  pressing  call  for  a  king.*  Nor  did  God 
establish  over  the  Hebrews  a  constitutional  monarchy  in  which 
the  king  shares  the  power  with  the  representatives  of  the 
people ;  on  the  contrary,  he  allowed  the  new  sovereign  to  act 
in  all  respects  according  to  "the  manner  of  all  the  kings" 
of  Asia,t  only  requiring  that  he  be  their  own  countryman, 
chosen  and  appointed  of  God.:{:  All  Oriental  sovereigns  at 
the  present  day  claim  a  divine  appointment. 

The  first  thing  worthy  of  note  respecting  royalty  in  the  East 
is  the  peculiar  system  adopted  with  regard  to  the  order  of  the 

*  1  Sam.  viii.,  5.  t  1  Sam.  viii.,  11-18.  %  Deut.  xvii.,  15. 


634  BIBLE   LANDS. 

succession.  In  the  patriarchal  system,  when  the  sheikh  dies,  the 
oldest  meniber  of  his  family,  whether  brother,  son,  or  nephew, 
is  made  sheikh  in  his  place,  unless  he  be  deemed  unfit  by  the 
rest  of  the  family  to  take  charge  of  their  common  interests. 
So  in  the  royal  household  the  king's  brothers,  sons,  and  neph- 
ews are  considered  equally  eligible  to  the  throne,  and  age  or 
superior  fitness  commonly  decide  the  question.  The  choice, 
however,  often  depends  on  the  great  officers  of  state,  and  they 
select  the  man  from  whom  they  have  the  most  to  hope.  Re- 
gents are  dispensed  with  by  this  system ;  for  care  is  taken 
that  the  royal  family  contain  some  member  of  mature  age,  and 
the  history  of  King  Joash  is  repeated  only  when  a  pretender 
or  an  enemy  attempts  to  murder  all  the  royal  household,  as 
did  Queen  Athaliah.*  In  our  day,  the  succession  to  the  throne 
of  Turkey  has  occurred  in  the  manner  we  have  described ; 
Sultan  Mahmood  II.  succeeded  his  brother,  Moostapha  IV., 
and  left  the  throne  to  his  eldest  son,  Abdool-Mejid.  On  the 
death  of  the  latter,  the  sceptre  was  assumed,  not  by  either  of 
his  two  sons,  but  by  his  brother,  Abdool-Aziz  (the  present  Sul- 
tan of  Turkey),  who  is  the  second  son  of  Mahmood  by  another 
wife;  and  the  present  heir- apparent  is  not  the  son,  but  the 
nephew  of  Abdool-Aziz,  i  e.,  Moorad  Eflfendi,  son  of  Abdool- 
Mejid.  This  rule  of  succession  was  also  practiced  among  the 
Hebrews,  though  the  son  was  usually  placed  upon  the  throne 
of  his  father.f 

Women  are  excluded  from  the  succession  throughout  the 
East ;  yet  it  is  an  interesting  fact  that  there  exists  still  in  Af- 
rica^:  a  nation  called  Berber,  or  Shepherds,  who  are  governed 
by  female  sovereigns.  They  dwell  in  the  mountain  region  of 
Abyssinia,  and  their  capital  is  Mendera.§  The  Queen  Candace 
of  Acts  viii.,  27,  probably  ruled  over  Nubia,  which  was  former- 
ly governed  by  women  bearing  that  generic  namcfl  Kubia  lies 
upon  the  Nile  above  Egypt,  and  is  still  by  many  called  Ethi- 
opia. •[ 

But  the  element  of  polygamy  mars  any  rules  of  succession 
that  might  be  adopted.    There  are  several  sets  of  children,  and 

*  2  Chron.  xxii.,  10-12  ;  xxiii.,  1-21 ;  xxiv.,  1-3. 

t  2  Sam.  ii.,  8 ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.,  4, 10. 

X  1  Kings  X.,  1 ;   Matt,  xii.,  42.  §  Bruce,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  487,  491. 

II  Ibid.,  p.  115.  t  Eiisebiiis,  "  History,"  bk.  ii.,  chap.  ii. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,   ETC. 


635 


each  mother  intrigues  for  the  purpose  of  setting  her  own  upon 
the  throne,  and  thus  attaining  the  dignity  of  queen -mother — 
valideh  sultan.  The  old  king  often  declares  his  preference  dur- 
ing his  lifetime,  and  this  usually  goes  far  toward  deciding  the 
question.*  The  annals  of  Eastern  empires  are  filled  with  ac- 
counts of  murders  perpetrated  on  such  occasions,  some  kings 
leaving  no  less  than  a  hundred  children  by  different  wives,  most 
of  w^hom  are  put  to  death  by  the  successful  aspirant  to  the 
throne.f  Sometimes,  however,  their  eyes  are  put  out  instead, 
with  a  hot  iron — a  practice  so  common  in  Persia  that  the  royal 
children  are  trained  to  go  blindfold,  in  anticipation  of  the  pos- 
sible loss  of  sight.  We  have  a  Scripture  example  on  a  some- 
what similar  occasion:  the  eyes  of  King  Zedekiah  were  put 
out  by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  the  capture  of  Jerusalem ;:{:  for  be 


Putting  out  the  Eyes  of  a  Prisouer. 

had  been  placed  upon  the  throne  by  the  King  of  Babylon,  and 
had  rebelled  against  him.§  Ilis  children  were  first  killed  be- 
fore his  eyes,  not  only  as  a  punishment,  but  also  to  put  a  final 
end  to  the  realm.  The  operation,  evidently  as  common  among 
the  people  of  Mesopotamia  as  with  modern  Persians,  was  per- 
formed by  the  king  in  person,  with  a  spear,  as  may  be  seen  in 
the  accompanying  picture  from  a  Nineveh  slab. 

Pretenders  to  the  crown  are  usually  put  to  death.  But 
Morier  relates  (vol.  ii.,  p.  351)  that  Mohammed  Zeman  Khan, 
who  had  laid  claim  to  the  crown  of  Persia,  was  "placed  upon 
an  ass,  with  his  face  toward  the  tail,  and  the  tail  in  his  hand,  a 


*  1  Kings  i.,  11-40. 
I  2  Kings  XXV.,  7. 


t  1  Kings  i.,  5,25;  ii.,  24,25. 
§  2  Kings  xxiv.,  20. 


41 


636  BIBLE   LANDS. 

mock  crown  upon  his  head,  armlets  upon  his  arms,  and  a  sword 
by  his  side;  he  was  paraded  through  the  camp,  the  crier  pro- 
claiming: 'This  is  he  who  wanted  to  be  king!'  He  was  then 
mocked,  insulted,  spit  upon,  and  scourged  upon  the  soles  of  bis 
feet,  after  which  his  eyes  were  put  out."  How  like  this,  in 
several  particulars,  was  the  treatment  received  by  the  Lord  of 
Glory,  of  whom  the  Pharisees  claimed  that  he  sought  to  become 
"  King  of  the  Jews  !"* 

In  Syria  the  cutting  out  of  the  tongue  has  been  practiced  as 
the  most  effectual  bar  to  the  assumption  of  political  power.f 
In  Abyssinia,  where  any  physical  imperfection  is  sufficient  to 
debar  from  the  throne,  the  mutilation  consists  in  the  loss  of  the 
ears,  nose,  hands,  or  feet;:}:  and  the  king's  relatives,  whom  a 
political  revolution  might  bring  to  the  throne,  are  ever  kept 
in  a  cave  on  the  summit  of  a  high  mountain. 

The  titles  of  Oriental  sovereigns  are  numerous  and  high- 
sounding,  but  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  is  commonly  called  "  Padi- 
shah," and  the  King  of  Persia  "  Shah."  Both  these  rulers  are 
of  Tartar  origin ;  but  their  families  have  held  the  thrones  of 
Turkey  and  Persia  for  several  centuries,  and  their  present  oc- 
cupants have  scarcely  a  drop  of  Tartar  blood  flowing  in  their 
veins,  none  but  slaves,  commonly  Circassians,  being  admitted 
into  the  royal  harim.  The  title  of  "khan"  appended  to  their 
names  is  also  bestowed  upon  nobles  of  high  rank,  and  independ- 
ent chiefs.  But  they  are  commonly  called  by  their  princi- 
pal title,  not  by  their  proper  name,  except  to  distinguish  them 
from  others  in  the  same  line.  Thus  "  Pharaoh"  was  a  title,  not 
a  name ;  for  it  was  given  indiscriminately  to  all  the  sovereigns 
of  Egypt,  who  were  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their 
proper  names,  as  Pharaoh  -  necho.§  About  the  same  time, 
Agag  was  the  common  name  of  all  the  kings  of  Amalek.| 
And  after  the  Macedonian  conquest,  "Ptolemy"  became  the  title 
of  all  the  Egyptian  kings.  So,  also,  among  the  Parthians,  the 
name  of  "Arsaces"  was  borne  by  every  sovereign.  These  titles 
were,  perhaps,  all  originally  proper  names,  and  by  assuming 
them  the  reign  of  a  notable  king  was,  by  a  sort  of  fiction,  con- 
tinued in  the  persons  of  his  successors. 


*  Matt,  xxvii.,  27-31.       t  Churchill,  vol.  iii.,  p.  384.       J  Bnice,  vol.  ii.,  p.  428. 
§  2  Kings  xxiii.,  29.  ||  Stanley,  "Jewish  Church,"  vol.  i.,  p.  156. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,  ETC.  637 

In  the  East,  a  man's  social  rank  is  usually  proclaimed  by  the 
garments  he  wears,  and  the  house  he  occupies.  These  marks 
also  distinguish  the  sovereign  from  his  subjects.  In  describing 
the  glory  of  Solomon,  much  is  said  in  the  Scriptures  of  the 
palaces  he  built  for  himself,  of  the  throne  on  which  he  sat,  and 
of  the  wealth  of  his  court.  He  was  the  wisest,  wealthiest,  and 
greatest  not  only  of  all  the  Hebrew  kings,  but  (in  the  opinion 
of  the  East)  of  all  men  ;  and  in  describing  him  the  Scriptures 
give  us  the  Oriental  beau -ideal  of  a  sovereign.  The  monu- 
ments of  antiquity  throw  additional  valuable  light  upon  the 
matter,  and  though  we  generally  confine  our  illustrations  to 
the  modern  East,  we  shall  take  occasion,  as  heretofore,  to  show 
the  unchangeable  character  of  Oriental  institutions  by  com- 
paring the  present  state  of  things  with  the  sculptures  discov- 
ered upon  the  banks  of  the  Nile  and  the  Tigris. 

On  approaching  the  palace  of  an  Eastern  sovereign,  the  first 
object  which  attracts  the  attention  of  a  stranger  is  the  hand- 
some gate -way,  the  emblem  of  his  power  and  greatness,  to 
which  for  this  reason  a  special  importance  is  attached.  It  is  a 
lofty  structure,  highly  ornamented  with  rich  mouldings,  gilded 
or  painted  in  bright  colors,  and  provided  with  strong  doors, 
and  bars,  bolts,  locks,  and  keys.  Connected  with  it  are  rooms, 
dungeons,  halls  for  the  body-guard,  and  lofty  towers,  render- 
ing the  structure  the  strongest  part  of  the  fortifications,  which 
completely  surround  the  saray,  or  palace  of  the  king.  This 
gate -way  is  called  at  Teheran  "Ala  Capi"  (the  Handsome 
Gate);  but  at  Constantinople,  " Bab-i-Humayoon  :"  we  usually 
call  it,  after  the  French,  the  Sublime  Porte ;  but  rendered  into 
Saxon-English,  it  would  be  the  High  Grate.  In  the  common 
phraseology  of  the  country,  the  Sultan's  or  Shah's  Gate  means 
the  Government  of  his  majesty,  and,  in  a  more  restricted  sense, 
his  personal  administration  of  justice;*  for  the  name  points  to 
the  early  days  when  the  sovereign  himself  sat  in  his  gate — at 
once  the  coolest  and  the  most  accessible  spot — to  receive  the 
petitions  of  his  subjects  and  redress  their  wrongs.  Even  now 
some  of  the  chief  officers  sit  habitually  at  this  gate,  and  it  is 
the  head-quarters  of  the  imperial  guard.  There  is  a  niche  on 
either  side,  where  the  bleeding  heads  of  those  who  had  incurred 

*  Morier,  vol.  ii.,  p.  135. 


638  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  royal  displeasure  were  wont  to  be  deposited  and  exhibited 
to  the  public  gaze  ;*  and  no  longer  ago  than  1825,  after  the 
massacre  of  the  janissaries  by  Sultan  Mahmood,  the  piles  of 
heads  reached  to  the  top  of  the  building. 

The  first  court  of  the  sultan's  palace  at  Constantinople  con- 
tains a  variety  of  public  offices,  such  as  the  mint,  the  armory, 
a  hospital,  the  royal  stables,  and  the  divan,  or  hall  of  the 
tTand  council.  It  is  also  the  place  of  execution  of  criminals 
of  the  highest  rank.  Under  an  immense  platanus  stands  a 
huge  stone  mortar,  in  which  a  Sheikh -ool -Islam,  or  Muslim 
high-priest,  was  pounded  to  death  for  his'crimes.f 

The  ancients  appear  to  have  attached  the  same  importance 
as  the  moderns  to  the  gate  of  their  royal  palaces.  The  Scrip- 
tures thus  speak  of  King  David's  gate  in  several  passages.:}: 
The  same  custom  appears  to  have  prevailed  in  Persia.§  The 
present  use  of  the  word  gate  is  also  repeatedly  met  with  in  the 
Bible,  particularly  as  applied  to  God's  government  and  power.l 

What  we  have  said  of  the  sovereign's  gate  is  applicable  to 
those  of  the  pashas  or  khans  (the  governors  of  provinces),  to 
the  mudirs  and  caimakams  of  the  large  cities,  and  to  the  sheikhs 
and  aghas  of  the  villages.  Each  of  these  keeps  an  open  door, 
where  may  be  seen  his  retainers  and  all  such  people  as  have 
business  with  him.  Hence  "The  Preacher,"  describing  the 
power  and  greatness  of  the  "wisdom"  be  extols,  exclaims, 
"  Blessed  is  the  man  that  heareth  me,  watching  daily  at  my 
gates,  waiting  at  the  posts  of  my  doors."!" 

We  have  looked  upon  the  entrance  to  the  royal  residence; 
let  us  now  go  forward  and  penetrate  the  haunts  of  royalty. 
We  must  first  notice,  what  has  already  been  remarked,  that 
the  palace,  with  all  the  state  edifices,  is  strongly  fortified,  and 
able  to  stand  a  protracted  siege.  This  was  also  a  custom  of 
the  ancients,  practiced  at  Babylon,  Nineveh,  Shushan,  and  Per- 
sepolis.  And  the  palaces  of  David  and  Solomon,  built  upon 
^  Mount  Zion,  were  similarly  fortified  with  walls  and  towers; 
and  there  the  kings  of  Judah  held  their  court,  a  counterpart 
in  the  main  of  that  of  the  more  powerful  sultans  of  Constanti- 
nople. 

*  2  Kings  X.,  8.  t  Prov.  xxvii.,  22. 

t  2  Sam.  xi.,  9  ;  xv.,  2.  ?t  K^tli.  ii.,  ID  ;  v.,  9,  i:?. 

II  Psa.  cxviii.,  19;  Matt.  xvi..  18.  *l  Piov.  viii.,  ;U. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,  ETC. 


639 


2^^ 


Hall  of  Audieuce  of  the  Shah  of  Persia     (1  Kiu^s  \u  ,  7  ) 

The  ball  of  audience,  or  throne-room,  next  demands  our  at- 
tention. In  front  is  a  court  which,  on  state  occasions,  is  lined 
with  soldiers  in  uniform,  and  filled  with  courtiers  in  gala  cos- 
tume. The  centre  is  occupied  by  a  jetting  fountain,  the  de- 
light of  Orientals.  They  are  equally  fond  of  pillars.  At 
Teheran  these  support  the  roof  of  the  audience-hall,  while  at 
Constantinople  they  also  adorn  a  gallery  which  surrounds  the 
court.  It  was  so  with  the  palaces  of  the  ancient  kings  of  the 
East.  The  former  system- prevailed  at  P'ersepolis  in  the  She- 
hel-minar,  and  at  Karnak,  while  most  of  the  ancient  temples, 
but  more  particularly  "  Tadmor  in  the  Wilderness,"  exempli- 
fy the  latter.  Both  styles  appear  to  have  been  adopted  in  the 
palace  of  Solomon.  The  hall  was  supported  by  forty-five  pil- 
lars, of  the  height  of  three  common  stories;*  and  surrounding 
the  building  outside  were  "four  rows  of  cedar  pillars." 

Our  sketch  of  the  hall  of  audience  of  the  Shah  of  Persia  rep- 
resents it  as  it  has  stood  for  the  last  two  hundred  years,  since 
the  time  of  Fethi  Ali  Shah,  The  hall  long  used  by  the  sultans 
of  Turkey  at  the  Seraglio  Point,  and  lately  burned,  was  essen- 
tially on  the  same  plan. 


1  Ki 


2-4. 


640 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


\  Solomon's  throne  was  "made  of  ivory,  overlaid  with  the 
best  gold;  it  had  six  steps,  and  the  top  of  the  throne  was 
round  behind.  And  there  were  stays  on  teither  side  of  the 
place  of  the  seat,  and  two  lions  stood  beside  the  stays."*  It  is 
generally  supposed  that  this  description  implies  a  form  of  chair 
similar  to  ours,  in  which  the  feet  rest  upon  a  stool.     There 


Pharaoh  upon  his  Throue. 

were  such  chairs  in  Egypt,  and  we  reproduce  a  picture  of 
Rameses  seated  upon  a  throne  bearing  apparently  a  close  re- 
semblance to  that  of  Solomon,  with  the  exception  of  some  pe- 
culiarly Egyptian  emblems.  The  Assyrian  kings  also  sat  upon 
thrones  of  this  kind  ;f  but  the  ornaments  they  adopted  were 
the  war-horse,  and  rows  of  captives.  It  should,  however,  be 
remembered  that  this  mode  of  sitting  has  ever  been  exception- 
al in  the  East;  and  though  it  can  not  be  denied  that  princes 


*  1  Kings  X.,  19. 


t  Layard,  "Nineveh,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  235. 


lii, 


% 


0< 

If-       ■ 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY    AFFAIRS,   ETC. 


643 


sometimes  sat  in  state,  after  what  we  call  the  European  mode, 
yet  the  analogies  of  the  case  favor  the  supposition  that  the 
king's  throne  was  more  commonly  in  the  form  of  a  sofa,  or 
divan,  upon  which  he  sat  cross-legged,  like  the  sultans  of  Tur- 
key, the  shahs  of  Persia,  and  all  other  modern  Eastern  sover- 
eigns. We  reproduce  Flandin's  picture  of  the  throne  of  the 
kings  of  Persia;  it  is  called  "  Takht-i-taoos"  (the  Throne  of  the 
Peacock),  from  representations  it  bears  of  that  bird,  in  jewels 
and  precious  stones,  besides  those  of  lions  and  human  beings* 


^oJ^ssffiiSLMLk 


The  Sultan's  Throne  at  Constantinople. 

We  have  seen  the  throne  long  used  by  the  sultans,  since  burn- 
ed, and  can  compare  it  to  nothing  but  a  large  bedstead,  with  high 
posts  or  columns  of  silver-gilt,  covered  with  precious  stones, 
and  supporting  a  rich  canopy,  from  whose  ceiling  hung  balls 
of  burnished  gold  and  horses'  tails.  Upon  the  bedstead  was 
spread  a  mattress  with  cushions  covered  with  the  finest  velvet. 


Morier,  vol.  i.,  p.  191. 


644  BIBLE    LANDS. 

richly  embroidered  with  pearls,  precious  stones,  and  diamonds. 
The  prince  sat  cross-legged  upon  it,  clothed  in  a  suit  and  pe- 
lisse of  richest  stuffs,  and  a  turban  adorned  with  white  herons' 
feathers  set  in  a  costly  jewel. 

Similar  to  these  was  the  throne  of  the  king  of  Abyssinia  in 
the  time  of  Bruce  (vol.  iii.,  p.  607).  But  he  also  had  a  small 
portable  "  stool  of  gold,"  like  the  curule  chair  used  by  the  Ro- 
mans ;  this  was,  during  the  Begender  war,  changed  to  a  simi- 
lar beautiful  one  inlaid  with  gold.  So  Xerxes  is  said  to  have 
witnessed  the  naval  fight  at  Salamis,  sitting  on  a  golden  stool.* 
Elsewhere  he  is  described  as  sitting  on  an  ivory  stool,  a  pres- 
ent from  Arabia.f  So  the  throne  of  Solomon  was  made  of 
ivory.:}: 

But  we  must  describe  a  little  more  minutely  the  personal 
appearance  of  an  Eastern  sovereign.  He  is  usually  a  fine- 
looking  man,  the  custom  having  long  prevailed  of  introducing 
into  the  royal  harim  none  but  slaves  bought  with  money, 
whose  chief  recommendation  consists  in  their  personal  attrac- 
tions. The  sovereign  never  allies  himself  by  marriage  either 
with  his  subjects§  or  with  neighboring  princes.!  We  were 
told  by  an  eminent  English  artist  engaged  upon  a  portrait  of 
the  late  Sultan  Abdool-Mejid,  that  he  had  never  seen  so  fine 
a  mouth;  to  use  his  own  expression,  it  was  a  perfect  "Cupid's 
bow."  These  princes  usually  look  somewhat  effeminate;  for 
they  no  longer  lead  their  armies,  and  resign  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment mostly  to  a  grand  vizier  and  other  officers  of  state. 
The  kings  of  the  far  East  have  often  screened  themselves  from 
the  sight  of  their  subjects,  in  order  to  impress  them  with  the 
idea  that  they  belonged  to  a  higher  class  of  beings,  as  invisible 
as  the  Deity — a  practice  followed  until  recently  by  the  Mikado 
of  Japan.  But  in  Western  Asia  the  sovereign  usually  seeks 
to  dazzle  his  subjects  with  his  glory  and  wealth,  and  awe  them 
by  an  exhibition  of  his  power.  He  takes  frequent  occasion  to 
display  his  splendor,  and  to  amuse  the  people  with  shows.  At 
such  times  he  sits  in  state,  surrounded  by  his  chief  officers,  and 
adorned  with  all  that  can  impress  an  Oriental.  The  governors 
and  great  men  of  his  kingdom  present  themselves  in  turn,  and 


*  Philostratus,  lib.  ii.  +  Bnice,  vol.  iv.,  p.  513.  J  2  Cliion.  ix.,  17. 

§  1  Sam.  xviii.,  17.  ||  1  Kings  vii.,  8. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY  AFFAIRS,  ETC.  645 

offer  him  valuable  gifts.  It  reminds  one  of  Solomon's  court, 
and  of  the  visit  and  presents  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba.*  We  shall 
briefly  describe  such  a  scene,  in  the  words  of  eye-witnesses 
who  beheld  it  before  European  ideas  had  begun  to  affect  the 
ancient  customs  of  the  East.  On  such  an  occasion  the  Shah 
of  Persia,  as  he  sat  in  Oriental  fashion  upon  his  elevated 
throne,  could  only  be  seen  from  the  waist  upward,  being  hid 
by  the  railing,  which  bore  a  variety  of  vases  and  toys.  Two 
square  pillars  supported  an  imitation  of  peacocks,  studded 
with  precious  stones  of  every  description,  and  holding  each  a 
ruby  in  its  bill.  On  the  round  top  of  the  throne  was  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  sun  with  rays  of  diamonds.  The  throne  was 
covered  with  plates  of  gold  and  enamel,  and  it  was  said  to 
have  cost  five  hundred  thousand  dollars.f  The  king  wore  a 
coat  of  scarlet  and  gold,  and  his  shoulders  were  covered  with 
layers  of  pearls  and  precious  stones.  On  each  arm  were  three 
jeweled  rings,  or  armlets,  called  "  bazubend,"  worn  by  royal- 
ty alone.:}:  These  contain  his  finest  jewels,  one  of  which,  the 
"diria  nory,"  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world.  Eound  his 
waist  he  wore  a  band  of  pearls  four  inches  broad,  clasped  in 
front,  where  shone  an  emerald  of  immense  size.  He  carried  a 
brilliant  dagger  in  this  belt,  with  a  tassel  of  pearls,  upon  which 
he  kept  his  hand,  using  it  as  a  plaything.  His  "  kalioon,"  or 
water-pipe,  blazed  with  precious  stones.  On  the  right  of  the 
throne  stood  four  pages,  holding  respectively  his  crown,  his 
shield  and  mace,  his  bow  and  arrows,  and  his  sword.  The 
crown,  or  tiara,  was  thickly  inlaid  with  pearls,  emeralds,  rubies, 
and  diamonds ;  on  the  summit  was  a  gika  of  precious  stones 
and  a  tuft  of  herons'  feathers.§ 

The  foregoing  description  may  be  illustrated  by  the  portrait 
of  Mahmood  Shah  on  the  following  page,  copied  from  a  picture 
published  in  England  some  years  ago.||  Many  of  the  details 
are  imperfect,  but  the  general  character  is  correct. 

It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that  the  Persians  have 
ever  been  fond  of  changing  fashions  in  dress,  thus  sometimes 

*  2  Chron.  ix.,  1,  23,  24.  t  Morier,  vol.  i.,  p.  191. 

t  2  Sam.  i.,  10.  The  word  in  the  Latin  version  is  correctly  translated  armiUce. 
As  they  were  brought  to  David,  to  prove  that  Saul  was  dead,  they  could  have 
been  worn  by  the  monarch  alone,  like  the  modern  "  bazubend." — Bonomi,  p.  436. 

§  Morier,  vol.  i.,  p.  214;  Judg.  viii.,  2G.  ||  Perkins,  preface. 


6^6 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


widely  differing  in  their  garb  from  other  Orientals.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  give  our  readers  a  more  complete  idea  of  an  East- 
ern sovereign,  we  have 
reproduced  a  picture  of 
Sultan  Mahmood  II.  on 
page  337,  with  some  of 
his  chief  attendants.  It 
was  published  a  few 
years  ago  by  Arif  Pasha, 
under  the  auspices*  of 
the  Turkish  Government, 
and  claims  to  be  a  faith- 
ful drawing  of  the  orig- 
inal. The  beautiful  col- 
lection of  miniature  por- 
traits of  the  Osmanli  d}'- 
nast}^  kept  in  the  Impe- 
rial Library  of  the  Se- 
raglio Point  (now  burn- 
ed), represented  all  the 
Turkish  sovereigns  in  es- 
sentially the  same  garb, 
though  there  was  evi- 
dently a  slight  change  of 
fashions,  especially  in  the 
form  of  the  turban.* 

When  a  new  sultan  as- 
cends the  throne,  the  act 
of  investiture  does  not, 
strictly  speaking,  consist 
in  a  coronation;  for  he  never  wears  a  crown,  but  simply  a  regal 
jewel  with  heron-feathers  upon  his  head.  He  goes  in  state  to 
the  Mosk  of  Eyoob,  and  the  chief  of  the  mevlevy  (whirling) 

*  "From  a  representation  of  tlie  portrait  of  Manuel  Paloeologns,  taken  from  an 
ancient  manuscript,  and  preserved  in  Randurins  ('  rmperiiim  Orientale,' vol.  ii.,  p. 
OIU  :  edit.  Paris,  1711),  it  appears  tliat  tliere  is  little  ditterence  between  the  cos- 
tume of  a  Greek  emperor  in  the  fifteenth  century  and  a  grand  signor  of  the  nine- 
teenth. The  mark  of  distinction  worn  upon  the  head  of  the  Turkish  sultans  and 
other  grandees  of  tiie  empire,  of  whiih  tiie  calathus  was  an  archetype,  is  also 
another  remarkable  circumstance  in  ilie  identity  of  ancient  and  modern  customs." 
— Ci.AKKi:,  "Travels,"  J).  33,  note. 


Mubniood  Shah,  of  Persia. 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY   AFFAIRS,   ETC.  647 

dervishes,  being  sent  for  to  Konieh  (the  ancient  Iconium),  girds 
the  sword  around  his  waist,  and  prays  for  his  prosperity.  Then 
the  ofl&cers,  the  army,  and  the  people  shout,  "  Long  live  our 
king!"* 

The  Abyssinians  claim  to  have  derived  many  of  their  cus- 
toms from  the  Hebrews,  dating  from  the  visit  of  their  queen  to 
King  Solomon. t  Their  sovereign  at  his  coronation  is  ''  anoint- 
ed with  plain  oil  of  olives,  which  is  poured  upon  his  head,  while 
he  rubs  it  into  his  long  hair,  indecently  enough,  with  both  his 
hands.  The  crown  is  in  the  shape  of  a  priest's  mitre,  and  has 
a  hood  such  as  they  wear  when  they  say  mass.  It  is  covered 
with  silver  and  gold,  and  lined  with  fine  blue  silk.  Formerly 
the  king's  face  was  never  seen,  nor  any  part  of  him,  except 
sometimes  his  foot.":]: 

One  of  the  emblems  of  royalty  consists  of  the  umbrella,  or 
large  parasol,  which  no  one  else  is  allowed  to  use.§  It  is  car- 
ried by  an  attendant,  who  walks  behind  him,  and  is  usually 
made  of  crimson  silk.||  Even  at  Constantinople,  where  the 
large  European  population  obliges  the  Turkish  Government 
to  tolerate  many  customs  which  are  prohibited  in  the  interior 
of  the  country,  no  umbrella  can  be  opened  in  front  of  the  sul- 
tan's palace,  whether  in  the  street  or  on  the  Bosphorus,  with- 
out the  risk  of  a  musket -shot  from  the  sentinels.  Orientals 
never  use  umbrellas;  they  either  wrap  their  heads  and  shoul- 
ders in  a  coarse  shawl,  or  wear  a  woolen  "aba,"  which  is  water- 
proof to  a  considerable  degree,  and,  with  its  hood  of  the  same 
material,  constitutes  the  regular -traveling  costume. 

We  have  the  evidence  of  numerous  carvings,  both  Egyptian 
and  Assyrian,  that  in  ancient  times  also  the  king  alone  enjoyed 
the  privilege  of  using  an  umbrella.l"  The  custom  appears  so 
arbitrary  that  the  coincidence  is  all  the  more  remarkable,  and 
establishes  a  historical  connection. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  East  like  the  simple  manners  of  Oc- 
cidental rulers.  The  only  persons  ever  allowed  to  sit  in  the 
king's  presence  are  his  nearest  relations,  when  older  than  him- 
self, learned  or  holy  men,  and  ambassadors,  not  upon  state  oc- 
casions alone,  but  at  any  time,  except  in  moments  of  relaxa- 

*  1  Kings  i.,  38-40.  t  1  Kings  x.,  1,  2. 

t  Bruce,  vol.  iii.,  p.  .594.  §  Moiier,  vol.  ii.,  p.  93. 

II  Moiier,  "  Ilaji  Baba,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  93,  2'22.  ^  Layard,  vol.  ii.,  p.  S.TS. 


648 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


tion.*  Certain  formalities  must  be  observed  in  an  audience 
with  the  sovereign,  which  vary  according  to  one's  rank.  The 
spot  where  his  shoes  must  be  left,  and  that  whereon  he  must 
stand,  are  decided  by  the  strict  rules  of  etiquette.     The  usual 

mode  of  rendering  hom- 
age consists  in  bending 
the  body  forward  at  a 
right  angle,  the  hands 
resting  meanwhile  upon 
^^^>v^  ^^IKdHi  ^^®  knees,  as  indicated  in 

the  annexed  engraving. 

This  mode  of  salutation 

^jjii^  "    )?         M  \  is  referred  to  in  1  Sam. 

xxiv.,  8,  where  it  is  stated 
that  Saul,  after  leaving 
the  cave,  heard  David's 

Bowing  to  the  King.    (1  Sam.  xxiv.,  y.)  .  ...  „         ,  . 

voice  calhng  after  him, 
and,  turning  round,  saw  him  "  stoop  with  his  face  to  the  earth, 
and  bow  himself  "f  But  there  is  another  manner  of  bow- 
ing before  royalty  which  is  peculiar  to  the  East ;  it  consists 
in  a  prostration  upon  the  earth,  similar  to  the  humblest  act  of 
"worship"  offered  to  the  Deity.:};  In  ancient  times  the  cere- 
monial of  the  Persian  court  enjoined  this  "adoration"  upon  all 
who  approached  the  "great  king"  as  strictly  as  was  until  re- 
cently required  in  Japan. §  History  tells  of  the  Athenian  am- 
bassadors to  Artaxerxes,  who  were  required  to  prostrate  them- 
selves before  the  king:  one  gf  them,  Armenias  by  name,  com- 
promised the  matter  by  dropping  his  ring,  and  stooping  to 
take  it  up;  while  another,  Timagoras,  complied  with  the  re- 
quirement, and,  on  his  return  to  Athens,  was  put  to  death  for 
dishonoring  his  country.||  The  accompanying  illustration, 
taken  from  an  Assyrian  slab,  shows  the  manner  in  which  this 
prostration  was  anciently,  and  is  still,  performed.  It  is  now 
called  the  "rooy  zemin"  in  Persia,  and  its  continued  exist- 
ence, in  spite  of  the  leveling  principles  of  Islam,  is  evidence 
that  Oriental  ideas  of  royalty  have  not  essentially  changed 


*  TaveiTiier,  bk.  iv.,  chap.  xvii. 

+  1  Sam.  xxviii.,  14  ;  2  Sam.  ix.,  8  ;  1  Kings  ii.,  19.,  etc. 

t  Josh,  v.,  14 ;  Morier,  vol.  ii.,  p.  172. 

§  Prideaux,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  30,  31.  ||  Ibid.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  267. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,   ETC. 


649 


during  the  last  three  thousand  years.  It  is  practiced  even  in 
nominally  Christian  Abyssinia,  where  Bruce  describes  it  as 
follows :  "  It  is  observed  as  often  as  one  enters  into  the  sov- 


Adoring  the  Assyrian  King:  tlie  State  Umbrella.     (Geu. xlii.,  6.) 

ereign's  presence.  It  does  not  consist  in  simple  kneeling,  but 
in  absolute  prostration.  You  first  fall  upon  your  knees,  then 
upon  the  palms  of  your  hands,  and  incline  your  head  and  body 
till  your  forehead  touches  the  earth.  If  you  expect  an  answer, 
you  lie  in  that  posture  until  the  king  himself,  or  some  one  for 
him,  desires  you  to  rise."*  It  is  a  peculiar  feature  of  Oriental 
ceremonial  that  an  inferior  is  always  required  to  cover  his  hands 
before  a  superior.  So  Xenophon  informs  us  that  Cyrus  ordered 
two  persons  to  be  put  to  death  who  failed  to  obey  this  rule.f 

This  prostration  before  kings,  venerated  men,  or  such  as  are 
in  authority,  is  repeatedly  referred 
to  in  the  Scriptures.;}:  The  proph- 
ets and  servants  of  the  Most  High 
censured  the  act  as  idolatrous ;  but 
our  Lord,  by  accepting  it,  acknowl- 
edged his  own  Divine  character.§ 
It  is  quite  common  at  the  present 
day  for  a  criminal  to  prostrate  him- 
self before  the  judge  or  governor,  a 
slave  or  menial  before  his  master, 
begging  for  mercy,  kissing  his  feet,  and  wetting  them  with  his 
tears.     Many  simply  kiss  the  hem  of  the  garment.|| 

*  Bruce,  vol.  iii.,  p.  600.  t  Churchill,  "Mount  Lebanon,"  vol.  i.,  p.  333. 

t  Gen.  xxxvii.,  10 ;  xlli.,  6 ;  Dan.  ii.,  46 ;  Acts  x.,  25,  26. 

§  Matt.  XV.,  25;  xxviii.,  i),  etc.      ||  Esth.  viii.,  3;  Matt,  xviii.,  29;  Luke  vii.,  38. 


Egyptian  Prostration.     (Matt. 
xviii.,  20.) 


650  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Let  us  now  pass  from  the  personal  appearance  of  the  sov- 
ereign to  the  life  he  leads,  and  the  condition  of  his  family.  We 
shall  afterward  notice  the  authorit}^  and  power  he  exercises,  and 
his  relations  to  his  people. 

The  palace  of  the  sultan,  or  shah,  is  divided  into  two  dis- 
tinct parts,  having  no  public  communication  one  with  the  other. 
The  first  and  finer  portion  stands  in  full  view  of  the  public, 
and  contains  the  hall  of  audience  already  described,  with  other 
apartments  for  the  use  of  the  prince,  his  male  attendants,  and 
his  ministers.  Here  he  transacts  all  public  business.  The 
council  of  state  usually  meets  in  one  of  the  halls,  and  is  pre- 
sided over  by  the  grand  vizier,  or  prime  minister,  an  officer  met 
with  in  all  Oriental  states  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  pres- 
ent. His  appointment  is  often  sudden,  and  the  result  of  a 
whim,  and  his  fall  as  unexpected.  His  power  is  unlimited, 
like  that  of  his  master:  him  alone  he  is  bound  to  obey. 

In  the  enumeration  of  the  chief  ofiicers  of  the  court  of  King 
Solomon,  which  served  as  a  model  to  his  successors,  the  grand 
vizier  is  called  the  "chief  officer," and  the  "king's  friend"  (1 
Kings  iv.,  5,  margin),  while  the  rest  of  the  council  consisted,  as 
now,  of  the  following  officers :  the  chief  scribe,  "Re'is  Effi^ndy," 
or  minister  of  foreign  affairs  (ver.  3);  the  Scribes,  or  secreta- 
ries of  the  other  departments  (ver.  3);  "over  the  host," 2'.  e., 
the  "  Seraskier"  (ver.  4);  and,  in  the  Turkish  empire,  the  grand 
admiral,  or  "Capitan  Pasha;"  the  priest  (ver.  2),  high-priest, 
or  "Sheikh-ool-Islam;"  and  the  one  over  the  tribute  (ver.  6), 
"Haznedar,"  or  treasurer,  to  whom  Muslims  add  the  ''Grand 
Mufti,"  or  head  of  the  law  ;  and  the  "  officer  of  the  household," 
or  chief  eunuch.  The  sultan  generally  attends  the  sessions  in 
person,  but  keeps  out  of  sight,  occupying  a  small  room,  from 
whose  latticed  window  he  sees  and  hears  all  that  is  going  on, 
without  being  himself  seen.  This  has  long  been  the  practice 
of  Eastern  sovereigns  at  Bagdad,  in  Egypt,  and  in  Granada, 
and  it  continues  to  be  the  custom  at  Constantinople  and  in 
Abyssinia.  It  has,  doubtless,  tended  to  mitigate  the  abuse  of 
power  in  which  subordinates  are  so  apt  to  indulge.* 

Connected  with  the  first  portion  of  the  palace,  to  which  we 
have  thus  far  confined  our  attention,  are  the  stables  which  con- 

*  Bruce,  vol.  iii.,  p.  596. 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY   AFFAIRS,  ETC.  651 

tain  the  king's  private  horses.  All  the  sovereigns  of  the  East 
pride  themselves  on  being  good  horsemen,  and  some  of  them 
have  not  hesitated  to  enter  the  lists  with  their  subjects  in  the 
dangerous  game  of  the  jerid.  Others  have  been  fond  of  the 
chase,  chiefly  hawking,  or  pursuing  the  hare,  the  gazelle,  or 
the  wild  ass  with  hounds.  The  hunting  establishment  of  the 
sultans  was  until  recently  very  extensive  and  costly.  The 
chief  falconer  employed  one  thousand  men  in  the  service ;  he 
was  lodged  and  fed  at  the  Seraglio,  and  had  a  salary  of  fifteen 
thousand  dollars.  Many  of  the  royal  hawks  wore  valuable 
jewels.*  The  later  sultans,  however,  have  had  little  taste  for 
sport.  In  the  capital  of  Persia  there  is  a  great  square,  in  the 
centre  of  which  stands  a  high  post,  somewhat  similar  to  a  May- 
pole, upon  whose  summit  a  pigeon  is  sometimes  tied,  and  shot 
at  with  arrows  by  horsemen  running  at  full  speed.  The  shahs 
used  to  join  in  this  exercise,  a  golden  cup  being  substituted  for 
the  pigeon.  They  would  start  at  full  speed  across  the  square, 
pass  the  pole,  and,  turning  round  in  the  saddle,  shoot  the  arrow 
at  the  cup.  Shah  Sefl  has  been  known  to  hit  the  cup  three 
times  out  of  five.f  The  sultans  also  practice  shooting  the  ar- 
row; but  their  object  is  distance,  not  precision.  There  are 
several  open  spaces  in  the  neighborhood  of  Constantinople,  de- 
nominated "ok  meidan,"  or  fields  of  royal  archery,  where  and 
at  various  distances  stand  solitary  marble  pillars  with  inscrip- 
tions indicating  the  name  of  the  sultan  whose  arrow  reached 
the  spot. 

The  palaces  of  ancient  Assyria  ^re  adorned  with  finely  sculp- 
tured representations  of  royal  hunts,:}:  The  Pharaohs  also  in- 
dulged in  the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  as  the  Egyptian  remains 
testify, §  The  Scriptures  are  silent  on  this  subject;  but  the 
omission  of  this  royal  pastime  would  leave  incomplete  our 
conception  of  the  life  and  occupations  of  the  Hebrew  kings. 

We  now  come  to  the  royal  harim,  or  women's  apartments — a 
distinct  palace,  communicating  with  the  first  by  means  of  a  gal- 
lery and  small  door.  The  harim  (literal,  forbidden)  is  exten- 
sive, and  contains  many  sumptuous  apartments,  highly  deco- 
rated and  richly  furnished,  with  kitchens  attached,  rooms  for 


*  Tavernier,  "Seraglio," p.  70.  t  Ibid.,  p.  151. 

X  Bonomi,  pp.  390-400,  etc.  §  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  221. 

42 


652  BIBI.E    LANDS. 

menials,  etc.  There  are  often  separate  structures,  kiosks,  and 
pleasure-houses,  and  the  gardens  are  frequently  extensive,  and 
adorned  with  marble  tanks  and  jetting  fountains.  Such  must 
have  been  the  palace  built  by  Solomon  for  the  daughter  of 
Pharaoh  outside  of  Jerusalem,*  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
great  reservoirs,  or  tanks,  yet  visible;  and  still  more  wonder- 
ful were  the  "  hanging  gardens  "  of  Babylon,  built  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar for  his  queen. f 

In  the  harim  dwell  the  king's  wives,  limited  to  eight  by  the 
Koran,  though  common  Muslims  can  have  but  four.:}:  But 
there  are  hundreds  of  other  women,  purchased  by  the  sover- 
eign, obtained  in  war,  or  presented  him  as  gifts.  The  organi- 
zation of  the  royal  harim  is  the  counterpart  of  the  royal  court, 
every  ofl&cer  among  the  men  being  represented  by  a  similar 
officer  among  the  women,  even  to  the  police.  Besides  the 
wives,  there  are  many  concubines — odalisks,  or  hazigers — hand- 
some girls  trained  to  sing,  dance,  and  perform  gymnastic  feats. 
The  only  men  besides  the  master  himself  who  have  access  to 
the  interior  of  the  harim  are  the  white  and  the  black  eunuchs, 
who  occupy  apartments  contiguous.  This  class  of  human  be- 
ings has  existed  from  time  immemorial  in  the  lands  of  the 
Bible,  and  appears  to  have  been  mostly  confined  to  that  por- 
tion of  the  world.  They  are  despised  by  all ;  yet  they  exer- 
cise great  influence  over  their  master,  enjoying  free  access  to 
him,  and  being  continually  about  his  person.  Their  power  is 
unlimited  in  the  harim,  and  they  know  how  to  make  use  of  it 
to  their  advantage.  It  is  thus  that  many  of  the  chief  offices 
of  state  in  the  East  have  ever  been  filled  by  this  class  of  men. 
Potiphar,  the  "captain  of  Pharaoh's  guard,"' was  a  eunuch. § 
The  beardless  attendants  upon  the  kings  of  Assyria,  and  some 
i)f  their  generals,  who  fought  in  splendid  chariots,  were  also 
eunuchs. II  The  same  was  the  case  in  Babylon,!^  in  the  palace 
of  the  kings  of  Persia  at  Shushan,**  as  well  as  in  the  Lower, 
or  Byzantine,  empire,  from  the  fourth  century  down.  They 
are  now  restricted  among  Muslims  (who  alone  tolerate  them) 
to  certain  offices  and  duties  of  a  subordinate  character,  yet  are 
often  involved  in  the  court  intrigues   and  political  changes 

*  2  Chion.  viii.,  11.      t  Rawlinson,  "  Herodotus,"  vol.  i.,  p.  420,  note. 

X  Cant,  vi.,  8.  §  Gen.  xxxvii..  30.  margin  ;  Taveniier,  "Seraglio," p.  9. 

II  Bonomi,  p.  2Gi),  fig.  121.  f  Dan.  i.,  7.  **  Esth.  i.,  12. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,   ETC.  653 

which  take  place  at  Constantinople.*  Eunuchs  were  proba- 
bly as  well  known  to  the  ancient  Hebrews  as  they  are  to 
modern  Orientals.  They  were  employed  in  the  palaces  of 
the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel,  as  now  at  Constantinople  and 
Teheran,  and  were  probably  kept  by  wealthy  citizens  in  Jeru- 
salem and  Samaria,  to  the  same  extent  as  in  our  day  by  rich 
Turks,  Persians,  and  Arabs.f  Yet  the  Mosaic  legislation 
sought  to  put  an  end  to  the  evil  among  the  Jews,  by  placing 
eunuchs  under  the  greatest  religious  disabilities,;}:  a  fact  which 
alone  sufficiently  indicates  the  prevalence  of  the  practice  at  the 
time  of  the  Exodus.  Yet  the  institution  still  existed  in  New 
Testament  times,  and  has  come  down  to  our  own.§  We  even 
find  it  in  the  primitive  Church  in  the  case  of  Origen  (a.d.  200).|| 
The  practice  is  certainly  most  barbarous,  and  involves  the 
death  of  a  majority  of  those  who  are  subjected  to  it;  and  it 
creates  a  class  of  men  who  are  notoriously  actuated  by  low 
and  sordid  passions,  incapable  of  family  ties,  and  moved  only 
by  unmitigated  selfishness.  Yet  the  very  existence  "of  polyga- 
my appears  to  involve  the  continuance  of  this  unnatural  prac- 
tice— another  illustration  of  the  truth  that  one  wrong  necessi- 
tates another.  Eunuchs,  though  now  confined  to  the  Muslims, 
are  yet  very  numerous.  Tavernier,  when  at  Golconda  about 
two  hundred  years  ago,  ascertained  that  in  that  very  year 
twenty -two  thousand  eunuchs  had  been  exported  from  that 
kingdom  alone.^f  The  states  of  Assam,  Bootan,  Aracan,  and 
Pegu,  now  incorporated  in  British  India,  have  also  long  been 
engaged  in  this  traffic.  Black  eunuchs,  however,  are  imported 
from  Africa;  they  are  fewer,  and  dearer:  the  ugliest  always 
fetch  the  highest  price. 

The  Scriptures  contain  few  allusioYis  to  the  harims  of  the 
Hebrew  kings,  but  these  suffice  to  show  that  they  were  man- 
aged essentially  as  at  present.  The  circumstances  which  led 
King  David  to  fall  into  grievous  sin  "about  the  matter  of 


*  Tavernier,  "  Seraglio, "  p.  G. 

t  1  Sam.  viii.,  15 ;  1  Kings  xxii.,  t) ;  2  Kings  ix.,  32  ;  xxiv.,  12,  15  ;  1  Chron. 
xxviii.,  1. 

X  Deut.  xxiii.,  1.  §  Matt,  xix.,  12;  Acts  ^-iii.,  27. 

II  The  ancient  Persians  used  to  castrate  the  young  men  and  boys  of  their  van- 
quished enemies. — Gillies,  "Ancient  Greece,"  vol.  i.,  chap,  viii.,  p.  377. 

1  Tavernier,  "  Seraglio, "  p.  G. 


654  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Uriah"  appear  natural  to  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  East. 
He  probably  slept  on  the  roof  of  his  house — as  is  done  in  all 
that  region  during  the  summer  heats — for  "  the  time  had  ex- 
pired when  kings  go  forth  to  battle,  and  David  tarried  still  at 
Jerusalem."*  He,  of  course,  slept  in  the  harim,  occupied  by 
his  women  alone;  indeed,  the  language  seems  to  imply  that 
the  king  was  supposed  to  have  gone  "  with  the  army  and  with 
Joab,"  The  provision  for  screening  adjoining  harims  and  gar- 
dens from  each  other  is  always  insignificant,  compared  with 
what  is  done  to  hide  them  from  the  gaze  of  men.  Bathsheba 
was  probably  innocent  of  any  evil  intention,  especially  as  she 
bathed  in  the  night,  by  moonlight,  probably  in  the  garden 
tank,  as  Oriental  women  are  fond  of  doing.  And  so  the  king 
gazed  upon  his  neighbor's  wife,  coveted  her,  and  the  end  was 
adultery  and  muider. 

The  book  of  Esther  contains  a  pretty  full  account  of  the 
polygamy  practiced  by  the  Persian  kings.  Ahasuerus  the 
king  (probably  the  Xerxes  of  the  Greeks  and  of  Salarais)  put 
away  Vashti,  his  queen,  in  a  drunken  fit,  on  account  of  her 
modesty  and  tenacious  adherence  to  the  customs  of  the  East 
respecting  the  conduct  of  women.  Under  the  pretext  of 
choosing  another  queen,  he  ordered  that  his  harim  should  be 
replenished  with  the  fairest  virgins  of  his  empire,  which  "ex- 
tended from  India  to  Ethiopia,  and  contained  a  hundred  and 
seven-and-twenty  provinces."t  The  virgins  were  consigned  to 
the  king's  chamberlain,  or  keeper  of  the  women  (chap,  ii.,  ver. 
3),  doubtless  a  eunuch,  and  were  placed  in  a  palace,  where 
they  went  through  a  preliminary  preparation  lasting  a  whole 
year  (ver.  12),  just  as  is  now  done  with  the  Circassian  slaves 
intended  for  the  sultan's  seraglio  or  the  shah's  harim.:}:  They 
were  then,  each  in  turn,  admitted  to  the  king,  and  afterward  re- 
moved to  another  palace,  corresponding  to  a  similar  building 
at  Constantinople,  where  the  women  of  the  deceased  sultan  are 
kept.  "  They  came  in  no  more  unto  the  king,  except  the  king 
delighted  in  them,  and  they  were  called  by  name."§ 

The  nations  represented  in  Xerxes's  seraglio  were  not  more 
numerous  than  in  those  of  Oriental  monarchs  of  the  present 


♦  2  Sam.  xi.,  1.  t  Esth.  i.,  1. 

J  Morier,  "Haji  Baba,"  vol.  ii.,  cliap.  iv.  §  Esth.  ii.,  14. 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY   AFFAIRS,  ETC.  655 

day.  The  empire  of  the  sultan  is  hardly  less  extensive,  nor 
are  his  purveyors  limited  to  its  boundaries.  The  shah,  too, 
imports  women  from  Turkey,  Africa,  and  the  tribes  of  the  East. 
Thus  Solomon  "loved  many  strange  women,  besides  the  daugh- 
ter of  Pharaoh,  women  of  the  Moabites,  Ammonites,  Edomites,  . 
Zidonians,  and  Hittites."*  The  Bible,  which  never  palliates 
the  faults  of  its  heroes,  informs  us  that  Solomon  had  seven 
hundred  wives  and  three  hundred  concubines,  a  considerable 
increase  since  his  father  David's  death,  who  kept  seven  wives 
and  ten  concubines.f  It  is  not  possible  to  ascertain  the  num- 
ber of  inmates  in  the  royal  harims  at  Constantinople  and  Tehe- 
ran ;  but  these  doubtless  correspond  to  Solomon's  rather  than 
David's  house.:}:  In  every  case  the  fair  occupants  of  these  gild- 
ed cages  are  watched  with  the  most  jealous  care.  They  are 
well  fed  and  sumptuously  clothed,  but  mostly  confined  to  the 
premises  under  the  wakeful  eye  of  the  merciless  eunuchs. 
Formerly  a  sultana  never  went  out  of  the  harim  except  under 
a  canopy,  whose  heavy  curtains  hid  all  but  the  head  of  the 
horse  upon  which  she  rode.  The  slightest  attempt  on  the  part 
of  any  unauthorized  person  to  enter  even  the  portion  of  the 
seraglio  appropriated  to  the  men  was  punished  with  death, § 
The  old  palaces  on  Seraglio  Point  couid  tell  many  a  bloody 
tale,  and  the  waters  that  rush  by  have  borne  away  many  a 
strangled  corpse:  no  wonder  the  spot  has  been  deserted  by 
the  last  and  more  humane  sultans  of  the  race  of  Osman.  At 
Teheran,  the  inmates  of  the  shah's  harim  are  capitally  punish- 
ed by  being  thrown,  in  the  night,  from  the  summit  of  a  lofty 
tower,  and  the  mangled  body  is  buried  in  an  adjoining  ceme- 
tery. || 

Sometimes  one  particular  wife  of  the  king  is  his  queen.  It 
was  so  with  Queen  Yashti,  and  with  Esther  after  her.^  The 
same  was  the  case  with  some  of  the  Chaldean  kings,  as  ap- 
pears from  the  history  of  Semiramis  and  Nitocris.**    Solomon's 

*  1  Kings  xi.,  1.  t  2  Sam.  iii.,  2-5  ;   xx.,  3. 

t  Some  interesting  details  respecting  the  internal  arrangements  of  the  shah's 
harim  may  be  learned  by  the  curious  reader  from  Morier's  "First  Journey," pp. 
22.5,  226  ;  and  "  Second  Journey,"  p.  174  ;  and  respecting  the  old  seraglio,  at  Con- 
stantinople, in  Tavernier,  "Seraglio;"  and  Thevenot,  part  i.,  chap,  xviii..  pp.  23-2."). 

§  Tavernier,  "Seraglio," p.  86.  |1  "  Haji  Baba,"  vol.  ii.,  chap.  xvii. 

t  Esth.  i.,  19;  ii.,  17. 

**  Rawlinson,  "  Herodotus,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  382,  427. 


656  BIBLE   LANDS. 

queen  was  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh  ;*  and  in  modem  times 
another  Solomon,  the  sultan  Suleiman  the  Magnificent,  was 
faithful  to  the  celebrated  Roxelana.  These  cases,  however, 
are  exceptional.  The  king  has  his  favorites,  who  make  the 
most  of  their  brief  period  of  power;  but  the  mothers  of  his 
sons  enjoy  his  permanent  affection.  It  is  the  queen -mother 
who  occupies  a  position  equal,  or  even  superior,  to  that  of  our 
queen- consorts. f  She  has  a  palace  of  her  own,  and  holds  a 
court.  Her  son  stands  in  her  presence  after  the  manner  of 
the  East,  sitting  down  only  at  her  request.:};  She  is  free  to  go 
where  she  likes,  and  often  appears  in  great  state.  She  exerts 
a  powerful  and  sometimes  a  controlling  influence  over  public 
affairs.  Once  a  year  only,  at  the  great  festival  called  "the 
Night  of  Power,"  she  joins  with  the  principal  officers  and  min- 
isters in  kissing  the  hem  of  her  son's  garment,  presenting  him 
at  the  same  time  with  a  young  and  beautiful  slave.  The  seat 
at  his  right  hand,  given  by  Solomon  to  his  mother,  is  still  the 
seat  of  honor  with  the  Musliins.§ 

On  one  point  the  practice  of  the  ancients  differs  from  that 
of  the  moderns.  When  Solomon's  half-brother,  Adonijah,  de- 
sired to  marry  his  father's  widow,  Abishag,  it  was  deemed  equiv- 
alent to  an  attempt  to  seize  the  kingdom,  and  was  punished 
with  death  as  an  act  of  treason. ||  The  same  principle  repeated- 
ly occurs  in  the  ancient  history  of  the  East.  Now,  however, 
the  king  himself  not  unfrequently  gives  one  of  his  women  to 
a  subject  whom  he  desires  to  honor;  his  widows  are  also  some- 
times given  in  marriage.  We  have  repeatedly  known  this  to 
occur  in  Turkey,  and  a  similar  practice  exists  in  Persia.^ 

Little  or  no  change  appears  to  have  taken  place  in  the  sources 
of  the  king's  revenue,  or  the  manner  of  collecting  it  He  is 
a  large  land  proprietor,  owns  numerous  flocks  and  herds,  and 
manages  them  like  any  private  citizen.  This  was  the  case  with 
King  David ;  he  owned  villages,  and  had  private  "store-houses" 
all  over  the  country.  He  possessed  so  many  farms  {chijiiks) 
that  he  appointed  a  minister  to  superintend  the  "  work  of  the 
field  for  the  tillage  of  the  ground."  He  had  man}'^  "  vineyards, 
olive-trees,  and  sycamore-trees,"  and  herds  of  "  camels  and  ass- 

*  1  Kings  iii.,  1.  t  Stanley,  "Jewish  Chnrcli,"  vol.  ii.,  chap,  xxxv.,  p.  432. 

X  1  Kings  ii.,  19 ;  2  Kings  xxiv.,  15.  §  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  259. 

II  1  Kings  ii.,  13-25.  t  ''llaji  Baba,"vol.  i.,  chap.  xxiv. 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY    AFFAIRS,   ETC.  657 

es,"  as  well  as  "  flocks  "  of  sheep  and  goats.*  His  successors 
enjoyed  the  same  sources  of  revenue.  But,  not  content  with 
these,  Solomon  entered  into  commercial  ventures,  which  proved 
highly  successful.  He  had  a  sea- port  on  the  Red  Sea,  and 
traded  with  India  and  Africa,  making  Jerusalem  the  great  mart 
for  the  products  of  the  far  East,  as  was  Tyre,  the  city  of  his 
friend  King  Hiram,  for  those  of  the  West.  Thus  the  two  cities 
became  the  richest  in  the  world,  "  silver  and  gold  being  as  plen- 
teous as  stones,  and  cedar-trees  as  the  sycamore-trees  that  are 
in  the  (Jordan)  vale  for  abundance."f  The  course  of  the  pres- 
ent rulers  of  Bible  lands  is  precisely  similar.  Pharaoh,  under 
the  grand  viziership  of  Joseph,  purchased  all  the  land  of  Egypt, 
except  the  estates  of  the  numerous  priestly  caste  ;  and  the  pres- 
ent khedive  of  the  same  country  owns  one-fifth  of  its  soil ;  he 
compels  the  poor  fellahs  to  cultivate  it  at  the  lowest  possible 
wages,  and  monopolizes  the  entire  exports. 

The  ancient  system  of  taxation  is  not  perfectly  understood, 
having  been  modified  by  the  Eomans.  We  shall  describe  the 
present  mode,  as  it  may  throw  some  light  upon  the  old. 

The  taxes  are  of  two  kinds,  being  either  directly  levied  upon 
every  household,  or  indirectly  upon  the  produce  of  the  soil, 
whether  as  raw  material  or  manufactured.  The  former,  called 
saltan,  is  of  the  nature  of  an  income  tax.  In  collecting  the  lat- 
ter, the  usual  practice  is  to  estimate  the  value  of  the  crop  as  it 
stands  in  the  field,  or  on  the  trees.  Should  the  owner  refuse 
to  accept  this  valuation,  he  must  let  the  grain  remain  unwin- 
nowed  on  the  threshing-floor  and  the  fruit  ungathered,  until 
the  tax  collector  deigns  to  come  to  witness  the  operation,  and 
measure  out  his  tenth.  Some  articles  of  produce,  however,  are 
taxed  as  they  are  brought  into  the  town.  A  booth  of  branches, 
or  a  more  substantial  hut,  is  erected  at  every  entrance  into  the 
city,  or  village,  and  there,  both  day  and  night,  sits  a  man  "at 
the  receipt  of  custom.":}:  He  taxes  all  the  produce,  piercing 
with  a  long,  sharp  iron  rod  the  large  camel  bags  of  wheat  or 
cotton,  in  order  to  discover  concealed  copper-ware  or  other  con- 
traband. Moreover,  certain  institutions  and  individuals  enjoy 
the  privilege  of  collecting  a  special  tax  upon  specific  articles. 
Every  additional  process  in  the  manufacture  of  raw  material 

*  1  Chron.  xxvii.,  25-31.  t  2  Chron.  i.,  15.  f  Matt,  ix.,  9. 


658  BIBLE    LANDS. 

subjects  it  to  a  new  tax ;  and  thus  it  happens  that  no  less  than 
thirty-three  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  some  articles  is  levied  upon 
them  before  they  reach  the  consumer's  hands. 

It  would  seem  that  former  generations  fared  no  better  than 
the  present.  Even  the  wise  and  wealthy  Solomon  "  made  the 
yoke  of  the  Hebrews  so  grievous"  that  ten  out  of  the  twelve 
tribes  broke  away  from  his  successor  for  refusing  to  lighten 
their  burdens.* 

There  is  another  circumstance  which  serves  greatly  to  ag- 
gravate this  oppression.  The  tax-gatherers  are  not  the  direct 
agents  of  the  government,  collecting  on  its  account,  and  merely 
receiving  wages.  The  collection  of  the  revenue  is  sold  to  the 
highest  bidder,  and  he  seeks  to  make  his  venture  as  profitable 
as  possible.  The  same  system  was  adopted  by  the  Komans  in 
all  the  Eastern  countries  subject  to  their  power  in  New  Testa- 
ment times,  and  with  the  same  results ;  for  the  Jews  came  to 
regard  the  tax-gatherer,  even  when  their  own  countryman,  as 
among  the  most  wicked  of  men,  classing  him  with  "harlots 
and  sinners."f  Some  of  them,  however,  were  strictly  honest 
men,  and  there  are  a  few  such  even  now.ij: 

Mention  was  made  above  of  the  salian,  or  direct  tax,  laid 
upon  the  households.  This  is  distributed  in  the  following 
manner :  The  general  government  determines  the  amount  of 
money  that  shall  be  raised  in  this  manner  throughout  the 
country,  and  apportions  it  to  the  several  provinces,  or  2Msha- 
liks,  according  to  the  ability  of  each  based  upon  past  experi- 
ence. The  provincial  councils  divide  the  sum  thus  required 
among  the  towns  and  villages,  and  the  local  councils  make  a 
further  distribution  among  the  different  sects  of  each  place. 
The  head  of  each  religious  sect  is  personally  responsible  to 
the  authorities  of  the  place  for  the  amount  required  of  his 
people.  He  is  to  assess  every  household,  and  may  call  upon 
the  Turkish  police  to  enforce  his  demands.  This  explains  the 
fiict  that  no  census  of  the  population  is  ever  taken.  The  taxes 
being  laid  not  upon  individuals  but  upon  households,  the  au- 
thorities need  to  know  only  the  number  of  "houses"  belong- 
ing to  every  sect.  Every  unmarried  man  counts  for  a  house- 
hold.    This  class  generally  live  away  from  home,  doing  busi- 


1  Kings  xii.,  4.  t  Matt,  ix.,  11 ;  xxi.,  32.  J  Luke  xix. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY    AFFAIRS,   ETC.  659 

ness  abroad,  in  which  case  they  pay  their  taxes  at  home ;  for 
they  are  not  allowed  to  leave  their  native  city  until  they  have 
given  security  that  their  saltan  shall  be  paid  in  their  absence. 
Up  to  a  few  years  ago  a  "capitation"  tax  was  paid  by  every 
male  of  whatever  age  not  a  Muslim ;  the  sum  was  not  large, 
but  could  be  demanded  at  any  moment,  so  that  every  one  had 
to  carry  his  certificate  of  payment  constantly  upon  his  person. 
This  would  seem  to  resemble  the  didrachme  tax  demanded  of 
our  Lord,  and  amounting  to  two  shillings,  or  fifty  cents.*  It 
seems,  however,  that  payment  was  optional,  and  the  tax,  though 
small,  was  much  opposed  by  the  Jews.  It  eventually  led  to 
the  revolt  of  the  nation  against  the  Romans,  and  thus  to  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

Some  have  thought  that  the  present  mode  of  taxing  the  dif- 
ferent subject-sects  separately  through  their  chiefs  is  of  mod- 
ern origin,  being  introduced  by  the  Turks,  or  at  most  by  Mo- 
hammed. There  is,  however,  reason  to  believe  that  this  is  not 
the  case.  As  early  as  the  Babylonish  captivity  and  since  that 
period,  whenever  the  Jews  were  subject  to  other  nations,  they 
have  had  a  chief  magistrate  of  their  own,  corresponding  to 
the  present  haham  hashy  at  Constantinople,  who  exercised  not 
only  a  spiritual  authority  over  them,  but  also  governed  them 
in  civil  matters,  purchasing  his  commission  from  the  king. 
In  Babylon,  he  was  called  rosh  golah^  or  head  of  the  captivity ; 
in  Alexandria,  alaharkha;  and  at  Antioch,  ethnarhha.  Impe- 
rial laws  and  edicts  respecting  this  office  are  still  extant.f 
The  Muslims  appear  to  have  simply  applied  the  same  system 
to  the  Christian  sects,  by  recognizing  as  their  heads  their  re- 
spective patriarchs  at  Constantinople,  Jerusalem,  and  Cairo, 
who  become  responsible  for  the  taxes  due  from  their  people, 
while  the  bishops  and  priests  have  a  similar  authority  in  the 
towns  and  villages;  these  last  correspond  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment "chief  rulers  of  the  synagogues"  (Acts  xviii.,  17),  who 
are  the  modern  hahams.  This  system  is  evidently  agreeable 
to  all  parties  concerned.  The  Turks  get  their  money  without 
the  trouble  and  expense  of  collecting  it.  The  patriarchs  and 
chorbajies  (head  men)  who  assist  them  indemnify  themselves 
for  giving  their  security  by  paying  no  taxes,  or  by  exercising 

*  Matt,  xvii.,  24.  t  Prideaux,  vol.  iii.,  p.  311. 


660  BIBLE    LANDS. 

a  lucrative  authority  over  their  co-religionists;  and  the  tax- 
payers prefer  to  deal  with  one  of  their  own  people  rather  than 
with  the  merciless  Turk. 

It  would,  however,  be  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  the 
revenue  of  the  sovereign,  or  the  income  of  the  chief  officers 
of  government,  is  confined  to  regular  and  legitimate  taxation. 
It  has  been  the  misfortune  of  Western  Asia  to  possess  almost 
boundless  resources,  which  have  for  ages  made  her  the  prey 
of  freebooters,  both  foreign  and  indigenous,  who  have  drained 
her  of  her  wealth,  and  exhausted  her  productive  powers,  until 
in  many  parts  the  land  is  well-nigh  turned  to  a  wilderness.* 
The  officers  of  government  of  every  grade  make  it  their  chief 
study  to  rob  the  people  of  all  the  money  they  can  during  their 
usually  short  stay  in  a  particular  office ;  a  practice  greatly  en- 
couraged by  the  large  presents  required  of  a  candidate  before 
he  can  be  appointed,  or  installed.  The  case  of  the  pashalik 
of  Egypt,  before  its  quasi  independence,  may  serve  as  an  ex- 
ample :  the  pasha  who  received  the  appointment  was  expect- 
ed to  pay  handsomely  for  the  favor.  The  regular  fee  to  the 
sultan  was  six  hundred  thousand  dollars;  but  there  were 
many  other  recipients,  so  that  the  entire  cost  was  estimated 
at  about  two  millions  of  dollars,  all  of  which  must  of  course  be 
wrung  out  of  the  people  of  Egypt,  in  addition  to  the  regular 
taxes.  And  let  it  be  remembered  that  the  pashas  are  often 
changed  for  the  sake  of  the  recurring  present,  sometimes  re- 
maining but  a  fortnight  in  power;  and  not  long  ago,  forfeiting 
their  heads  as  well  as  their  office. 


*  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  popiihition  of  the  Bible  lands  in  Asia  has  dimin- 
ished beyond  calculation  during  the  last  one  thousand  years.  In  many  fertile  and 
once  populous  districts  not  a  human  being  is  left,  and  the  ground  lies  fallow. 
The  site  of  cities  but  recently  great  and  prosperous,  like  Nisibis  and  Koofa,  can 
scarcely  be  recognized  (Fletcher,  p.  207).  A  few  new  towns  have,  indeed,  come 
into  existetice,  like  Yozghat  and  Cassaba,  and  the  names  of  Yenikeuy  and  Ye- 
uishehir  (Newburgh  and  Newtown)  reveal  the  fact  that  a  place,  now  perhaps  in 
ruins,  was  bitilt  since  the  establishment  of  the  Turkisli  power.  Some  places,  too, 
have  grown  considerably,  owing  to  foreign  commerce  and  colonization,  such  as 
Beirut,  Alexandria,  Smyrna,  Trebizond,  and  Constantinople.  But  these  are  ex- 
ceptions ;  the  native  population  is  diminishing,  especially  the  Muslims,  despite  the 
late  large  immigration  of  Circassians  and  Ni>gay  Tartars.  The  regions  most  af- 
fected by  decay  are  those  which  lie  within  the  reach  of  the  desert  Bedawin,  whose 
aiuiual  forays  have  changed  into  a  howling  wilderness  some  of  the  most  populous 
districts  of  the  earth,  if  we  may  judge  by  the  interesting  ruins  of  cities  thickly 
scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  ground. 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY   AFFAIRS,   ETC.  661 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  system  practiced  by  the 
modern  sovereigns  of  the  East  is  the  same  in  principle  as  that 
adopted  by  Solomon  and  the  Hebrew  kings,*  and  by  their 
neighbors,  the  sovereigns  of  Assyria,  Babylonia,  and  Persia, 
as  well  as  at  a  later  period  by  the  Parthian  monarchs,  and  the 
caliphs  and  Saracen  sultans.  The  governors  of  provinces,  after 
receiving  their  appointment,  are  allowed  to  do  pretty  much  as 
they  like,  provided  they  send  in  the  usual  taxes  and  presents; 
for,  besides  the  original  fee,  every  transaction  with  the  govern- 
ment, even  to  payment  of  the  fixed  saltan^  must  be  accompanied 
by  a  douceur.  And  o^i  special  occasions,  such  as  the  great  festi- 
vals, the  chief  officers  of  state  bring  or  send  presents,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  stepping  in  of  some  rival  aspirant  to  royal  fa- 
vor. We  have  a  curious  account  of  such  a  scene,  given  by  an 
eye-witness.  The  place  is  the  capital  of  Persia,  and  the  time 
the  grand  festival  of  the  Norood^  or  New-year,  which  occurs  at 
the  spring  equinox,  and  has  been  banded  down  from  the  ear- 
liest antiquity.f  The  king  is  seated  in  a  sort  of  balcony  over- 
looking the  great  square,  which  is  crowded  with  officers,  sol- 
diers, and  people  in  gala  dress.  The  master  of  ceremonies  ad- 
vances with  a  clerk  who,  in  a  loud  voice,  announces  the  pres- 
ent of  Prince  Hosein,  governor  of  Shiraz.  It  consists  of  a 
very  long  train  of  men,  bearing  trays  upon  their  heads,  which 
contain  shawls,  silk  stuffs,  pearls,  etc.,  after  which  come  vast 
quantities  of  sugar -plums,  and  then  mules  laden  with  fruit. 
The  present  of  the  Prince  of  Hamadan,  next  announced  by  the 
herald,  consists  of  pistols  and  spears,  together  with  one  hun- 
dred camels  and  as  many  mules.  The  Prince  of  Yezd  pre- 
sents shawls  and  silken  stuffs,  manufactured  in  his  province. 
Last  of  all  comes  the  offering  of  the  grand  vizier,  consisting  of 
"  fifty  mules,  each  covered  with  a  fine  cashmere  shawl,  and  car- 
rying a  load  of  one  thousand  to?na?2s,"  or  five  thousand  dollars, 
in  gold.:}; 

*  1  Kings  iv.,  21.  Compare  ver.  24;  and  for  the  complete  organization  of  the 
empire,  chap,  x.,  where  it  appears  that  the  kings  "  brought  every  man  his  present 
a  rate  year  by  year  "  (ver.  25),  and  the  amount  of  annual  revenue  from  all  sources 
was  six  hundred  and  sixty-six  talents  of  gold  (ver.  I-t).  See  also  2  Chron.  ix., 
13-28,  and  Psa.  Ixxii.,  8-11.  The  duties  as  understood  in  the  earliest  times  toward 
the  head  of  the  empire  may  be  summed  up  in  the  two  words,  "homage"  and 
"tribute." — Rawlinson,  "  Herodotus,' vol.  i.,  p.  402,  note,  p.  403. 

t  Exod.  xii.,  2.  X  Morier,  "First  Journey, "  pp.  207,  208. 


662 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


When  all  these  sources  of  revenue  fail  to  supply  their  wants, 
some  princes  have  been  known  to  resort  to  the  expedient  of 
sending  a  present  of  a  bead  of  game  of  their  own  shooting,  or 
some  other  trifle,  to  a  wealthy  subject,  who  is  expected  to  pay 
a  round  sum  for  the  honor.  The  property  of  all  delinquents 
also  goes  to  replenish  the  royal  coffers.* 

An  Oriental  sovereign  doubtless  needs  to  fleece  his  sheep, 
or  flock — the  precise  meaning  of  the  term  rayah,  by  which  his 
people  are  called.  His  expenses  are  great;  he  entertains  a 
large  body  of  retainers,  holds  an  expensive  court,  and  has  a 
numerous  family  of  wives,  concubines,  and  children.  When, 
at  his  death,  his  treasure-vaults  are  examined  by  his  successor, 
he  usually  finds  them  empty.  Few  sultans  have,  like  Amurat 
(Moorad),  left  to  their  heirs  one  hundred  and  fifty  millions  in 
gold.  Thus  Solomon  left  much  treasure  to  his  son,  but  his 
example  was  followed  by  few  after  him. 

In  lands  where  hospitality  is  deemed  a  cardinal  virtue,  roy- 
alty can  not  fail  to  give  many  instances  of  it.  King  David  en- 
tertained "Mephibosheth  at  his  table  continually,"!  the  only  re- 
maining heir  of  the  fallen  house  of  Saul.  The  King  of  Baby- 
lon "  lifted  up  the  head  of  Jehoiachim,  king  of  Judah  ;  he  did 
eat  bread  continually  before  him  all  the  days  of  his  life;  and 
his  allowance  was  a  continual  allowance  given  him  of  the 
king,  a  daily  rate  for  every  day,  all  the  days  of  his  life.":}: 
These  are  instances  of  royal  hospitality,  even  toward  a  foe,  on 
account  of  his  former  rank.  We  once  knew  the  independent 
khan  of  the  Lesghies,  whose  territory'  was  conquered  by  the 
Russians ;  he  fled  into  Turkey  with  eighty  families  of  his  fol- 
lowers, and  to  the  day  of  his  death  lived  at  the  expense  of  the 
sultan,  who  paid  him  and  his  people  "  a  continual  allowance." 
We  find  an  instance  of  still  larger  hospitality  in  the  course 
pursued  by  the  sultan  toward  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
Circassian  families  whom  the  Eussian  Government  had  exiled 
from  their  homes:  they  were  settled  on  the  crown-lands,  given 
them  in  freehold,  and  were  fed  for  several  years  at  the  sultan's 
expense.  Bruce  gives  an  instance  of  similar  hospitality,  taken 
from  the  "Annals  of  Abyssinia,"  and  adds:  "The  custom  is  al- 


*  Tavernier,  "Seraglio,"  p.  59. 
X  2  Kings  XXV.,  27,  29,  30. 


t  2 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY    AFFAIRS,   ETC.  663 

ways  observed  in  the  East  by  the  princes  toward  their  unfor- 
tunate neighbors."* 

The  king  supports  many  attendants,  who  help  to  display  his 
grandeur  and  majesty,  or  perform  the  duties  of  government. 
Some  of  these  deserve  our  particular  attention,  on  account  of 
their  resemblance  to  similar  officers  mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. We  have  already  spoken  of  the  eunuchs,  both  white 
and  black.  One  of  Pharaoh's  eunuchs  was  Potiphar,  who  is 
styled  "  chief  of  the  slaughter-men,"  as  the  Hebrew  text  has  it.f 
This  officer  corresponds  to  the  fe7-az  hashy  of  the  Persians,  and 
the  jellat  hashy  of  the  Turks,  who  have  charge  of  the  punish- 
ment of  criminals,  by  decapitation,  strangulation,  the  bastinado, 
or  otherwise,  and  necessarily  control  the  royal  prison.;}:  The 
royal  "  runners,"  messengers,  heralds,  and  mail-carriers  are  also 
an  old  institution,  adopted  from  the  Eastern  kings  by  those  of 
the  Hebrews. §  They  are  repeatedly  referred  to  in  the  Scrip- 
tures.jl  The  king's  messenger  wears  a  peculiar  uniform  or 
garb,  that  no  one  may  venture  to  hinder  or  detain  him.  His 
orders  or  dispatches  are  carried  on  his  breast  in  a  handsomely 
embroidered  case,  similar  to  a  port-folio.  The  runners  {shatirs) 
who  clear  the  way  before  their  master  as  he  rides,  walking  two 
and  two,  and  the  chief  by  his  stirrup,l"and  those  who  carry  let- 
ters to  a  distance,  make  this  business  their  hereditary  occupa- 
tion, being  trained  to  it  from  childhood.  They  begin  at  seven 
years  of  age  by  taking  long  walks  at  a  slow  pace ;  the  follow- 
ing year  they  increase  their  speed ;  and  the  third  they  run  three 
miles  at  a  time.  At  eighteen  they  travel  considerable  distances, 
and  carry  their  provisions;  for  they  always  make  short  cuts, 
and  can  not  depend  on  finding  food  or  water  on  the  way.  None 
are  received  into  the  king's  service  without  first  passing  through 
a  certain  ordeal,  which  consists  in  running,  on  an  appointed 
day,  in  the  presence  of  many  witnesses,  a  distance  equivalent 
to  one  hundred  and  eight  miles,  between  sunrise  and  sunset. 
Some  have  done  it  in  twelve  hours.**  Their  badge  of  office  is 
a  little  bell,  fastened  to  their  leathern  belt.  The  higher  class 
of  royal  messengers  in  Turkey  are  called  chaoosh. 

It  is  a  universal  custom  in  the  East  to  give  a  present  to  the 

*  Vol.  ii.,  p.  486.  t  Gen.  xxxvii.,  36.  t  Gen.  xxxix.,  20. 

§  1  Sara,  xxii.,  17.  ||  1  Sum.  xix.,  11 ;  2  Sam.  iii.,  14  ;  Isa.  xviii.,  2,  etc. 

f  Gen.  xli.,  43.  **  Tavernier,  bk.  iv.,  chap.  v. 


Qlo-i  BIBLE   LANDS. 

bearer  of  good  tidings,  and  such  a  person  is  wont  to  announce 
his  approach  by  calling  with,  a  loud  voice,  "■Mujdehf  Mitjclehf 
(a  present).  When  the  news  is  important,  several  seek  to  out- 
run each  other  and  obtain  the  reward,  as  after  Absalom's  de- 
feat and  death.* 

The  language  of  Cushi  (ver.  32)  contains  the  very  words 
still  used  on  similar  occasions:  "The  enemies  of  my  lord  be 
as  that  young  man !"  And  it  was  doubtless  the  hope  of  a 
handsome  present  that  led  the  young  Amalekite  to  carry  to 
David  the  news  of  Saul's  death  from  the  bloody  field  of  Gilboa.f 

The  rewards  bestowed  by  the  sovereign  on  such  occasions, 
or  for  any  services  whatever,  are  regulated  by  no  rule  or  limit, 
but  his  own  fancy.  His  will  is  the  only  law ;  yet  he  is  him- 
self to  a  great  degree  under  the  control  of  the  usages  and  cus- 
toms of  the  land,  which  create  public  opinion,  and  which,  even 
in  the  East,  can  not  be  trampled  upon  with  impunity.  The 
appointments  to  office  are  arbitrary  in  the  extreme,  and  it  may 
truly  be  said  that  offices  are  sought  for  people  to  occupy,  and 
not  suitable  persons  to  perform  the  duties  of  said  offices. 
There  is  no  hierarchy  either  in  the  civil  or  military  service, 
no  gradual  advancement,  as  with  us,  based  upon  honorable 
services  or  seniority.  Promotion  is  the  result  of  favor  or 
bribery.  We  have  known  a  man  who  was  captain  in  the 
army  one  day,  and  was  appointed  quarantine  doctor  the  next. 
The  history  of  Eastern  despots  is  replete  with  examples  of 
sudden  advancement  from  the  very  lowest  to  the  highest  posi- 
tion in  the  state.  Often  has  a  sultan,  taking  a  fancy  to  one  of 
his  own  menials,  made  him  his  grand  vizier.  Thus  in  a  single 
hour  a  Hebrew  slave  was  placed  over  the  whole  land  of  Egypt, 
and  became  a  ruler  of  great  eminence  and  celebrity.:}:  That 
remarkable  man,  Daniel,  owed  his  promotion  "over  the  prov- 
ince of  Babylon"  not  to  his  great  talents,  but  to  the  interpre- 
tation of  a  dream  whose  correctness  time  had  not  yet  deter- 
mined.! Equally  sudden  and  great  is  the  downfall  of  those 
in  power.  Many  a  time  has  the  bowstring  been  presented  to 
a  pasha,  who  up  to  that  moment  enjoyed  the  plenitude  of  his 
master's  favor.||     So  Haman  feasted  with  Artaxerxes  and  his 


•  2  Sam.  xviii..  24-32.  +  2  Sam.  i.,  1-10.  J  Gen.  xli.,  41. 

§  Dan.  ii.,  47,  48.  ||  Thevenot,  p.  64. 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY   AFFAIRS,   ETC.  6Qd 

queen,  and  before  "the  banquet  of  wine"  was  over  he  was 
hurried  to  execution,  and  forthwith  "  hanged  upon  a  gallows."* 

Other  rewards  besides  promotions  are  also  bestowed  by  the 
king  upon  those  whom  he  desires  to  honor;  and  the  most  com- 
mon is  the  robe  of  honor,  called  a  kuftan  by  the  Arabs  and 
Turks,  and  a  kala'at  by  the  Persians.f  The  simplest  form 
of  this  robe  is  "  a  loose  garment  like  a  night-gown ;":}:  but  it 
usually  consists  of  a  coat  or  robe  (kuftan,  see  page  511),  a  shawl 
for  a  girdle,  and  another  shawl  for  a  turban :  in  addition,  a  dag- 
ger or  sword  is  sometimes  given.  In  special  cases  a  rich  fur  is 
added, §  and  we  have  known  the  king  to  give  also  one  of  his 
own  horses. I  But  it  is  when  the  sovereign  desires  to  bestow  a 
special  mark  of  his  regard  that  he  gives  away  one  of  his  own 
garments  or  pelisses.l"  It  is  in  this  sense  we  must  understand 
the  statement  in  1  Sam.  xviii.,  4,  that  "Jonathan  stripped  him- 
self of  the  robe  that  was  upon  him,  and  gave  it  to  David,  and 
his  garments"  {i.  e.,  his  jibbeh,  or  benish,  and  his  kuftan),  "  even 
to  his  sword,  and  to  his  bow,  and  to  his  girdle."  So  in  the 
book  of  Esther  (vi.,  7,  8) :  "  For  the  man  whom  the  king  de- 
lighteth  to  honor,  let  the  royal  apparel  be  brought,  which  the 
king  useth  to  wear,  and  the  horse  that  the  king  rideth  upon." 
The  addition  of  "the  king's  crown  "was  Haman's  own  conceit. 
In  the  case  of  Joseph**  a  necklace  of  gold  was  put  upon  his 
neck,  as  a  token  of  the  office  with  which  he  was  invested.  The 
Egyptian  sculptures  are  filled  with  the  evidence  that  the  peo- 
ple of  that  country  were  very  fond  of  necklaces,ff  which  in 
Western  Asia  are  confined  to  the  women.  The  last  mention- 
ed instance  is  a  reference  to  a  simple  investiture  of  office,  which, 
in  the  East,  consists  in  putting  on  a  kuftan,  or  pelisse,  sent  by 
the  sovereign  with  the  firman,  or  letters  patent,  which  confer 
the  appointment.:}::}: 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  Hebrew  kings  conformed 
to  the  usage  of  other  Eastern  sovereigns  of  their  time,  by  keep- 
ing a  body-guard  about  their  persons,  in  time  both  of  peace 
and  war.     They  performed  the  police  of  the  capital,  an4  exe- 

*  Esth.  vii.  t  Perkins,  p.  282  ;  Tavernier,  p.  180. 

I  Bruce,  vol.  v.,  p.  407,  note.  §  Morier,  "Hecond  Journey,"  p.  93. 

II  Xenophon,  "Anabasis, "  lib.  i.,  chap.  ii. 

t  Morier,  "  Second  Journey,"  p.  299.         **  Gen.  xli.,  42. 

+t  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  78,  fig.  90.  U  Morier,  "  First  Journey."  p.  26. 


()66  BIBLE    LANDS. 

cuted  the  royal  commands  throughout  the  state,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  "slaughter-men" — cavasses,  ferazes,  or  janissaries, 
as  they  are  or  have  been  called  in  modern  times.  This  body- 
guard was  composed  of  the  most  valiant  and  best  soldiers  of 
the  kingdom,  and  kept  close  to  the  prince's  person  during  a 
campaign,  especially  in  a  battle.  At  the  beginning  of  the  He- 
brew kingdom  this  institution  seems  to  have  been  deemed  in- 
separable from  royalty ;  for  one  of  Saul's  first  acts,  after  the 
dismissal  of  the  army,  was  to  engage  three  thousand  men  as 
his  attendants  and  body-guard,  two  thousand  of  whom  remain- 
ed with  him,  and  one  thousand  with  his  son  Jonathan.*  David 
had  six  hundred  men  constantly  with  him  while  Saul  was  yet 
alive,  for  he  had  been  anointed  his  successor  to  the  throne.f 
Solomon  made  "two  hundred  targets  of  beaten  gold"  and 
"three  hundred  shields  of  gold,"  which  he  placed  in  his  own 
palace,  "  the  house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon,"  doubtless  for  the 
use  of  his  own  body-guard.:}:  These  were  carried  away  by 
Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  during  the  reign  of  Kehoboam,  who 
replaced  them  with  shields  of  brass,  clearly  indicating  that 
they  were  not  made  for  simple  ornament,  but  for  use.§ 

The  practice  of  the  Turkish  and  Persian  monarchs  in  this 
matter  is  essentially  the  same,  and  an  allusion  to  it  will  serve 
to  illustrate  the  Hebrew  system.  The  twelve  thousand  men 
who  form  the  shah's  body-guard  are  drawn  from  the  province 
of  Mezanderan,  and  mostly  from  the  Turkish  tribe  to  which 
he  belongs.  Their  families  live  in  the  capital  or  its  vicinity. 
They  are  divided  into  four  bodies  of  three  thousand  each,  who 
are  on  duty  in  turn  at  the  palace,  which  is  called  the  ark.|| 
They  are  on  guard  in  and  about  the  building  and  upon  its 
towers;  and  the  service  is  deemed  so  honorable,  and  confers 
withal  so  many  privileges,  that  the  king's  own  sons  do  not 
disdain  to  enlist  among  its  officers.  The  watch-word  of  these 
soldiers  is  hazi)'  (ready),  which  they  constantly  repeat  to  each 
other.  There  are,  besides,  three  thousand  goolams  (slaves),  who 
Uve  in  the  palace,  and  attend  the  person  of  the  shah  wherever 
he  goes.^  At  Constantinople  the  last  named  class  are  called 
ishoghlan.     They  are  promising  boys,  stolen  or  forcibly  taken 

*  1  Sam.  xiii.,  1,  2 ;  xiv.,  52.  +  1  Sam.  xxx.,  9. 

t  1  Kings  X.,  16, 17.  §  1  Kings  xiv.,  27. 

II  1  Chion.  xxvii.,  1.  %  Morier,  "First  Journey,"  p.  242. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,  ETC.  667 

from  their  Christian  parents,  and  brought  up  as  Muslims. 
They  are  kept  in  the  seraglio,  under  strict  discipline,  receive 
a  good  education,  and  then  have,  appointments  in  the  civil  or 
the  military  service.*  But  the  hostanjies^  also  Christians  by 
birth,  are  the  sultan's  personal  guard,  surrounding  him  and 
screening  him  with  the  plumes  of  their  helmets;  they  also 
row  his  magnificent  barge  whenever  he  goes  upon  the  water. 
The  name  of  body-guard  may,  however,  more  properly  be  ap- 
plied to  a  corps  of  twelve  thousand  janissaries,  who  were  sta- 
tioned at  the  capital  in  time  of  peace,  and  who  kept  close  to 
the  sovereign  in  war.  They  were,  by  law,  the  children  of 
Christians  killed  in  battle,  and  numbered  fifty  thousand  men 
in  all,  the  remainder  being  in  garrison  in  different  parts  of  the 
empire.  The  pay  was  small,  but  so  many  privileges  were  en- 
joyed by  the  men  that  vast  numbers  obtained  a  place  among 
them  by  bribery  who  had  no  right  to  be  there.  This  disor- 
derly militia  brought  the  country  into  a  state  of  anarchy,  de- 
posing the  sultans  at  will,  and  plundering  the  people,  till  it 
was  finally  abolished  and  suppressed  by  Sultan  Mahmood  in 
1827,  the  European  military  system  being  adopted  in  its  stead  f 

But  it  may  be  asked,  how,  according  to  the  old  or  Oriental 
system,  was  a  large  army  collected  in  Turkey  in  time  of  war? 
In  ordinary  cases,  the  troops  called  out,  besides  the  janissaries, 
were  the  spahis  and  zdims,  who,  on  account  of  their  past  serv- 
ices, lived  on  certain  crown-lands,  enjoying  their  revenues  dur- 
ing life,  or  good  behavior,  on  condition  of  their  joining  the 
sultan  in  case  of  war  with  a  certain  number  of  followers,  both 
foot  and  horse.  But  in  case  of  a  religious  war,  or  one  sanc- 
tioned by  Q.fetva  (opinion)  of  the  Sheikh-ool-Islam,  an  appeal 
is  made  to  all  the  faithful  in  the  mosks.  The  men  thus  col- 
lected know  nothing  of  war,  and  are  little  better  than  an  armed 
rabble;  but  they  are  hardy,  and  acquainted  from  their  child- 
hood with  the  use  of  weapons  and  the  management  of  horses.:}: 

It  is  evident,  from  the  whole  course  of  the  Hebrew  history, 
that  a  state  of  things  existed  among  that  people  similar  to 
what  we  have  just  described.  During  the  four  hundred  and 
fifty  years  in  which  every  Israelite  "  did  that  which  was  good 
in  his  own  eyes,"  there  was  no  standing  army,  and  the  milita- 

*  Dan.  i.,  3,  4, 18.        t  1  Kings  ix.,  19.       X  Tnvernier,  '*  Seraglio, " pp.  4,  6. 
43 


068  BIBLE   LANDS. 

ly  profession  did  not  exist.  In  case  of  an  invasion,  a  patriot 
"blew  a  trumpet,"  and  gathered  together  the  boldest  spirits  of 
one  or  two  tribes,  or  even  all  that  could  bear  arms  "  from  Dan 
to  Beersheba."*  This  system  could  not  have  been  maintained 
so  long,  had  it  not  been  also  practiced  by  their  neighbors ;  ac- 
cordingly, we  have  intimations  that  the  desert  tribes  came  up, 
like  the  modern  Bedawin,  just  before  the  harvest,  in  order  to 
reap  where  they  had  not  sown,  and  carry  off  the  crops  ;f  while 
the  dwellers  in  cities  appear  to  have  gone  to  war  as  soon  as 
the  crops  had  been  gathered  and  they  had  nothing  to  do,  i.  e., 
in  the  autumn.  Under  the  kings,  there  was  a  small  standing 
army,  corresponding  to  the  fifty  thousand  janissaries  of  Turkey, 
and  to  the  twelve  thousand  janhaz  of  the  Shah  of  Persia,  with 
the  serhaz  troops  kept  by  the  royal  princes.  Horses  were  not 
common;  they  were  mostly  used  for  war  purposes,  either  in 
drawing  chariots  or  for  cavalry,  being  kept  in  garrison  when 
not  in  active  service.:}:  But  when  a  national  danger  arose,  or 
a  martial  enterprise  was  projected,  which  required  larger  forces, 
the  king  gathered  together  as  many  of  the  people  as  the  oc- 
casion appeared  to  demand. §  All  the  neighboring  kingdoms, 
and  even  the  Greek  republics,  practiced  the  same  system. 

These  sudden  calls  to  the  people  to  bear  arms  gave  occasion 
to  the  numbering  of  all  such  as  were  capable  of  military  serv- 
ice ;  for  upon  such  an  estimate  must  necessarily  depend  many 
plans  of  either  defense  or  offense,||  as  well  as  a  just  apportion 
ment  of  military  service.  The  first  census  among  the  Hebrew 
occurred  early  in  their  history,  while  they  were  yet  in  the  wil 
derness;  and  it  had  the  Divine  sanction. 1"  David's  number 
ing  of  the  people  must  have  been  based  upon  some  impropei 
motive,  for  it  was  disapproved  by  his  general  in  chief.**  It 
may  have  been  a  foolish  vanity,  or  pride;  or  the  king  may  have 
cherished  some  improper  plan  of  conquest  or  revenge,  which 
was  providentially  thwarted  by  an  epidemic  (ver.  15).  We 
have  already  stated  that  no  census,  properly  speaking,  is  ever 
taken  in  the  East,  and  that  the  taxes  are  assessed  upon  the 
households.     But  a  record  is  kept  of  all  who  have  reached  the 

*  Judg.  iii.,  27 ;  iv.,  6 ;  vi.,  35 ;  xx.,  1 ;   1  Sam.  xv.,  4,  etc. 

t  Judg.  vi.,  1-5.  I  1  Kings  x.,  26. 

§  1  Kings  xii.,  21 ;   xx.,  15;   2  Kings  iii.,  G.  ||  Luke  xiv.,  ;U. 

II  NumI).  i.,  3.  **  2  Sam.  xxiv.,  2-4. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,  ETC.  Q69 

age  of  eighteen,  and  are,  therefore,  deemed  capable  of  bearing 
arms ;  they  are  often  spoken  of  as  so  many  guns  or  muskets. 
From  this  enumeration  Christians  and  Jews  are  excluded,  not 
being  allowed  to  own  or  carry  arms,  and  paying  the  kharnck,  or 
capitation  tax.  The  profession  of  paganism  is  punishable  with 
death.  The  pagan  tribes  profess  Islam,  and  perform  military 
duty.  The  same  mode  of  numbering  the  people  is  practiced 
in  Persia.* 

Though  military  affairs  have  greatly  changed  the  world  over 
since  the  invention  of  fire-arms,  yet  enough  is  left  to  illustrate 
the  ancient  mode  of  warfare,  and  to  point  out  the  historical  or 
traditional  connection  between  the  old  and  the  new.  We  shall 
but  briefly  allude  to  this  subject. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  by  foreigners  that  there  is  in  all 
the  East  an  unwonted  fellow-feeling  and  sense  of  equality  be- 
tween officers  and  men,  which  exerts  an  unfavorable  influence 
upon  discipline  and  the  efficiency  of  an  army.f  This  may  be 
attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  officers  are  not  superior  to  the 
men  in  education,  being  all  taken  from  the  ranks.  Some  think 
the  cause  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  no  aristocracy  in  the 
land,  and  that  all  the  religious  systems  in  vogue  equally  incul- 
cate the  common  brotherhood  of  mankind.  But  it  is  probably 
the  result,  mainly,  of  the  somewhat  primitive  mode  of  fighting 
which  has  ever  prevailed  in  those  countries.  Military  tactics 
have  never  been  studied  by  officers.  There  has,  however,  al- 
ways been  more  or  less  of  arrangement  in  ranks,  as  pictured  in 
some  of  the  Egyptian  sculptures,  which  represent  bodies  of 
archers  and  of  shielded  warriors.:}:  Yet  personal  prowess  and 
physical  strength  have  ever  been  deemed  the  highest  qualities 
of  the  soldier.  So  the  heroes  of  Homer  were  not  great  tacti- 
cians but  grand  fighters, -copying  Hercules  as  their  model,  rath- 
er than  inspired  by  Minerva.  The  generals  and  leaders  of  Da- 
vid's forces  were  all  men  who  had  distinguished  themselves  in 
personal  encounters  ;§  and  even  King  David  owed  his  military 
reputation  to  his  successful  contest  with  Goliath,  who  had  for 
forty  days  arrested  the  whole  army  of  the  Israelites.|     This 


*  Perkins,  p.  10.  f  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  221 ;  Lynch,  p.  237. 

t  Wilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  339,  341,  400,  405.     See  also  "Travels  in  little  known 
Parts  of  Asia  Minor,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  123,  141. 

§  2  Sam.  xxiii.,  8-23.  ||  i  Sam.  xviii.,  7. 


670  BIBLE   LANDS. 

feeling  of  equality  between  officers  and  men  is,  indeed,  nowhere 
specially  mentioned  in  Scripture;  but  it  is  implied  by  incidents 
occasionally  thrown  into  the  narrative.* 

Another  trait  worthy  of  notice  in  the  Oriental  soldier  is  his 
extreme  frugality,  and  his  capacity  to  endure  hunger  and  thirst 
without  a  murmur.  This  doubtless  arises  from  the  circum- 
stances of  the  people,  which  have  fostered  these  qualities  to  a 
degree  probably  unsurpassed  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 
The  Arab  in  the  Desert  contents  himself  with  camel's  milk,  a 
few  dates,  or  even  "  locusts  and  wild  honey,"  and  quenches  his 
thirst  with  a  draught  of  brackish  water.  Everywhere  else  oft- 
recurring  warfare,  occasional  sieges,  flights  to  the  mountains 
and  caves,  living  on  herbs  and  roots,  frequent  and  sudden 
changes  of  fortune  occurring  even  in  the  quietest  times,  the  oc- 
casional general  famines  and  epidemics  which  sweep  over  the 
]and,f  the  hardships  and  dangers  of  Oriental  travel — all  these 
have  ever  conspired  to  give  the  people  of  the  East  a  wonderful 
power  of  endurance.  An  army  never  burdens  itself  with  our 
cumbersome  commissariat.  A  piece  of  bread,  with  a  few  olives, 
or  a  bit  of  cheese,  or  even  a  little  meal,  satisfies  alike  the  hardy 
soldier  and  his  commander.  They  both  sleep  on  the  bare  earth 
under  the  canopy  of  heaven  for  months  together.:}:  So  Jesse 
sent  the  lad  David  to  the  camp  of  Israel  with  no  better  luxury 
from  home  for  his  fighting  boys  than  "  an  ephah  (three  pecks) 
of  parched  corn  (wheat)  and  ten  loaves  of  bread ;"  while  he 
sent  their  captain  not  even  a  lamb  or  a  kid,  but  ten  small 
cheeses,  to  induce  him  to  look  well  after  the  young  men,  and 
not  lay  too  heavy  burdens  upon  them.§ 

We  have  shown,  in  a  former  chapter,  that  the  modern  in- 
habitants of  Bible  lands  wear  essentially  the  same  dress  as  the 
ancients.  The  invention  of  gunpowder  has  brought  about  a 
complete  revolution  throughout  Europe  in  the  mode  of  war- 
fare. But  this  change  has  yet  been  only  partially  adopted  in 
the  East,  Guns  and  pistols  are,  indeed,  common  in  all  parts  of 
the  land.  Yet  few  of  these  weapons  are  made  in  the  country  : 
the  barrels  come  from  Europe,  and  are  usually  old-fashioned 
cast-off  muskets,  while  the  stocks,  of  native  manufacture,  are  of 


•  2  Sam.  xxiii.,  l.'j,  16-  +  1  Kings  xvii. 

X  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  221.  §  1  Sam.  xvii.,  17,  18. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,   ETC. 


671 


such  a  shape  that  no  European  could  use  them.  There  is 
so  strong  a  prejudice  against  percussion -locks  that  they  are 
uniformly  changed  to  flint. 
But  these  weapons  are  rarely 
seen  in  the  Desert,  where  the 
long  tufted  lance,  the  javelin, 
the  buckler,  and  the  sword 
prevail.  Even  in  Koordistan 
and  Circassia,  where  nearly 
every  man  owns  a  pistol  or  a 
gun,  and  is  a  practiced  shot, 
they  nevertheless  chiefly  rely 
upon  the  old  weapons,  and 
use  them  with  great  dexterity. 
We  reproduce  the  exact  forms 
of  the  guns  and  pistols  in 
most  general  use,  which  may 
give  an  idea  of  Oriental  taste 
in  such  matters.  No.  1  is  the 
common  form  of  the  gun  with 
wooden  stock ;  it  is  a  heavy 
smooth-bore,  and  carries  a 
ball  from  one  hundred  and 
fifty  to  two  hundred  yards. 
Every  sportsman  makes  his 
own  powder,  which  being 
weak,  a  charge  has  to  contain 
three  or  four  times  as  much 
as  one  of  ours;  and  it  fouls 
the  barrel  badly.  All  their 
guns  are  single  -  barreled. 
Few  persons  ever  use  shot,  or 
attempt  to  drop  a  bird  on  the 
wing.  No.  2  is  a  much  light- 
er gun,  with  a  steel  stock.  It 
is  chiefly  used  by  the  Albanian 
irregular  gendarmes  through- 
out the  country.  The  Orient- 
al hunter  carries  his  gun  not 
upop.  but  under  his  left  shoulder,  slung  by  a  short  strap,  while 


Oriental  Giin8, 


672  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  left  band  rests  upon  the  stock  and  steadies  the  weapon. 
Hence  a  sportsman  is  always  known  by  the  rent  made  upon 
the  left  side  of  his  jacket  by  the  rubbing  of  the  lock.  The 
common  form  of  the  pistol  is  shown  at  No.  1  of  the  annexed 
ficrure.     It  is  often   adorned  with  plates  of  silver  or  gold. 


Oriental  Pistols. 

A  pair  is  worn  in  the  belt,  as  shown  on  page  51-i,  each  being 
secured  by  a  long  cord.  No.  2  is  exclusively  used  by  the 
mountain  tribes  of  the  Caucasus,  and  is  worn  in  the  leathern 
belt  behind  the  back,  sa  as  to  be  within  easy  reach  of  the  right 
hand.  Orientals  never  take  aim  with  a  pistol  by  raising  it 
to  the  level  of  the  eye,  but  hold  it  a  little  lower  than  the  breast, 
and  aim  as  well  in  that  position  as  in  the  other,  while  they 
can  hold  the  weapon  more  steadily. 

Armor  has  essentially  ceased  to  be  used.  It  was  worn  by 
the  heroes  of  the  "  Iliad,"  and  is  frequently  described  and  pic- 
tured all  along  the  course  of  history.*  Defensive  armor  cul- 
minated in  the  Middle  Ages,  when  it  not  only  covered  every 
part  of  the  knight's  body,  but  also  protected  his  powerful 
steed.  All  this,  however,  rapidly  disappeared  when  the  in- 
vention of  gunpowder  furnished  an  agent  of  destruction  no 
steel  could  withstand.  In  Abyssinia,  where  it  is  yet  some- 
what used,  Bruce  a  century  ago  described  a  kind  of  armor 
which  must  formerly  have  been  common  in  the  East.  "The 
horses,"  he  says,  "have  plates  of  brass  upon  their  cheeks  and 
faces,  with  a  sharp  iron  spike  about  five  inches  long  stuck 


*  1  Sam.  xvii.,  38  ;  1  Kings  xxii.,  34  ;  Isu.  lix.,17  ;  Epli.  vi.,  11 ;  1  Thess.  v.,  8  : 
Rev.  ix.,  U. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY    AFFAIRS,  ETC.  6v3 

in  the  middle  of  the  forehead;  their  bridles  are  of  iron  chains; 
the  body  of  the  horse  is  covered  with  a  quilt  of  cotton,  having 
two  openings  to  receive  the  legs  of  the  rider,  protecting  him 
below  the  thighs.  Above  this  the  horseman  is  covered  with 
a  shirt  of  mail,  formed  of  iron  rings,  or  chain-work.  He  wears 
upon  his  head  a  helmet  of  copper  or  block -tin,  with  large 
crests  of  black  horse-tail,  with  a  silver  star  upon  the  front, 
while  a  flap  of  iron  chain,  made  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
coat  of  mail,  but  only  lighter,  serves  as  a  visor.  The  weapons 
consist  of  a  small  axe  fastened  to  the  saddle,  and  a  lance  four- 
teen feet  long,  very  light,  and  balanced  with  iron  at  each  end."* 


Cotton-mailed  Cavalry  of  Be^'hanni,  in  Central  Africa. 

Chain  mail  is  still  worn  in  a  great  part  of  Asia,  among  the 
Koords,  Arabs,  Persians,  Hindoos,  etc.,  and  in  Africa,  not  only 
by  the  Abyssinians,  but  by  many  other  tribes  of  the  North.f 
The  cotton  armor,  for  both  man  and  horse,  is  now  used  in 
Central  Africa,  particularly  in  Begharmi,  near  Lake  Tsad,  ac- 
cording to  Denham  and  Clapperton.     We  give  an  excellent 


Bruce,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  .">80-rj82. 


t  Denbam  and  Clapperton,  vol.  i.,  p.  210. 


674 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


picture  of  it,  taken  from  their  interesting  work,  which  has  now 
become  rare.  We  have  in  our  possession  a  Turkish  helmet 
of  steel  which  corresponds  to  the  foregoing  description.  It 
must  have  been  worn  over  a  turban,  and  there  is  a  place  for 
inserting  a  plume.*  We  also  reproduce  some  other  forms  of 
the  helmet  still  preserved  at  Constantinople,  with  the  corre- 
sponding types  taken  from  the  Assyrian  sculptures. 


Turkish  Helmet.    (2  Chrou.  xxvi.,  14.) 


(1)  Modern  Turkish  and  (2)  Ancient  As- 
syrian Helmets. 


The  double  row  of  twelve  cartridge  cases,  each  worn  by  the 
Circassian  warriors,  affords  considerable  protection  even  against 
a  ball,  whether  they  be  made  of  brass  or  tin.  (See  page  371.) 
The  thick  woolen  coat  (aba),  usually  worn  in  military  expe- 
ditions, also  offers  a  pretty  effectual  protection,  even  against 
Oriental  fire-arms.  Two  hundred  years  ago  the  shield  was  gen- 
erally carried  by  warriors  in  Turkey,  and  parade  horses  bore 
a  shield.f  It  is  still  in  use  among  the  Arabs  of  the  Desert,  the 
Koords,  and  the  Abyssinians.  The  latter  make  it  of  buffalo 
hide,  a  yard  in  diameter,  round,  and  sufficiently  convex  to 
throw  off  a  spear.  It  is  often  plated  with  silver  or  brass,  and 
ornamented  with  a  piece  of  lion's  mane  or  tail.  It  is  held 
by  a  leather  strap  in  the  centre — with  the  hand  when  fighting, 
but  fastened  to  the  arm  when  traveling.:}:  The  Arab  and  the 
Koordish  shields  closely  resemble,  both  in  form  and  in  their 


*  Tavernier,  "Seraglio," p.  90. 
J  Parky ns,  vol.  ii.,  p.  18. 


t  Thevenot,  part  i.,  p.  148. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,  ETC. 


675 


ornaments,  the  round  bucklers  so  often  portrayed  upon  the 
Khorsabad  sculptures.  They  are  made  of  the  imported  hide 
of  the  hippopotamus,  or  simply  of  buffalo  skin.  But  some  of 
those  pictured  at  Koyoonjik  are  oval,  large  enough  to  cover 
the  greater  part  of  the  body,  and  very  convex ;  they  are  con- 
structed of  wicker-work,  and  covered  with  hides.'^  There  is 
also  a  small  shield  used  by  the  Arabs  of  the  southern  coast, 


(1)  Ancient  and  (2)  Modern  Shields. 


which  is  made  of  the  skin  of  a  fish.f  The  Circassian  warrior 
uses  a  broad  dagger  instead  of  a  shield,  holding  it  in  his  left 
hand  while  he  fights,  and  dexterously  parrying  his  enemy's 
blows,  whether  given  with  the  sword,  spear,  or  lance.:}:  This 
dagger  is  eighteen  inches  long,  with  a  broad  blade,  and  hangs 
from  the  belt  in  front,  so  that  it  can  be  quickly  seized  with 
either  hand.     We  need  not  search  the  Scriptures  for  texts 


*  Layard,  vol.  ii.,  p.  266. 
J  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  181, 


t  Morier,  "Second  Jounicy,"p.  29. 


676  BIBLE   LANDS. 

which  prove  the  use  of  shields  among  the  Hebrews,  for  allu- 
sions to  them  are  of  frequent  occurrence.*  But  we  are  left 
to  conjecture  as  to  their  form,  which  was  probably  similar  to 
those  of  neighboring  nations.  Some  of  them,  we  are  told, 
were  made  of  solid  gold,  as  Solomon's  for  his  body-guard,  as 
well  as  the  buckler  of  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah.f  Goliath 
had  a  shield  of  brass,;};  and  such  were  those  of  Rehoboam's 
guards.§  The  custom  of  having  bosses  upon  the  buckler  is  at 
least  as  old  as  Job's  time.| 

It  is  not  the  Circassians  alone,  however,  who  carry  daggers 
in  their  belts.  No  Oriental  costume  is  complete  without  it ; 
even  the  ministers  of  religion  are  not  always  excepted.  Wom- 
en sometimes  wear  it ;  and  the  handsomer  the  dress,  the  finer 
must  the  dagger  be.  The  handle  is  often  adorned  with  pre- 
cious stones,  and  the  velvet  sheath  covered  with  gold  or  sil- 
ver. But  it  is  chiefly  used  not  as  a  weapon,  but  as  a  pocket- 
knife.  This  was  also  the  custom  of  the  ancients.^  According 
to  the  Assyrian  sculptures,  "  the  dagger  appears  to  have  been 
carried  by  all,  both  in  time  of  peace  and  war ;  even  the  priests 
and  divinities  are  represented  with  them."** 

The  long  spear,  or  lance,  is  now  mostly  confined  to  the 
Arabs,  Koords,  and  Persians.  It  is  made  of  a  brown  reed, 
light  but  firm,  which  grows  in  the  marshes  of  the  lower  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris.  It  is  twelve  to  fourteen  feet  long,  is  arm- 
ed with  an  iron  blade,  and  provided  at  the  other  end  with  an 
iron  point,  by  which  the  spear  is  planted  in  the  ground  and 
the  rider's  horse  is  tied  to  it ;  this  is  the  signal  for  the  tribe  to 
stop  and  encamp  :  it  also  marks  the  spot  where  the  sheikh  may 
be  found.  It  is  stuck  at  his  tent  door,  or  by  his  side  in  the 
open  air.  Thus  "  Saul  lay  sleeping  within  the  circle  of  the 
baggage,  and  his  spear  stuck  in  the  ground  at  his  bolster,  and 
Abner  and  the  people  lay  round  about  him."f  f  The  lance  is 
often  provided  with  a  tuft  of  black  ostrich-feathers,  or  wool, 
fastened  near  the  blade,  to  steady  it  when  hurled  at  an  enemy. 

The  shorter  spear,  or  javelin,  has  ever  been  and  still  is  more 
extensively  used  than  the  other.    The  Scriptures  contain  many 

*  1  Chron.  v.,  18;  2  Chron.  xxiii.,  9.  t  1  Kings  x.,  17;  2  Sam.  viii.,  7. 

t  1  Sam.  xvii.,  6.  §  1  Kings  xiv.,  27.  ||  Job  xv.,  2G. 

If  Gen.  xxii.,  10;  Jer.  xxxvi.,  2;}.  **  Laymd,  vol.  ii.,  p.  2G4. 

tt  1  Sam.  xxvi.,  7;  Moiier.  "Second  Jouniey,"  p.  115, 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,   ETC.  677 

allusions  to  this  weapon,  which  show  that  it  was,  together  with 
the  sword,  the  chief  reliance  of  the  Hebrews.*  We  also  gath- 
er from  the  same  source  that  it  was  armed  with  a  point  of 
shining  steel, f  and  was  often  hurled  at  an  enemy.:}:  But  our 
knowledge  of  it  as  used  by  the  moderns  enables  us  to  fill  up 
this  incomplete  picture.  It  varies  in  size  and  weight  in  differ- 
ent countries.  The  Abyssinians  use  the  longest  and  heaviest, 
being  over  seven  feet,  including  the  iron  head,  which  is  kept 
highly  polished  and  smeared  with  grease  to  prevent  rusting. 
It  is  made  of  hard  wood,  carefully  dried,  straightened,  browned 
by  fire,  and  greased.  But  they  have  a  lighter  sort,  made  of 
bamboo,  and  three  and  a  half  or  four  feet  long.§  The  Circas- 
sians have  a  notch  at  one  end  of  their  spears,  and  use  them  as 
rests  for  their  guns  when  shooting ;  but  they  also  hurl  this 
weapon  with  great  dexterity.  In  the  swampy  plains  of  Lower 
Mesopotamia  the  sportsmen  pursue  the  wild  boar  on  horse- 
back, and  pierce  it  with  the  javelin  held  in  the  hand.  But 
the  blunt  javelin  is  most  extensively  used,  being  indispensable 
in  the  game  of  the  jerid,  already  described  page  222.  It  will 
there  be  seen  with  what  force  it  is  sometimes  thrown  by  a 
practiced  hand,  showing  that  there  is  nothing  incredible  in  the 
account  of  Asahel's  death  by  Abner.||  We  have,  also,  an  in- 
stance of  the  force  with  which  the  iron-pointed  spear  may  be 
hurled,  in  the  feat  of  Sultan  Moorad  (Amurat),  who,  with  a 
single  throw  of  his  javelin,  pierced  three  shields  of  hippopota- 
mus hide,  a  trophy  preserved  in  one  of  the  halls  of  the  Castle 
of  Cairo. ^ 

But  the  sword  has  ever  been  the  symbol  of  war,**  and  the  em- 
blem of  power.f  f  Most  of  the  blood  shed  upon  the  earth  has 
been  spilt  by  the  sharp  edge  of  this  weapon,  and  whatever  new 
invention  has  refined  the  art  of  killing,  the  sword  has  never 
been  wholly  superseded.  We  form  some  conception  of  the  ter- 
rible havoc  it  may  commit  when  wielded  by  a  powerful  warri- 
or, when  we  read  the  statement  contained  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.,  10, 
i  e.,  that  Eleazar,  son  of  Dodo,  one  of  David's  three  mighty  men, 

*  See  particularly  Judg.  v.,  8 ;   1  Sam.  xiii.,  22  ;  xvii.,  45;  2  Chron.  xi.,  12. 
t  Job  xxxix.,  23;  Jer.  xlvi.,  4  ;   Hab.  iii.,  11.  [  ,Job  xli.,  29. 

§  Parkyns,  vol.  i.,  p.  303.  ||  2  Sam.  ii.,  23. 

^  Thevenot,  p.  142;  Pococke,  vol.  i.,  p.  33.  **  Lev.  xxvi.,  25. 

tt  Dent,  xxxiii..  29. 


678 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Modern  Oriental  WeapoiiP. 

"  smote  the  Philistines  until  his  hand  was  weary ;  and  his  hand 
clave  unto  the  sword."  We  have  a  modern  counterpart  of 
this  incident  in  an  occurrence  which  took  place  dunng  the 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY   AFFAIRS,   ETC.  679 

late  massacre  of  the  Christians  of  Mount  Lebanon  by  the 
Druses:  Sheikh  Ali  Amad's  hand,  at  the  close  of  the  butchery, 
.so  clave  to  the  handle  of  his  sword  that  he  could  not  open  it 
until  the  muscles  were  relaxed  by  repeated  applications  ^f  hot 
water,  (!) 

The  nations  of  the  earth  have  been  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  their  deadly  weapons,  and  among  them  the  different 
forms  of  the  sword  have  been  most  conspicuous.  This  is  no- 
ticeable in  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  monuments,  upon  which 
war's  with  numerous  tribes  are  often  represented.  The  short 
two-edged  sword  of  the  Eomans  is  believed  by  some  to  account 
for  their  extraordinary  military  success.  That  of  the  Greeks 
was  longer,  one-edged,  and  broadest  near  the  point.*  The  form 
of  the  Oriental  sword  is  well  known;  it  is  called  cimeter,  for 
what  reason  it  is  hard  to  say.  Its  form  is  a  regular  curve; 
and,  unlike  other  swords,  it  does  its  work,  not  by  a  single  hard 
blow,  but  by  drawing  all  its  curved  edge  through  the  object  to 
be  cut.  The  difference  between  the  Occidental  and  the  Ori- 
ental weapon  is  well  expressed  in  the  story  of  the  trial  of 
swords  between  Eichard  Coeur  de  Lion  and  Saladin,  in  Scott's 
"Talisman,"  chap,  xxxvii.  The  former,  with  a  single  blow 
from  his  two-handed  blade,  clave  asunder  "a  steel  mace  about 
one  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter;  and  the  sultan  cut  in  two, 
from  top  to  bottom,  a  cushion  of  silk  and  down  " — he  should 
have  said,  filled  with  wool — which  he  had  set  up  on  end. 

The  difference  in  the  mode  of  using  this  weapon  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  the  Occidental  broad-sword  is  heavy,  being 
sometimes  even  charged  with  quicksilver;  while  the  Oriental 
cimeter  is  made  as  light  as  possible,  a  deep  groove  running  the 
whole  length  of  the  blade  for  this  purpose,  as  may  also  be  seen 
in  the  Egyptian  sword  in  our  illustration  (a),  which  closely 
resembles  it  in  form.  The  materials  of  which  are  made  the  so- 
called  "Damascus  blades"  are  blended  in  a  manner  truly  won- 
derful. Two  pieces  of  steel,  of  different  degrees  of  hardness,  are 
said  to  be  drawn  out  into  fine  wires  and  welded  together  so  as 
to  assume  the  appearance  of  beautiful,  almost  microscopic  flow- 
ers. The  process  is  claimed  to  be  yet  a  secret,  and  a  popular 
myth  connects  it  with  the  use  of  a  peculiar  herb  mixed  with 

*  Gargiulo,  "Naples  Museum,"  vol.  iv.,  plates  31,  55-57. 


G80  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  steel  in  the  crucible,  accompanied  by  prayers  and  incanta- 
tions. These  swords  are  highly  valued,  and  the  price  of  the 
blade  alone,  for  the  best  quality  {daban),  is  never  less  than  five 
hundred  dollars.  But  other  forms  of  the  weapon  are  also  found 
in  the  East,  some  of  which  are  peculiar  to  those  countries.  The 
Southern  Arabs  use  a  straight  sword,  very  much  like  the  Euro- 
pean. The  peculiarly  Oriental  yataghan,  as  long  as  a  sword, 
and  worn  in  the  belt,  may  be  seen  in  our  illustration.  The 
Abyssinian  sword  is  crooked  near  the  end,  and  must  be  an  ex- 
ceedingly awkward  weapon. 

The  Circassians  use  bows  and  arrows  only  upon  a  secret  mil- 
itary expedition,  or  when  their  supply  of  powder  or  fire-arms 
has  failed.*  Some  of  the  Persians  shoot  the  arrow  with  great 
dexterity,  chiefly  as  a  pastime.  Horsemen  pick  up  arrows 
from  the  ground  with  a  stick  armed  with  an  iron  hook,  such  as 
is  used  in  the  game  of  the  jerid.f  Among  the  Turks  archery 
is  now  confined  to  the  sultans,  who  merely  conform  to  an  old 
custom. 

Many  of  the  ruinous  castles  of  Turkey  still  contain  the 
mouldering  remains  of  broken  armor,  and  particularly  of  ar- 
rows, which  were  there  stowed  away  for  the  use  of  the  garri- 
son. Old  arrow-heads  are  not  unfrequently  found  in  ancient 
battle-fields,  when  the  farmer  plows  the  soil  made  fat  by  the 
blood  of  the  slain.  Many  such  are  found  near  the  spot  where 
Xerxes  led  his  army  across  the  Hellespont  to  the  invasion  of 
Greece.  All  these  specimens,  both  ancient  and  modern,  and 
the  monuments  of  antiquity,  enable  us  to  form  a  distinct  idea 
of  these  weapons  as  they  were  used  in  Bible  times.:}: 

The  Macedonians,  it  has  been  thought,  owed  most  of  their 
victories  to  the  serried  ranks,  long  spears,  and  high  shields  of 
their  phalanx;  while  the  strength  of  the  Roman  army  lay  in 
the  cohort,  armed  with  a  buckler,  a  short  two-edged  sword  for 
a  close  encounter,  and  a  javelin  for  a  foe  farther  off.  But  the 
main  strength  of  the  Oriental  hosts  has  ever  consisted  in  their 
cavalry,  whose  splendid  horses  were  mounted  by  men  used  to 
the  saddle  from  childhood.  They  originally  used  chariots,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  history  of  Egypt,  Nineveh,  and  Babylon, 


*  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  181,  20!).  t  Tlieveiiot,  p.  235. 

t  Gen.  xxvii.,  3  ;  2  Kings  ix.,  24  ;   Lani.  iii.,  12. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,   ETC.  681 

and  in  the  exploits  of  Ilomer's  heroes.  But  even  as  early  as 
the  Hebrew  exodus  cavalry  was  a  recognized  element  in  the 
Egyptian  armies.*  Cyrus  and  Cresus  fought  each  other  with 
cavalry,  and  Alexander  the  Great  always  led  his  own  in  per- 
son, mounted  on  the  famous  Bucephalus.  The  rough  hills  of 
Judea  guarded  its  inhabitants  against  the  attacks  of  the  char- 
iot; but  horses  were  gradually  introduced  among  them  ;f  and 
were  doubtless  used  as  by  other  Oriental  nations.  No  war 
chariots  now  exist  in  the  East.  Cavalry  constitutes  the  main 
strength  of  the  army,  and  fight  in  the  same  desultory  and  ir- 
regular manner  as  the  ancients,  rushing  furiously  upon  the 
enemy,  and  when  meeting  with  resistance,  vanishing  like  a 
cloud,  to  return  to  the  charge  as  suddenly  as  before.:};  In  this 
mode  of  fighting,  every  thing  depends  upon  the  mettle  and 
thorough  training  of  the  horse,  as  well  as  the  personal  prowess 
and  skill  of  his  rider,  and  in  these  respects  no  other  land  prob- 
ably excels  Western  Asia.  The  game  of  the  jerid  is  the  school 
in  which  her  people  are  constantly  training  for  this  species  of 
warfore.  The  modern  Persians  are  sometimes  very  skillful  in 
the  exercise  they  call  "  keyknj,"  which  consists  in  turning  about 
in  the  saddle  when  at  full  speed,  and  firing  backward  with  a 
bow  and  arrow,  or  a  rifle,  at  a  small  mark,  and  in  warfare  at 
a  pursuing  enemy. §  Their  ancestors  fought  in  the  same  way 
with  bows  and  arrows,  as  described  by  Xenophon,||  and  as 
portrayed  upon  some  of  the  Nineveh  monuments.^ 

The  Koords  are  generally  better  horsemen  than  the  Turks. 
As  for  the  Circassians,  their  long -protracted  struggle  for  in- 
dependence against  the  whole  power  of  Russia  has  developed 
their  energies  to  a  wonderful  degree.  They  are  frugal,  hardy, 
almost  constantly  in  the  field,  and  ever  ready  to  move  at  the 
signal  of  the  watch-fire.  Such  is  the  admirable  training  of 
both  horse  and  rider,  that  their  feats  almost  pass  belief.  A 
Circassian  warrior  will  spring  from  the  saddle  to  the  earth, 
plunge  his  dagger  into  the  breast  of  his  enemy's  horse,  vault 
again  into  the  saddle,  then  stand  erect  on  the  horse's  back, 
and  fire  his  gun  at  his  adversary,  or  hit  a  mark,  his  horse  all 

*  Exod.  xiv.,  9  ;  2  Chron.  xii.,  3.  t  1  Kings  ix.,  19;  2  Kings  xiii.,  7. 

t  Burton,  "Piigiimage,"  p.  169.  §  Morier,  "Second  Journey,"  p.  169. 

II  Xenophon,  "Anabasis,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  3;  Virgil,  "Geoigics,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  31. 
1  Layard,  vol.  ii.,  p.  297. 


682 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


the  while  running  at  fall  speed.  But  the  most  wonderful  dis- 
play of  skill  is  made  in  the  single  combats  between  them  and 
the  Chernemorsky  Cossaks,  who  alone  dare  thus  to  encoun- 
ter the  Cherkess,  though  they  are  almost  always  vanquished. 


I'uilUiiu  aud  A^-jiiau  Ca\alrj. 


These  duels  in  the  presence  of  two  opposing  armies,  like  that 
between  David  and  Goliath,  have  ever  been  in  high  repute 
among  Orientals,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times.  The 
challenge  is  courteously  given  and  accepted,  and  the  rest  ob- 
serve a  strict  neutrality.  We  give  the  account  of  a  Russian 
officer  who  had  been  an  eye-witness.  The  combatants  usually 
commence  the  attack  at  full  gallop  with  the  light  musket;  but 
so  well  trained  are  they  both,  that  the  first  fire  rarely  takes  ef- 
fect, as  they  either  jump  from  the  saddle,  or  throw  themselves 
on  one  side  in  order  to  avoid  the  ball.  Sometimes  they  re- 
serve their  charge,  and,  like  a  snake  preparing  to  dart  upon 
its  prey,  each  watches  for  the  moment  when  his  adversary  is 
off  his  guard  in  order  to  fire.  After  this  first  encounter  with 
fire-arms  they  meet  at  full  gallop,  sword  in  hand,  strike  and 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,  ETC.  683 

parrj,  turn  quickly  round;  then  the  death-struggle  commences, 
in  which  one  or  the  other  is  almost  sure  to  fall* 

What  adds  not  a  little  to  the  effect  of  the  sudden  and  dash- 
ing onslaught  of  Oriental  cavalry  is  the  war-cry,  almost  identi- 
cal in  all  the  nations  of  Western  Asia.  Among  the  Circas- 
sians it  is  described  as  closely  resembling  the  yelping  of  a 
company  of  jackals:  we  have  heard  it  among  the  Arabs,  and 
can  compare  it  to  nothing  ^se ;  but  it  is  hard  to  describe  to 
those  who  have  never  heard  the  cry  of  that  animal. 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  women  have  not  unfrequently 
fought,  like  the  Eastern  Amazons  of  old,  by  the  side  of  the 
men,  and  have  equaled  them  in  courage  and  fortitude.  Dur- 
ing the  late  Crimean  war,  Kara  Fatmeh,  aged  about  seventy, 
came  to  Constantinople  at  the  head  of  a  Koordish  tribe,  to  of- 
fer her  services  to  the  sultan  in  fighting  against  the  infidels ; 
and  during  her  stay  at  the  capital,  she  proved  herself  equal  to 
any  of  the  stronger  sex  in  warlike  or  equestrian  exercises. 
Ta vernier  speaks  of  another  case,  the  wife  of  a  Persian  khan, 
who,  when  her  husband  had  been  taken  prisoner,  "put  herself 
at  the  head  of  five  hundred  horse,  and  making  a  stealthy  at- 
tack, not  only  delivered  him,  but  killed  his  enemy  with  her 
own  hand,  and  carried  away  ten  or  twelve  of  his  women."f 
The  foregoing  instances  show  that  there  exists  nothing  in  the 
least  degree  improbable  in  the  Scripture  account  of  the  kill- 
ing of  Sisera  by  Jael,  or  that  of  Holofernes  by  Judith,  as  re- 
lated in  the  Apocrypha. 

Standards  have  been  used  from  time  immemorial  in  the 
East,  as  rallying-points  for  the  soldiers.  They  frequently  oc- 
cur upon  the  monuments  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Persepolis.:]: 
They  would  seem  originally  to  have  borne  an  image  of  one  of 
their  gods  which  was  worshiped  by  the  army,  and  was  sup- 
posed to  insure  them  victory,  just  as  the  Israelites  carried  the 
ark  of  God  to  battle  for  the  same  purpose. §  This  is  doubtless 
the  meaning  of  the  expression  in  Jer.  xlvi.,  16  :  "Fly  from  the 
sword  of  the  destroying  dove."||     The  Assyrians  bore  the  im- 

*  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  223.  t  Tavemier,  p.  217. 

t  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  343  ;  Bonomi,  p.  2r.8,  figs.  110, 112, 127  ;  Morier,  "  First 
Journey, "pp.  124, 127.  §  1  Sam.  iv.,  3. 

II  The  original  Hebrew  is  susceptible  of  tins  rendering,  though  translated  in  our 
version,  "from  the  oppressing  sword." — Prideaux,  vol.  ii.,  p.  225. 

44 


684  BIBLE   LANDS. 

age  of  a  dove  upon  their  standards,  being  one  of  the  emblems 
of  Semiramis,  or  Astarte  (Venus).  We  know  that  the  Greeks 
and  Eomans  early  used  the  standards  as  mere  rallying-points 
for  the  soldiers ;  and  they  bore  various  emblems,  the  eagle  be- 
ing the  chief  with  the  latter  people.  They  were  often  gilded 
to  render  them  more  conspicuous.  There  is  no  doubt,  how- 
ever, that  the  flag  was  early  used  for  the  same  purpose,  even 
long  before  the  black  fumes  of  gunpowder  had  required  its  ex- 
clusive adoption.  There  are  distinct  intimations  in  Scripture 
that  the  Hebrews  made  use  both  of  standards*  and  of  ban- 
ners.f  Every  nation  in  the  world  now  has  its  national  flag, 
as  well  as  subsidiary  or  secondary  colors.  Mohammed's  old 
flag,  it  is  claimed,  still  exists  at  Constantinople.  It  is  the  fa- 
mous Sanjak  Sheriff  which  is  never  unfurled  except  in  seasons 
of  great  public  danger.  Its  color  is  apple-green,  and  upon  it 
are  embroidered  the  words,  "  Nasroom  min  Allah ''  (Our  help 
is  in  God).  But  the  national  colors  of  the  Osmanli  are  red, 
with  a  white  crescent  and  star — an  emblem  of  Venus,  which 
they  adopted  at  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  formerly  called 
Byzantium,  and  dedicated  to  that  goddess.  The  Turks  also 
use  a  standard  for  the  cavalry,  which  bears  a  horse's  tail.  The 
Persian  flag  is  white,  with  a  yellow  lion  and  the  rising  sun. 
The  colors  of  the  famous  Saladin  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  of 
a  bright  yellow.:}: 

V  We  who  enjoy  the  gentle  influences  of  Christian  civilization 
can  hardly  realize  that  there  was  a  time  when  the  life  and  prop- 
erty of  the  vanquished  was  thought  rightfully  to  belong  to  the 
conqueror.  Yet  this  was  the  case  not  long  ago,  even  in  Eu- 
rope, and  so  it  is  still  throughout  the  East.  The  Hebrew  na- 
tion, at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  had  a  peculiar  reason  for  act- 
ing on  this  principle,  which  has  existed  in  no  other  case;  they 
were  the  appointed  executioners  to  carry  out  the  Divine  sen- 
tence against  the  nations  whose  "iniquity  had  become  full,"§ 
The  nature  and  extent  of  this  "  iniquity  "  and  degradation  may 
be  judged  by  the  fact  that  their  chief  divinities  were  the  cruel 
Baal,  or  Moloch,  delighting  in  human  sacrifices,  and  the  las- 
civious Ashtaroth,  and  by  the  moral  corruption  of  the  "cities 


*  Numb,  ii.,  2 ;  x.,  14,  etc.  t  Psa.  xx.,  5  ;  Cant. 

X  Michaud,  "Croisades,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  5L  §  Gen.  xv.,  IG. 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY   AFFAIRS,  ETC.  685 

of  the  plain,"  whose  punishment  could  not  wait,  but  must  be 
inflicted  in  Abraham's  time.*  It  was,  doubtless,  the  Divine 
plan  to  isolate  the  people  of  Israel  from  their  heathen  neigh- 
bors, and  thus  preserve  the  successive  revelations  of  Divine 
truth.  But  the  Hebrews  did  not  fully  obey  the  Divine  com- 
mand ;f  they  allowed  many  of  the  heathen  to  remain  among 
them,  and  in  consequence  repeatedly  fell  into  idolatry.  Their 
subsequent  course  in  war  was  based  upon  the  rule  in  Deut. 
XX.,  10-14 ;  it  was  an  improvement  upon  the  practice  of  the 
heathen  around  them.  A  somewhat  adequate  idea  may  be 
formed  of  the  cruelties  perpetrated  in  warfare,  in  Bible  times, 
by'  those  great  foes  of  the  Hebrews,  the  Assyrians  and  Baby- 
lonians, if  we  lay  before  our  readers  some  well-authenticated 
instances  of  a  similar  character  which  have  occurred  in  modern 
times  in  the  East. 

We  learn  from  an  eye-witness  that,  at  the  siege  of  Bagdad, 
then  in  the  possession  of  the  Persians,  by  Sultan  Moorad 
(Amurat)  in  1638,  there  were  thirty  thousand  picked  soldiers, 
officers,  and  khans,  and  twenty  thousand  volunteers  in  the  city, 
according  to  the  captured  rolls;  and  these  were  all  killed, 
mostly  in  cold  blood,  and  after  surrendering  on  condition  of 
being  spared !  They  were  put  to  death  by  secret  orders  from 
the  grand  vizier,  to  whom  the  sultan  gave  a  pelisse  of  honor 
for  it.  Not  one  escaped  to  carry  the  news  into  Persia.:]:  Even 
the  women  and  children  were  put  to  the  sword,  and  four  or 
five  thousand  valuable  horses  were  hamstrung.  This  is  worse 
than  the  treatment  of  the  people  of  Samaria  and  Jerusalem  by 
Shalmaneser  and  Nebuchadnezzar. § 

The  Persians  of  our  day  are  in  the  habit,  in  time  of  war,  of 
offering  a  reward,  usually  amounting  to  about  fifty  dollars,  for 
every  head  of  an  enemy  brought  into  camp.  One  of  the  effects 
of  this  practice  may  be  seen  by  the  following  incident,  related 
by  a  member  of  the  British  embassy  fifty  years  ago :  A  fight 
occurred  between  the  Russians  and  the  Persians,  in  which  the 
latter,  being  led  by  English  officers,  and  using  grape-shot  for 
the  first  time,  succeeded  in  killing  about  three  hundred  of  the 
former.     The  rest  of  the  Russians  were  finally  compelled  to 

*  Gen.  xix.,  4-11.        t  Numb,  xxxi.,  17.        J  Judg.  iii.,  29 ;  1  Sam.  xxx.,  17. 
§  2  Kings  xvii.,  6;  xxv.,  10-12;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.,  17-20;  Churchill,  "  Leb- 
anon," vol.  ii.,  p.  15r>,  etc. 


686  BIBLE    LANDS. 

surrender,  the  Persians  promising  to  spare  them.  In  spite  of 
this  promise,  however,  the  heads  both  of  the  wounded  and  of 
the  prisoners  were  struck  off  in  cold  blood,  and  all  were  dis- 
patched to  the  king,  and  deposited  in  heaps  at  the  palace  gate. 
Two  of  the  English  sergeants  were  killed  on  this  occasion, 
and  after  the  battle  was  over  one  of  the  bodies  was  found 
headless;  but  the  missing  member  lay  among  the  Russian 
heads.  It  had,  doubtless,  been  severed  by  a  Persian,  who, 
passing  it  off  for  a  Russian  head,  had  received  the  price  fixed 
for  such  a  commodity.*  Among  the  slabs  taken  from  the 
ruined  palaces  of  Nineveh  are  several  which  represent  soldiers 
bringing  the  heads  of  the  slain,  while  a  scribe  is  putting  down 
the  amount,  apparently,  to  every  man's  credit,  writing  with  a 
pen  upon  a  piece  of  parchment,  and  having  an  inkstand  in  his 
girdle;  his  companion  is  counting  the  heads  aloud,  striking  his 
palm  with  a  stick  as  he  calls  the  numbers.f  The  Hebrews  do 
not  appear  to  have  adopted  this  barbarous  practice.  The  near- 
est approach  to  it  occurred  in  the  revolution  led  by  Jehu ;  for 
a  messenger  came  to  him  saying,  "They  have  brought  the 
heads  of  the  king's  sons.  And  he  said,  Lay  ye  them  in  two 
heaps  at  the  entering  in  of  the  gate  until  the  morning.''^  The 
words  "  until  the  morning "  reveal  the  gentler  character  of 
Judaism,  as  compared  even  with  Islam,  which  salts  such  tro- 
phies that  they  may  last  as  long  as  possible,  or  sets  them  upon 
a  pole,  and  keeps  them  there  until  they  drop  in  pieces.§ 

The  man  who  most  fully  reminds  us  of  the  cruel  warriors  of 
the  ancient  heathen  world  is  the  famous  Tamerlane,  or,  more 
correctly,  Timoor  Lenk  (Timoor  the  Lame),  a  Muslim,  the  con- 
queror of  Sultan  Bayezid,  whom  he  is  supposed  to  have  car- 
lied  about  in  an  iron  cage.  At  the  siege  of  Ispahan  (a.d. 
1387)  he  spared  the  lives  and  houses  only  of  artists  and  schol- 
ars, destroying  the  remainder  of  the  city,  and  killing  all  its  in- 
liabitants.  More  than  seventy  thousand  heads  were  laid  at 
his  feet,  which  he  ordered  his  soldiers  to  pile  up  in  the  form 
of  towers,  in  the  public  squares.     But  it  was  at  Sebsewar  he 

*  Morier,  "Second  Journey,"  p.  18G.  t  Lay:ml,  vol.  ii.,  p.  H7. 

t  2  Kings  X.,  8. 

§  In  Abyssinia,  instead  of  heads,  tlie  trophies  taken  from  tlie  hattle-field  arc  the 
same  as  mentioned  in  1  Sam.  xviii.,  25,  27,  probably  to  prove  that  they  arc  uncir- 
cumcised  enemies. — Brcce,  vol.  ii.,  p.  403  ;  vol.  iv.,  p.  G52. 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY   AFFAIRS,   ETC.  687 

outdid  even  himself;  for  he  piled  up  two  thousand  of  the  peo- 
ple alive,  the  one  upon  the  other,  with  their  heads  upon  the 
outside  and  their  bodies  built  up  with  mortar,  like  stones  or 
bricks.  This  last  act  of  barbarism  was  imitated,  only  a  few 
years  ago,  by  the  governor  of  a  Persian  province,  some  of 
whose  victims  lived  several  days,  being  fed  by  their  friends; 
one  of  them,  a  negro,  is  said  not  to  have  died  until  the  tenth 
day.  This  living  tower  was  erected  at  one  of  the  gates  of 
Shiraz,  and  was  yet  standing  at  the  time  of  Mr.  Layard's  visit.* 

In  connection  with  the  treatment  of  unfortunate  enemies,  it 
may  be  proper  to  speak  of  the  punishments  inflicted  upon  of- 
fenders of  every  kind.  Under  the  Mosaic  dispensation  there 
were  several  modes  of  applying  capital  punishment,  i  e.,  by 
stoning,  which  is  the  most  primitive :  it  required  a  number  of 
agents,f  and  certain  forms  were  to  be  observed,  in  order  to 
render  it  legal;:};  by  hanging;!  and  by  the  sword. ||  The  first 
of  these  modes,  or  stoning,  has  now  gone  out  of  use,  except  in 
a  lawless  manner  and  by  a  mob.Tf  Hanging  has  not  been 
practiced  except  of  late,  in  imitation  of  European  manners. 

The  Romans  crucified  their  victims,  if  they  were  slaves  or 
foreigners.  Orientals  have  often  impaled  theirs,  a  most  bar- 
barous mode  of  execution,  of  which  the  favored  Occidental 
forms  but  little  conception.  A  long  stake,  thick  as  a  man's 
arm,  and  sharpened  at  one  end,  is  driven  through  the  entire 
body  lengthwise,  coming  out  at  the  breast  or  shoulders ;  the 
stake  is  then  set  upright  and  firmly  fixed  in  the  ground,  a 
transverse  piece  serving  as  a  seat  to  support  the  body  of  the 
sufferer,  who  is  left  to  endure  the  torture  for  an  entire  day 
before  he  is  killed.  Men  have  sometimes  lived  three  days  in 
this  terrible  agony.  The  crimes  for  which  these  punishments 
are  inflicted  are  often  trifling — such  as  stealing  a  loaf  of  bread, 
or  selling  under- weight — or  even  of  an  imaginary  character. 
It  should,  however,  be  stated  that,  owing  to  the  influence  of 
the  Christian  civilization  of  the  West,  no  execution  of  this  sort 
has  occurred  for  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  It  seems  to 
have  been  unknown  to  the  Jews,  but  was  much  practiced  by 

*  Bonomi,  p.  32.     See  also  the  sketch  of  Djezzar  Pasha,  of  Acre,  in  Churchill, 
"Lebanon,"  vol.  i.,  p.  194,  etc. 
t  Lev.  xxiv.,  14.  %  Acts  vii.,  r>8.  §  Dent,  xxi.,  23. 

II  Numb.  XXXV.,  27.  t  Exod.  xvii.,  4. 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


their  heathen  neighbors;  for  among  the  sculptures  of  a  palace 
at  Khorsabad  occurs  the  representation  of  a  siege,  with  a  long 
line  of  impaled  prisoners  set  up  in  full  view  of  the  besieged  ;* 
and  history  informs  us  that  Darius  impaled  three  thousand  of 
the  chief  nobility  of  Babylon.f  Nor  were  the  heathen  spar- 
ing of  other  cruelties  to  their  victims.     They  passed  a  ring 


The  Rin^  m  the  Nose      (2  Kiu„'^  xii. ,  2-> ) 

through  the  nose  or  lip,  as  is  done  to   \tfXi^lll^J^%t^^p^f.'iB'^'\ 


'--71 


wild  beasts,  and  led  their  captives  to  the 
king,  who  sometimes  put  out  their  eyes;  thus  illustrating  the 
passage  of  Scripture,  "I  will  put  my  hook  in  thy  nose,  and 
my  bridle  in  thy  lips,":|:  spoken  to  the  Assyrian  king,  who 
practiced  this  very  thing  upon  his  vanquished  foes.§ 

The  Turks,  like  the  ancients,  rivet  heavy  chains  to  the  hands 
and  feet  of  their  criminals,  and  keep  them  for  years  in  loath- 


•  Bonomi,  p.  219,  fig.  91. 
t  2  Kings  xix.,  28. 


t  Herodotus,  bk.  iii.,  p.  159. 
§  Layard,  vol.  ii.,  p.  288. 


GOVERNMENT,  MILITARY   AFFAIRS,   ETC.  689 

some  prisons,  often  under-ground,  their  only  recreation  consist- 
ing in  hard  labor  on  the  public  works,  fastened  two  and  two, 
and  carrying  their  heavy  chain  with  one  hand  while  they 
work  with  the  other.*  After  such  preliminary  statements 
one  is  not  surprised  to  learn  that,  like  the  ancient  heathen,  the 
modern  Muslims  are  wont  to  show  little  or  no  mercy  to  their 
victims;  they  have  often  flayed  alive  their  enemies,  stuffed 
their  skins,  and  carried  them  about  as  trophies.  Thus  a  Nin- 
eveh slab  represents  a  prisoner  tied  down  by  the  hands  and 
feet,  with  a  countenance  expressive  of  intense  agony,  while  the 
savage  executioner  takes  off  his  skin  with  a  knife.f  The  Os- 
manlis  usually  make  a  distinction  in  the  mode  of  execution 
according  to  the  rank  of  the  condemned.  The  sultan  has  been 
•  wont  to  send  a  chaoosh,  or  royal  messenger,  to  the  doomed 
pasha,  with  an  imperial  firman  ordering  his  execution;  upon 
receiving  which  the  submissive  official  would  bare  his  neck 
without  a  murmur,  and  be  strangled  on  the  spot  with  a  bow- 
string. His  head  was  then  cut  off,  and  conveyed  in  a  bag  to 
the  master  as  proof  that  the  deed  was  done. 

The  common  people  were  taken  off  in  a  variety  of  ways,  but 
according  to  certain  rules,  which,  however,  varied  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  Renegades  were  wrapped  in  tar-cloth 
and  set  on  fire;  or  they  were  built  around  with  masonry,  the 
head  alone  being  left  out  and  smeared  with  honey  for  the  bees 
and  flies  to  torment  them,  after  which  they  were  put  to  death. 
A  slave  who  killed  a  Muslim  had  his  legs  and  arms  broken, 
was  tied  to  a  horse's  tail,  dragged  about,  and  finally  strangled.:}: 
But  we  should  never  finish  this  list  of  horrors,  were  we  to  at- 
tempt even  a  brief  description  of  them  all.  The  curious  read- 
er will  find  it  in  works  which  treat  particularly  of  such  mat- 
ters.§  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  chief  punishments  inflicted 
are  the  following:  mutilation  of  limbs,  strangling,  beheading, 
impaling,  cutting  out  the  tongue,  putting  out  the  eyes,  kill- 
ing, and  throwing  the  body  to  the  dogs ;  while  the  bastinado, 
or  striking  the  soles  of  the  feet  with  rods,  and  the  cutting 

*  Bonomi,  p.  191 ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii.,  11;  xxxvi.,  6. 

t  Bonomi,  p.  192,  fig.  70.  J  Thevenot,  p.  279. 

§  Tavernier,  pp.  215,  218  ;  Perkins,  p.  291 ;  Morier,  "  First  Journey,"  pp.  80, 
204;  "Second  Journey," p.  96;  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  15G ;  Churchill,  vol.  iii.,  p.  384; 
Bruce,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  391,  403 ;  vol.  iii.,  pp.  139,  197  ;  vol.  iv.,  p.  652. 


690  BIBLE   LANDS. 

off  of  the  ears,  or  nailing  them  to  a  post,  were  deemed  mere 
trifles.* 

The  prisons  of  the  East  correspond  to  the  cruelties  we  have 
just  described.  They  could  hardly  have  been  better  contrived 
had  they  been  planned  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  by  a  lin- 
gering death.  Jeremiah  was  "cast  into  the  dungeon  of  Mal- 
caiah,  into  which  he  was  let  down  with  cords;  in  the  dungeon 
there  was  no  water,  but  mire ;  so  Jeremiah  sunk  in  the  mire."f 
We  have  seen  the  "inner  prison"  at  Eome,  where  the  apostle 
Paul  was  let  down,  and  Jugurtha  died  of  hunger.  These  are 
supposed  to  be  the  fruits  of  a  barbarous  age ;  yet  the  Eomans 
were  the  most  civilized  heathen  of  any  age,  being  surpassed  in 
their  time  only  by  the  Hebrews.  But  twenty  centuries  appear 
to  have  produced  no  change  in  the  East  in  this  matter.  We 
have  visited  many  a  prison  in  the  Levant;  we  have  seen  ma- 
niacs confined  in  the  same  dungeon  with  criminals,  and  have 
often  wondered  how  the  latter  could  preserve  their  reason  in 
such  a  spot,  or  how  it  could  remain  so  full  with  so  large  a  mor- 
tality. The  latter  is  not  only  the  result  of  intolerable  filth  and 
want  of  ventilation,  but  also  of  the  lack  of  rest,  the  excess  of 
vermin,  the  heavy  chain,  and  the  unmerciful  stocks  in  which 
the  feet  are  "  made  fast.":}:  We  may  well  pity  virtuous  Joseph, 
if  he  was  indeed  cast,  as  claimed  by  tradition,  into  the  present 
dungeon  of  the  citadel  of  Cairo,  which  is  "composed  of  dark, 
loathsome,  and  pestilential  passages,  where  the  prisoners'  feet 
are  made  fast  in  the  stocks;  they  are  chained  to  the  wall,  and 
cold  water  in  buckets  is  poured  upon  them  until  they  have 
given  up  all  their  money  to  their  tormentors."  This  prison 
has  been  called  "a  hell  upon  earth"  by  a  humane  traveler; 
but  there  is  scarcely  one  Turkish  prison  that  does  not  well  de- 
serve the  name  this  very  day.§  And  yet  there  are  worse  places 
than  even  these.  An  Englishman  has  described  the  prisons  in 
which  Shamyl,  so  often  called  the  Circassian  hero,  used  to  con- 
fine his  Russian  prisoners.  They  consisted  of  circular  pits  dug 
in  the  ground  for  storing  grain,  and  were  twenty-five  feet  deep 
and  ten  wide.  The  top  was  covered  with  flag-stones  having  a 
small  hole  for  the  admission*  of  air,  and  lettinc:r  in  the  rain  and 


♦  Wilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  p.  211.  t  Jer.  xxxviii.,  6. 

t  Acts  xvi.,  24.  §  Thevenot,  p.  141. 


I 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY   AFFAIRS,  ETC  691 

snow  as  well.  The  prisoners  were  kept  in  these  dungeons  for 
weeks  together,  and  removed  only  to  cleanse  the  place,  being 
drawn  out  and  let  down  again  with  ropes.* 

It  is  pleasant  to  know  that  the  present  governments  of  West- 
ern Asia  and  North-eastern  Africa  have  taken  a  decided  stand 
for  reform  and  humanity,  and  are  abolishing  these  barbarous 
customs  and  practices,  as  a  condition  to  being  tolerated  by  the 
great  nations  of  Europe.  But  many  are  now  living  who  well 
remember  the  recently  prevailing  state  of  things,  and  events 
occasionally  occur  which  revive  their  memories.  Thirty  years 
have  not  elapsed  .since  the  many  causeless  executions  had  cre- 
ated the  popular  belief  that  every  pasha  could  put  to  death 
daily,  without  showing  cause,  a  number  of  men  equal  to  that 
of  the  horse-tail  standards  carried  before  him,  which  indicated 
his  rank ;  and  no  one  doubted  that  the  sultan  himself  could 
lawfully  order  the  execution  of  as  many  of  his  subjects  as  he 
chose.f  Not  long  ago  the  Turks  had  the  reputation  of  taking 
off  a  man's  head  with  wonderful  dexterity,  holding  it  by  the 
hair,  and  severing  it  at  a  single  blow  with  a  cimeter  or  yata- 
ghan ;  and  many  ever  stood  ready  to  volunteer  to  do  it,  in  or- 
der to  keep  their  hand  in.  But  now  the  chief  reason  why  hang- 
ing, which  is  deemed  dishonorable,  is  resorted  to,  is  the  fact 
that  a  man  can  rarely  be  found  capable  of  performing  the  act 
of  decapitation  decently,  and  that  few  are  even  willing  to  try.;}: 

We  conclude  from  the  foregoing  statements  that  the  Hebrews 
were  decidedly  in  advance  of  their  neighbors  with  regard  to 
the  humane  treatment  of  enemies  and  the  punishment  of  crime, 
and  that  the  followers  of  Mohammed  have,  throughout  their 
entire  career,  been  little  if  any  better  than  the  heathen.  In- 
deed, they  have  often  imitated  the  latter  even  by  involving  a 
man's  wife  and  children  in  his  ruin.§  This  was  forbidden  to 
the  Jews  by  the  Mosaic  law.||  The  Muslim  law  allows  the 
commutation  of  the  death  penalty  for  money,  in  case  the  near- 
est relatives  give  their  consent,  while  the  Jewish  law  only  pro- 
vides that  reparation  for  the  death  of  a  slave  gored  by  an  ox 
shall  be  made  in  money,  and  the  ox  shall  he  killed.^     But  there 

*  Ussher,  p.  173.  t  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  13'J  ;  Bruce,  vol.  iii.,  p.  G08. 

X  "Travels  in  Asia  Minor,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  28. 

§  "Arabian  Nights," p.  81  ;  Dan.  vi.,  24.  |I  Deut.  xxiv.,  16. 

t  Numb.  XXXV.,  31,  32. 


692  BIBLE   LANDS. 

is  a  resemblance  in  sound  between  the  two  cases  as  to  the 
amount,  which  with  the  Jews  was  thirty  shekels  of  silver,  and 
with  the  Muslims  thirty  thousand  piasters,  a  sum  few  are  able 
to  pay.*  Mohammed  has  copied  Moses,  in  appointing  retalia- 
tory punishments  in  many  cases — "  an  eye  for  an  eye,  and  a 
tooth  for  a  tooth. "f 

By  the  Mosaic  law  six  cities  were  appointed,  to  which  the 
homicide, might  flee,  and  find  a  refuge  from  the  "  avenger  of 
blood,":}:  It  was  a  wise  provision  against  the  blood  feuds 
which  then  prevailed,  and  are  still  common  in  many  parts  of 
the  country,  and  among  the  Arabs  in  particular.  This  is  push- 
ed so  far  among  some  tribes,  especially  those  of  Saad  and  Ha- 
ram  in  the  Nile  delta,  that  blood  revenge  is  sometimes  taken 
a  century  after  the  deed,  and  when  it  had  been  forgotten  by 
all  but  the  lineal  avenger  himself  §  This  practice,  however, 
is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  Arab  race ;  it  prevails  among 
all  clannish  people  ruled  by  the  patriarchal  system,  among  the 
independent  tribes  of  the  Caucasus,  whether  Circassian,  Lesghi, 
or  Nogay,  as  well  as  on  the  adjoining  continent,  among  the 
Greeks,  Arnaoots,  and  Suliots.  We  have  heard  of  two  cases, 
one  in  the  Aool  of  Eatloo,  in  the  Caucasus,  the  other  in  a  vil- 
lage of  the  district  of  Maina  (Sparta),  in  the  Morea,  where  the 
male  population  was  divided  into  two  parties  by  a  blood  feud, 
and  had  to  shut  themselves  up  in  two  strong  towers  within 
gunshot  of  each  other.  This  state  of  things  lasted  in  the  one 
case  more  than  twenty  years,  neither  party  daring  to  show 
themselves,  and  the  women  in  the  mean  time  tilling  the  ground 
and  doing  all  the  out-of-door  work,  while  the  men  kept  the 
house.  I 

The  remedy  applied  to  this  evil  by  the  Mosaic  law  was  at 
once  simple  and  effectual.  The  homicide  fled  to  the  "city  of 
refuge,"  whose  inhabitants  protected  him  until  his  case  could 
be  investigated,  when,  if  guilty  of  murder,  he  was  put  to  death, 
not  by  the  "avenger  of  blood,"  but  by  the  regular  magistrates; 
but  if  found  guilty  only  of  an  involuntary  homicide,  he  was 

*  Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  also,  murder  could  be  compensated  by  the  pay- 
ment of  money,  according  to  the  social  status  of  the  victim,  with  the  consent  of 
the  nearest  relation. — Gillies,  "Greece,"  vol.  i.,  chap.  ii. 

+  Lev.  xxiv.,  20;  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  133.  t  Numb,  xxxv.,  13,  etc. 

§  Lane.  vol.  i.,  p.  248.  II  Ussher,  p.  180. 


GOVERNMENT,   MILITARY   AFFAIRS,  ETC.  693 

confined  within  the  bounds  of  the  city  until  the  death,  of  the 
high -priest,  both  as  a  protection  against  his  enemy,  and  as  a 
punishment  for  any  carelessness  of  which  he  may  have  been 
guilty.  Any  one  killing  him  within  the  city,  or  out  of  it,  after 
his  lawful  release,  would  be  guilty  of  murder,  and  be  dealt 
with  accordingly.*  The  nearest  approach  to  this  among  the 
heathen  was  the  protection  afforded  to  criminals  within  the 
precincts  of  certain  temples;  but  this  also  existed  among  the 
Hebrews,  who  sought  protection  against  the  execution  of  the 
law,  or  the  wrath  of  the  prince,  by  laying  hold  of  the  horns  of 
the  altar  of  the  Lord.f  With  Muslims,  the  shrines  or  tombs 
of  great  saints,  like  that  of  Hosein  at  Kerbelah,  near  Bagdad, 
and  of  Fatima  at  Koom,  in  Persia,  afford  an  asylum  which  is 
rarely  violated.  Superstitious  veneration,  indeed,  so  guards 
these  places  that  a  refugee  can  be  taken  only  by  starving  him 
out.:}:  In  Abyssinia  there  are  five  churches  whose  precincts 
are  legal  places  of  refuge. § 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  royal  authority  is  so  com- 
plete as  wholly  to  control  every  branch  of  the  administration. 
The  patriarchal  idea  always  implies  a  slight  admixture  of  the 
popular  element.  The  Hebrews  had  two  councils ;  the  one, 
composed  of  twenty-three  members,  was  found  in  every  city, 
and  its  jurisdiction  extended  to  the  limits  of  the  city  lands. 
The  Sanhedrim,  or  Great  Council  of  Seventy-two,  ruled  over 
the  whole  nation. ||  In  like  manner,  at  the  present  day,  the 
affairs  of  every  city  are  under  the  control  of  its  own  council 
(mejlis),  presided  over  by  the  governor,  and  composed  of  the 
cadi,  or  judge;  the  mufti,  or  law-expounder;  the  representatives 
of  the  Muslim,  Christian,  and  Jewish  portions  of  the  communi- 
ty, chosen  by  the  people,  and  some  of  the  principal  citizens  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown.  The  Grand  Council,  or  Divan,  sits  at 
the  capital  under  the  presidency  of  the  grand  vizier,  and  is 
composed  of  the  chief  officers  of  state,  and  clergy,  and  of  em- 
inent and  influential  citizens.  These  control  all  the  affairs  of 
the  country. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  East  like  the  political  or  religious 
espionage  which  has  often  constituted  the  worst  feature  of  des- 

*  Numb.  XXXV.,  15,  24,  25,  27.  +  1  Kings  ii.,  28. 

t  "  Haji  Baba,"  vol.  i.,  p.  253  §  Krapf,  p.  3G5,  note. 

II  Prideaux,  vol.  iv.,  p.  113. 


694 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


potic  governments  in  the  West.  The  only  spy  is  the  sover- 
eign himself,  who,  like  the  celebrated  Haroon  Al  Eashid,  caliph 
of  Bagdad,  often  in  disguise,  walks  about  the  streets,  discover- 
ing abuses  which  he  sometimes  punishes  on  the  spot.*  No 
one  ever  suffers  for  any  treasonable  speeches  he  may  utter ;  and 
it  must  be  considered  both  a  relief  under  oppression  and  wrong, 
and  a  safety-valve,  to  be  allowed  to  complain  to  one's  heart's 
content.  The  police  is  very  active  and  efficient;  it,  indeed, 
generally  carries  things  with  too  high  a  hand.f 


*  Prideaux,  vol.  iv.,  p.  317 ;   "Arabian  Nights,"  p.  34. 
t  Churchill,  "  Lebanon,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  274. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES  AND   MEN.  695 


CHAPTER  X. 

RELIGIOUS  HOUSES  AND  MEN. 

In  no  part  of  the  world  have  mankind  attached  greater  im- 
portance to  religion  than  in  Western  Asia.  Its  influence  has 
always  pervaded  every  stage  and  condition  of  human  life,  and 
its  votaries  have  been  noted  for  their  zeal,  whether  in  the  prop- 
agation of  its  tenets  or  in  suffering  for  its  defense.  Ancient- 
ly as  now,  religion  and  the  state  were  inseparable ;  an  offense 
against  the  one  was  a  crime  against  the  other.  Every  nation 
had  its  own  gods,*  and,  now  that  all  are  comprised  in  one  em- 
pire, the  political  status  of  each  class  of  the  people  depends 
simply  and  solely  upon  its  religious  profession.  To  be  an  in- 
fidel {dm-siz,  without  religion)  is  everywhere  deemed  the  worst 
of  crimes,  and  makes  a  man  an  outlaw. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  religious  systems  which 
liave  exerted  the  widest  influence  in  the  world  originated  in 
Western  Asia.  Europe,  Africa,  and  America  have  ever  point- 
ed to  the  East  as  the  source  of  their  faith,  while  Japan,  China, 
and  India  describe  theirs  as  coming  from  the  AVest.  It  is  not, 
however,  our  purpose  to  trace  the  origin  or  describe  the  de- 
velopment of  these  various  systems;  we  shall  only  endeavor 
to  point  out  such  remains  of  the  principal  religious  systems 
spoken  of  in  the  Scriptures  as  yet  exist  in  Bible  lands.  These 
can  not  be  numerous,  for  Christianity  and  Islam,  supplanting 
all  else,  have,  each  in  turn,  sought  to  destroy  the  memory  of 
the  days  of  ignorance.  We  shall  consider  them,  in  the  pres- 
ent chapter,  chiefl}^  with  regard  to  the  outer  forms  and  aspects 
of  religion,  and  afterward  remark  upon  some  of  the  ideas  still 
prevalent  on  religious  subjects  in  the  lands  of  the  Bible. 

The  earliest  form  of  idolatry  which  prevailed  upon  the  earth 
consisted  in  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Among  an 
ignorant  people   dwelling  under  the   clear  sky  of  Chaldea, 

*  Lsa.  xxxvii.,  10-13. 


696  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Mesopotamia,  Canaan,  and  Egypt,  this  does  not  seem  strange. 
The  sun  daily  went  forth  "rejoicing  as  a  strong  man  to  run  a 
race  ;"*  his  influence,  everywhere  paramount,  gave  life  to  na- 
ture, and  produced  the  seasons;  the  moon  shone  upon  the 
night,  marked  the  months,  and  ruled  over  the  weather  and  the 
productive  powers  of  nature;  even  the  stars  moved  steadily 
on,  as  though  animated.  It  was  natural  to  invest  these  heav- 
enly bodies  with  intelligence,  a  will,  and  even  with  divine  at- 
tributes. The  next  step  was  prayer  and  praise,  which  soon 
took  the  grosser  form  of  worshiping  the  emblems  of  these  im- 
aginary deities.  These  emblems  possessed  an  advantage  over 
the  former,  for  they  could  be  had  at  all  times,  and  might  be 
kept  in  a  temple,  ready  whenever  wanted,  and  not  hiding  be- 
hind a  cloud,  or  visible  only  in  the  night.  The  principal  em- 
blem of  the  sun  was  fire,  itself  a  great  boon  to  mankind.  It 
was  and  still  is  worshiped ;  its  most  acceptable  sacrifice  among 
the  ancients  was  a  human  being,  particularly  the  tender  flesh 
of  an  infant.  Other  emblems  were  also  used.  In  Egypt  most 
of  the  brute  creation  were  worshiped,  as  representing  attributes 
of  their  chief  divinities. 

This  system,  under  many  of  its  forms  and  degrees  of  de- 
velopment, is  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures.  The 
siaja  is  Bel,  Baal,  and  Baalim;  the  moon,  Ashtaroth.f  Are 
any  remains  of  this  primitive  form  of  idolatry,  in  its  various 
stages  of  development,  still  existing  in  Western  Asia,  or  has 
so  gross  a  superstition  utterly  perished  before  the  light,  not  of 
philosophy,  but  of  revelation  ? 

The  first  relic  of  this  kind  which  we  shall  mention  consists 
of  certain  names,  or  words,  floating  about  the  country,  which 
can  have  no  other  origin  than  the  form  of  idolatry  we  have 
described.  These  words  are  not  found  among  people  of  one 
nation  alone,  who  might  adopt  them  under  a  false  impression, 
or  connect  them  with  a  distorted  tradition  ;  they  are  met  with 
among  inimical  and  isolated  tribes,  spread  out  over  great  spaces 
of  time.  Such  is  the  word  Babel,  or  Babil,  applied  by  univers- 
al consent  to  a  city  in  Lower  Mesopotamia,  whether  the  story 
of  the  confusion  of  tongues  and  the  dispersion  of  mankind  be, 

*  Psa.  xix.,  5. 

t  Deut.  iv.,  19  ;  xvii.,  3  :  1  Sam.  vii.,  3  ;  1  Kings  xi.,  "> ;  xvi.,  32  ;  2  Kings 
xxiii.,6;  Job  xxxi.,  2G. 


KELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND   MEN.  697 

in  men's  ideas,  connected  with  it  or  not.  The  word  has  no 
meaning  in  the  modern  languages  of  the  East,  though  the 
names  given  by  the  ancients  were  always  significant,  as  the 
student  of  the  Bible  can  not  fail  to  notice.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  word  I|el  in  the,oxiginal.Ianguage  of  Chaldea  signified 
lordj  and  was  given  to  the  sun,  the  greatest  and  mightiest  of 
allgods,  to  denote  his  supremacy  over  all  created  things. 
Now  this  word  Bel,  or  Bal,  or  Baal  has  come  down  to  us  his- 
torically, both  in  the  Bible  and  in  profane  Eastern  writings, 
attached  to  various  localities  and  men,  and  under  many  forms, 
without  any  explanation  of  its  sense  ;  this,  however,  the  recent 
discoveries  respecting  the  ancient  language  of  Chaldea  now 
enable  us  to  expound.  The  Belshazzar  of  our  Bible  is  the 
Hebrew  pronunciation  of  Bil-shar-uzar,  which  means  Bel  gives 
treasures.  Such  is  the  origin  of  certain  other  names  occur- 
ringin  Scripture,  as  Beth-shemesh  (the  house  of  the  sun) ;  Ash- 
taroth  -  Karnaim  (Venus  with  horns,  or  the  new -moon).  All 
names  containing  the  syllable  Bel,  or  Baal,  are  also  indicative  of 
this  form  of  idolatry  ;  just  as  the  names  in  Arabic,  which  contain 
the  word  Allah,  such  as  Kha'ir-oollah,  Abd-allah,  etc.,  indicate 
the  fact  that  the  Arabs  believe  in  and  worship  Allah.  The 
Phoenicians  also  had  the  names  Hanni-bal,  Asdru-bal,  etc. ;  and 
the  Greeks  Helio-polis  (city  of  the  sun),  etc.  These  are  all 
memorials  of  the  ancient  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  So 
are  the  ruins  of  many  temples  dedicated  to  them,  the  numer- 
ous statues  erected  to  their  honor,  the  inscriptions  which  men- 
tion their  names,  or  implore  their  favor,  and  the  medals,  coins, 
and  gems  which"  bear  their  effigies. 

But  these  are  all  the  memorials  of  a  dead  faith.  We  have 
still  in  the  East  remnants  of  its  living  votaries,  who  cling  to 
the  rites  of  their  fathers  in  spite  of  the  persecutions  and  ha- 
tred of  Muslim  bigotry.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  Yez- 
idies,  mostly  found  on  the  borders  of  Koordistan,  but  who 
have  hospitably  entertained  us  in  their  tents  as  far  west  as 
the  Gebl-shimon,  near  Aleppo.  Their  tenets  are  not  fully 
known,  for  their  books  have  not  been  studied ;  yet  there  is  no 
doubt  that,  amidst  a  confused  mass  of  notions  derived  from 
Christianity  and  Islam,  they  cover  and  hide  the  doctrines  and 
practices  of  the  ancient  magi.  The  tomb  of  Sheikh  Adi  is  the 
principal  shrine,  or  tekkeh  (place  of  worship),  of  this  ancient 


698  BIBLE   LANDS. 

people.  It  lies  in  a  sheltered  valley  amidst  the  mountains  of 
Koordistan,  and  by  the  side  of  it  gleams  a  white  spire  spring- 
ing from  a  low  edifice,  neatly  constructed,  and,  like  all  the 
chapels  of  the  Yezidy,  kept  as  pure  as  repeated  coats  of  white- 
wash can  make  it.  It  is  called  the  Sanctuary  of  Sheikh  Shems, 
or  the  Sun,  and  is  so  built  that  the  first  rays  of  that  luminary 
full  upon  it.  Near  the  door  is  carved  on  a  slab  an  invocation 
to  Sheikh  Shems.  Mr.  Layard,  describing  his  visit,  says  :  "At 
sunset,  as  I  sat  in  the  alcove  in  front  of  the  entrance,  a  herds- 
man led  into  a  pen  attached  to  the  building  a  drove  of  white 
oxen,  I  asked  a  cawal  (priest)  who  sat  near  me  to  whom  the 
beasts  belonged.  '  They  are  dedicated,'  he  said,  '  to  Sheikh 
Shems,  and  are  never  slain  except  on  great  festivals,  when 
their  flesh  is  distributed  among  the  poor.'  On  festive  occa- 
sions lamps  are  lighted  and  set  all  about  the  grounds,  in  niches 
of  the  walls,  on  isolated  rocks,  and  even  in  the  hollow  trunks  of 
trees,  and  men  and  women  pass  their  right  hands  through  the 
flame,*  and,  after  rubbing  the  right  eyebrow  with  the  part 
which  had  been  purified  by  the  sacred  element,  they  devoutly 
carry  it  to  their  lips.  Some  who  bore  children  in  their  arms 
anointed  thgm  in  like  manner,  while  others  held  out  their 
hands  to  be  touched  by  those  who,  less  fortunate  than  them- 
selves, could  not  reach  the  flame.  Their  veneration  for  the  sa- 
cred fire  is  such  that  they  kiss  even  the  stones  which  have  been 
blackened  by  the  smoke  of  the  lamps.  They  also  kiss  the  ob- 
ject on  which  fall  the  first  rays  of  the  sun.  They  have  nearly 
the  same  reverence  for  fire,  as  symbolic ;  they  never  spit  into  it, 
but  frequently  pass  their  hands  through  the  flames,  kiss  them, 
and  rub  them  over  their  right  eyebrow,  or  sometimes  over 
tiieir  whole  f;\ce."  The  blue  color  is  an  abomination  to  them, 
as  it  was  anciently  to  the  Sabeans,  and  they  never  wear  it. 
They  worship  toward  the  east,  or  rising  sun.  They  are  fond 
of  wearing  white  clothes,  which  is  always  done  by  their  priests 
or  sheikhs,  and  practice  frequent  ablutions  and  great  cleanli- 
ness.f 

But  there  is  another  class  of  people  in  the  East  who  strong- 
ly remind  us  of  the  religious  rites  of  the  ancient  Persians,  and 
hence  go  by  the  name  of  Parsees  (Persians).     They  worship 

*  Jer.  xxxii.,  35.  t  Layard,  vol.  i.,  p-  230. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND   MEN.  699 

toward  fire,  and  especially  toward  the  sun,  as  being  the  abodes 
and  emblems  of  the  deity.  As  we  have  already  seen,  this  is 
one  of  the  oldest  forms  of  idolatry.  But  it  was  arranged  in  a 
complete  system  by  Zoroaster,  who  lived  about  the  time  of  the 
Jewish  captivity  in  Babylon.*  The  value  of  fire  to  man  may 
have  been  one  motive  for  its  worship,  but  the  chief  cause  prob- 
ably lay  in  the  fact  of  its  first  being  obtained  from  the  sky,  im- 
plying to  the  superstitious  mind  a  divine  origin.  At  Athens 
such  a  fire  was  kept  with  religious  care,  it  being  thought  that  the 
very  existence  of  the  state  depended  upon  its  never  going  out. 
Every  new  colony  carried  some  of  this  sacred  fire  with  it,  and 
kept  it  in  its  prytaneum,  or  council  hall.f  Among  the  Ro- 
mans the  sacred  fire  was  kept  burning  day  and  night,  by  vir- 
gins of  the  noblest  families,  in  the  beautiful  little  temple  of 
Vesta,  yet  standing  amidst  the  ruins  of  the  Imperial  City. 
The  favorite  emblem  of  the  Aryans  is  thought  to  have  been  a 

peculiar  cross  Av  representing  the  tw^o  sticks  with  which  fire 

used  to  be  produced;  but  it  often  occurs  ou  the  Cyprian  re- 
mains in  the  Cesnola  collection. 

It  is  interesting  to  study  the  gradual  process  by  which  Prov- 
idence put  an  end  to  the  various  forms  of  idolatry  that  once 
exerted  so  great  an  influence  upon  the  minds  of  men.  This  is 
particularly  striking  in  the  case  of  fire-worship.  It  was  not 
an  Egyptian  superstition,  but  was  found  prevalent  by  the  He- 
brews in  the  land  of  Canaan,  whose  inhabitants  worshiped 
Baal,  Ashtaroth,  and  all  the  host  of  heaven,  and  whose  vener- 
ation for  fire  was  so  great  that  they  caused  their  children  to 
pass  through  it,  and  even  burned  them  alive  as  an  offering  to 
Moloch.:}:  The  first  blow  struck,  by  anticipation,  at  this  super- 
stition consisted  in  the  visible  sending  of  fire  from  heaven  by 
Jehovah  himself  in  sight  of  all  the  people,  upon  the  altar  of 
sacrifice  in  the  wilderness;  thus  proving  the  element  worship- 
ed by  the  heathen  to  be  the  servant  of  the  God  of  the  He- 
brews.§  This  very  fire  was  kept  unextinguished  for  five  hun- 
dred years,  and  was  used  for  the  sacrifices  of  the  tabernacle  at 

*  For  the  tenets  of  Zoroaster  and  the  Zendavesta,  see  Prideaux,  vol.  i.,  p.  386. 
See  also  Max  Mailer,  "Chips,"  vol.  i.,  etc. 

t  Rawlinson,  "Herodotus,"  vol.  i.,  p.  289,  note. 

J  Lev,  XX.,  2-4 ;  2  Kings  iii.,  27.  §  Lev.  ix.,  24. 

45 


700 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Shilob.*  When  the  Temple  was  dedicated  by  Solomon,  God 
again  sent  down  fire  from  heaven  upon  the  new  altar  of  sac- 
rifice ;t  and  this  fire  seems  to  have  been  preserved  until  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple,  and  the  Babylonian  captivity.  But 
the  greatest  blow  to  the  superstitious  veneration  for  fire,  which 
had  become  prevalent  even  among  the  Israelites,  was  struck 
by  Elijah  the  prophet,  in  the  days  of  Ahab.  The  people 
were  bidden  to  choose  between  Jehovah  and  Baal,  and  the 
test  of  real  divinity  was  made  to  consist  in  the  power  to  bring 
down  fire  from  heaven.  The  "  Fire-god  "  was,  of  course,  un- 
able to  produce  the  test ;  and  when  the  flame  descended  upon 

the  altar  in  answer  to 
the  prayer  of  Elijah, 
the  people  fell  upon 
their  faces,  and  cried, 
"The  Lord  he  is  the 
God"  (Hebrew,  ''Jeho- 
vah he  is  the  God.") 
This  event  proved  the 
death-blow  to  fire- 
worship  in  Israel ;  for, 
though  the  chariot  and 
horses  dedicated  to  the 
sun  at  Jerusalem  were 
not  burned  until  near- 
ly three  hundred  years 
later,  yet  this  form  of  idolatiy  was  so  far  vanquished  that  it 
did  not  re-appear  after  the  captivity.:): 

The  religion  of  Zoroaster  was  at  one  time  the  national  faith 
of  the  Persians,  of  Xerxes,  and  of  Darius,  who  was  vanquished 
by  Alexander  the  Great.  Some  of  the  fire-altars  erected  by 
these  kings  are  still  extant,  in  a  good  state  of  preservation, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  above  illustration.  Many  rock  sculp- 
tures also  represent  the  worship  of  the  element  by  kings  and 
priests,  and  long  inscriptions,  in  arrow-headed  cliaracters,  con- 
tain addresses  to  Ormazd  (the  good  principle),  who  was  wor- 
shiped under  the  emblem  of  fire. 


Fue  iltai  .It  Naklivhi-Rustam. 


*  Lev.  vi.,  \^;   X.,  1. 

\  2  Kings  xxiii.,  11  ;  rrideiiiix,  vol.  i.,  p.  392. 


t  2  Chron.  vii.,  1. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND    MEN. 


701 


The  Parsees  are  now  chiefly  found  in  Central  and  Eastern 
Persia.  They  number  about  ten  thousand  in  Kerman,  while 
four  hundred  families  reside  in  Yezd,  where  they  have  one 
of  their  principal  fire-temples,  or  atesh-jah.*  There  are  at 
Ooroomia,  the  birth-place  of  Zoroaster,  two  lofty  mounds,  which 
are  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  Parsee  altars  ;f  but  re- 
mains of  human  beings  and  sarcophagi  have  been  found  in 
them,  rendering  it  probable  that,  like  most  similar  mounds  in 
the  East,  thev  were  built  as  monuments  of  the  dead.     A  most 


File  temple  ue  u  B  ikoo 

remarkable  fire-temple,  however,  is  yet  standing  near  the  west- 
ern shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  twelve  miles  from  Bakoo,  and  at 
the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Caucasian  range.  It  is  built  upon 
a  hill,  whose  soil  is  saturated  with  naphtha,  which  oozes  out 
everywhere  in  the  form  of  gas.  The  temple  consists  of  a 
small  building  erected  on  a  platform,  with  three  steps  support- 
ing four  square  pillars  bearing  a  dome.  The  pillars  are  hol- 
low, and  there   are  holes  in   various   parts  of  the   premises 


I 


*  Tavernier,  p.  167. 


t  Perkins,  p.  275. 


702  BIBLE    LANDS. 

through  which  the  gas  escapes,  and,  being  lighted,  burns  with 
a  steady  flame.  Around  the  temple  is  an  open  court  with 
cells  for  pilgrims,  each  of  which  is  provided  with  a  jet,  which 
burns  night  and  day.  Here  vast  numbers  of  devotees  used  to 
congregate  from  Persia  and  India  for  the  purpose  of  cleansing 
their  sins  in  the  holy  flame;  some,  indeed,  remained  to  end 
their  days  upon  the  sacred  spot ;  but  the  number  of  votaries 
has  greatly  diminished  of  late,  a  result  apparently  produced 
by  perfect  toleration.  The  worship  of  this  fire  consists  in 
prostrations  before  the  altar,  singing  alternately  a  monotonous 
chant,  and  beating  cymbals  to  mark  the  time.  After  these 
ceremonies  they  eat  some  sugar-candy.  It  is  believed  that  the 
original  temple  upon  this  spot  was  built  by  Zoroaster  (Zerdusht) 
himself     The  present  is  evidently  a  modern  structure.* 

Nor  did  this  superstition  prevail  among  the  great  nations 
of  antiquity  alone,  where  it  was  reduced  to  a  philosophical  sys- 
tem ;  it  may  even  now  be  found  among  less  cultivated  people 
who,  to  this  day,  venerate  the  host  of  heaven.  This  was  once 
the  case  with  the  aborigines  of  Europe,  and  is  still  true  of  the 
heathen  Circassians  in  the  Caucasus,  as  well  as  of  the  Gallas  in 
Eastern  Africa.  The  Circassians  believe  in  one  great  spirit — 
Thka,  whom  they  appear  to  confound  with  the  sun,  called 
Tgka,  which  sounds  nearly  the  same.  They  hold  thunder 
and  lightning  in  great  veneration,  and  to  be  killed  by  the  lat- 
ter is  considered  a  great  privilege.  When  such  an  event  oc- 
curs, the  dead  body  is  consigned  to  the  earth  with  great  solem- 
nity, and  the  bereaved  family  rejoice  at  the  honor  thus  con- 
ferred upon  them.  In  another  respect,  also,  they  remind  us 
of  the  forms  of  idolatry  forbidden  to  the  Hebrews.f  They 
celebrate  their  religious  ceremonies  exclusively  in  sacred 
groves,  where  an  emblem,  shaped  like  a  cross,  is  carefully  pre- 
served. When  a  warrior  returns  home  victorious,  or  has  es- 
caped some  impending  calamity,  he  repairs  to  the  grove,  and 
presents  a  thank-offering  to  the  god.  These  offerings  are  of 
all  kinds,  and  are  suspended  from  the  branches  of  the  trees,  to- 
gether with  garlands  of  flowers ;  they  are  never  touched,  ex- 
cept in  war  by  a  hostile  tribe,  who  have  the  right  to  carry  them 
off  as  plunder.     Animals  are  also  here  offered  in  sacrifice. 

*  Ussher,  p.  206-209.  t  2  Chron.  xxxiv.,  3  ;  Micah  v.,  14. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND    MEN.  703 

Bruce  relates  that  the  Gallas  of  Eastern  Africa  worship  cer- 
tain stars  ill  the  heavens  in  particular  positions.  He  also  states 
that  they  worship  the  wanzey  (tree),  under  which  they  crown 
their  kings.*  Krapf's  language,  however,  is  this :  "A  higher 
spirit  is  supposed  to  dwell  within  the  tree,  on  which  account  it 
is  esteemed  holy,  and  no  one  dare  fell  it,  or  harm  it  without 
losing  his  life.  They  there  pray,  not  to  the  tree,  but  to  their 
highest  deity,  Waka,  sacrificing  oxen  and  sheep  to  him,  and 
drinking  plenty  of  beer  and  smoking  tobacco."f  This  venera- 
tion for  large  and  ancient  trees,  which  sometimes  becomes  posi- 
tive idolatry,  is  also  found  among  some  of  the  rural  tribes  of 
Western  Asia,  being  particulai'ly  common  among  the  Koords 
in  their  mountain  fastnesses.  The  latter  perform  certain  rites 
around  these  trees,  whose  nature  we  have  not  been  able  to 
ascertain,  owing  to  their  fear  of  detection,  and  the  danger  at- 
tached to  the  suspicion  of  idolatry.  Many  of  these  trees  are 
supposed  to  be  endowed  with  miraculous  influence,  and  rags 
tied  to  their  branches  are  thought,  after  a  while,  to  imbibe  a 
healing  power.  Large  trees  are  usually  selected.  But  we 
have  sometimes  traveled  many  hours  and  days  in  destitute  re- 
gions, and  coming  suddenly  upon  a  small  bush,  standing  alone 
in  the  wildernes.s,  have  found  it  completely  covered  with  these 
tokens  of  veneration. 

The  worship  of  sacred  trees  was  also  practiced  by  the  Assyr- 
ians, as  seen  upon  the  slabs  of  Nineveh.  The  tree  appears  to 
have  been  a  species  of  pine,  fir,  or  cedar,  whose  cones  were  held 
during  worship. 

The  apostle  Paul,  arguing  with  the  Christians  at  Corinth  re- 
specting sacrifices  made  to  idols,  declares  that  they  are  made 
to  devils.j;.  Some  have  thought  this  judgment  harsh  and  un- 
charitable. It  is  a  curious  fact,  however,  that  we  have  an  il- 
lustration of  this  Biblical  view  of  the  matter  among  a  people 
addicted  not  to  the  grossest  kind  of  idolatry,  like  the  people 
of  Greece  or  India,  but  to  the  more  refined  worship  of  the  sun 
and  of  fire.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  Yezidies  and  of 
their  Sabean  doctrines.  They  are  also  characterized  by  pecul- 
iar ideas  respecting  Slieitan  (Satan),  whom  they  fear,  and  seek 

*  Bruce,  vol.  ii.,  p.  407.  This  practice  also  existed  among  the  Romans. — An- 
THON,  "Classical  Dictionary;"  see  Oscillum,  and  wood-cut. 

t  Krapf,  "Travels,  etc.,"  p.  G4.  t  1  Cor.  x.,  20. 


704:  BIBLE   LANDS. 

to  propitiate.  So  anxious  are  they  not  to  offend  him  by  "tak- 
ing his  name  in  vain,"  that  they  never  pronounce  it,  any  more 
than  the  Jews  do  the  name  of  Jehovah ;  and  to  utter  it  in 
their  presence  is  an  insult  they  deeply  resent.  They  as  care- 
fully avoid  the  word  "  accursed,"  lanet^  and  every  word  which 
resembles  these  two.  For  instance,  they  never  call  a  river 
shat,  for  it  resembles  sheitan;  but  they  call  it  nahr.  For  the 
same  reason,  they  never  say  Tcditan^  a  cord ;  nor  do  they  use  the 
words  nal,  a  horse-shoe,  or  nalbant,  a  farrier,  because  they  sound 
like  Ian,  curse;  raaloon,  accursed.*  These  facts  are  known  by 
all  who  have  any  intercourse  with  them.  Neither  are  they 
accused  of  having  any  idols,  nor  of  worshiping  the  devil,  any 
more  than  is  implied  in  the  foregoing  statements.  Yet  this 
has  sufficed  to  fasten  upon  them  the  name  of  Worshipers  of 
the  Devil,  by  which  they  are  generally  known.  Indeed,  one 
of  their  towns  on  the  south-eastern  side  of  the  plain  of  Ooroo- 
mia  is  called  by  all  but  themselves  Sheitan-abad  (City  of  the 
Devil).t  They  are  also  accused  of  worshiping  serpents,  but 
there  does  not  appear  to  be  sufficient  proof  of  this,  though  the 
figure  of  a  snake  is  one  of  the  emblems  around  the  door  of  the 
sanctuary  of  Sheikh  Adi.:}:  We  have  seen  them  deal  with 
snakes,  tossing  them  like  a  sling,  and  throwing  them  out  of 
their  way :  they  assured  us  they  killed  the  venomous  kinds, 
but  thought  it  wrong  to  injure  those  that  are  harmless."  The 
modern  Greeks  venerate  any  serpent  found  in  a  vineyard, 
deeming  it  the  guardian  of  the  place,  feeding  it,  and  allowing 
no  injury  to  be  done  to  it — a  superstition  they  have  inherited 
from  their  fathers ;  but  they  kill  serpents  when  found  anywhere 
else.  Pococke  describes  a  visit  to  a  spot  in  Eg3'pt  where  sac- 
rifices were  offered  to  a  snake  in  order  to  obtain  the  cure  of 
diseases.  But  he  does  not  appear  to  be  fully  satisfied  that 
there  is  any  thing  like  snake-worship  in  the  East,  or  that  there 
remains  any  thing  of  that  adoration  of  dumb  creatures  which 
was  once  universal  among  the  Egyptians. § 

There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  not  only  the  worship  of 
the  host  of  heaven  and  that  of  animals,  birds,  and  creeping 
things,  was  prevalent  anciently  in  many  of  the  lands  of  the 


*  Lnyard,  vol.  i.,  p.  245.  t  Perkins,  p.  190. 

X  Ussher,  p.  409.  §  Pococke,  vol.  i.,  ji.  12.' 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND   MEN.  705 

Bible,  but  the  veneration  of  carved  and  molten  images  was 
common  even  among  the  Israelites.  They  made  and  wor- 
shiped, as  we  know,  a  molten  calf  under  the  very  brow  of 
Sinai,  and  again  at  Bethel  and  Dan  on  the  disruption  of  the 
Hebrew  kingdom.*  History  also  informs  us  that  this  super- 
stitious veneration  for  images  was  universal  among  the  sur- 
rounding nations.  The  change  in  this  matter  seems  almost  in- 
credible. But  there  are  yet  sufficient  remains  of  the  old  state 
of  things  to  prove  the  correctness  of  history;  and  to  these  we 
must  for  a  moment  call  the  reader's  attention. 

There  are  numberless  ruins  scattered  all  over  the  country, 
many  of  them  indicating  the  most  lavish  expenditure  of  treas- 
ure, and  displaying  wonderful  taste  and  genius.  But  it  is  wor- 
thy of  notice  that  by  far  the  greater  number  of  these  monu- 
ments of  antiquity  are  idol  temples,  A  few  citadels  and  city 
walls  are  yet  standing,  and  here  and  there  a  theatre  or  a  circus, 
built  by  the  Greeks  or  the  Romans — very  un-Oriental.  There 
are  many  tombs,  some  of  them  of  huge  proportions  or  of  fine 
workmanship ;  but  the  most  beautiful  and  expensive  struc- 
tures are  usually  the  temples  of  heathen  gods.  Man}'-  statues 
have  also  been  found  of  stone  or  metal,  and  of  these  a  large 
proportion  are  idols.  This  is  a  significant  flict;  for  the  early 
Christians  were  iconoclasts  (image -breakers),  while  the  Mus- 
lims, to  this  day,  can  never  see  any  statue,  which  they  consider 
an  idol,  without  endeavoring  to  mutilate  it. 

But  the  heathen  were  not  satisfied  with  worshiping  the  gods 
in  the  temples;  they  had  also  their  images  in  their  houses,  and 
paid  homage  to  them  at  home,  as  we  there  pray  to  the  cmlj 
true  God.  The  family  of  Laban,  though  they  worshiped  Jeho- 
vah, kept  these  household  gods,  and  set  so  much  by  them  that 
when  Rachel  was  leaving  home  never  to  return,  knowing  that 
her  father  would  not  willingly  part  with  them,  she  stole  the 
images  and  carried  them  away.  Laban  appears  to  have  been 
more  grieved  at  the  loss  of  his  idols  than  of  his  children.f  Ja- 
cob dared  not  destroy  them,  but  simply  buried  them  in  the 
ground.ij:  Such  images  are  occasionally  met  with  among  ruins 
buried  in  the  earth,  in  the  tombs  of  the  dead,  or,  more  common- 


*  Exod.  xxxii.,  1-6 ;   1  Kings  xii.,  28,  29.  t  Gen.  xxxi.,  19-30. 

J  Gen.  XXXV.,  4. 


'06 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Bronze  Ashta- 
roth.  (ISam. 
xxxi.,  10.) 


ly  still,  in  the  dunghills  of  ancient  towns.*  They  are  often  of 
brass,  but  sometimes  of  more  valuable  materials,  like  the  silver 
shrines  of  Diana  at  Ephesns,  which  gave  employment  to  a  large 
number  of  people  in  that  city,  and  have  probably 
all  been  melted  down  by  this  time.f  The  small 
images  now  found  appear  to  be  copies  of  larger 
statues,  probably  kept  in  the  principal  temples. 
We  give  a  drawing  of  one  found  in  Palestine;  it 
is  of  brass,  of  rude  workmanship,  and  apparentl}^ 
of  great  age.  It  represents  Ashtaroth,  or  Astarte, 
the  Venus  of  the  Greeks.  Those  of  finest  work- 
manship are  found  among  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor.  They  are  commonly 
made  of  clay,  baked  in  the  sun,  and  sometimes  col- 
ored red.  Some  of  them  show  the  remains  of  gild- 
ing with  which  they  were  once  covered.  They 
chiefly  represent  the  well-known  gods  and  goddess- 
es of  the  Greeks.  The  illustration  given  below 
is  the  head  of  a  beardless  Jupiter,  probably  a  copy 
of  the  Coryphean,  the  remains  of  whose  temple  are  yet  seen  on 
the  summit  of  Mount  Pagus  at  Smyrna. 
The  image  was  found  among  the  ruins 
of  the  ancient  city.  The  work  is  fine, 
and  the  figure  was  probably  first  cast 
in  a  mould  and  then  finished.  We  also 
reproduce,  on  the  following  page,  a  ter- 
ra-cotta  image  of  Boodh,  dating  about 
200  B.C.,  and  found  in  the  same  place, 
showing  that  Boodhism,  which  orig- 
inated in  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  in 
the  fifth  century  B.C.,  was  not  unknown 
to  the  Greeks  soon  after  the  age  of  Al- 
exander. 

Among  the  many  coins  found  in 
ruined  cities,  some  bear  the  representation  of  the  principal  idol 
worshiped  in  the  place,  so  that  when  the  words  are  obliterated 
those  who  are  familiar  with  these  matters  are  able  to  tell  the 
place  where  the  coin  was  struck  simply  by  the  efiigy  upon  it. 


Jupiter  Coryphean,  Smyrna. 
Ancient  Terra  Gotta. 


Isa.  ii.,  20 


t  Acts  xix.,24. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND   MEN. 


707 


■cotta  btatue 
of  Boodh.  Dis- 
covered In  an  an- 
cient Tomb  at 
Smyrna. 


Such,  for  instance,  are  many  coins  of  Ephesus,  which  bear  the 
well-known  image  of  Diana.*  Slie  is  there  represented  under 
a  peculiar  form  as  the  providence  and  nurse  of 
the  beasts  of  the  field.  But  she  is  also  pictured 
as  a  huntress,  and  was  worshiped  under  the  form 
of  a  hind. 

The  Bible  student  may  have  noticed  the  pe- 
culiar wording  of  a  passage  referred  to  above: 
"They"  (the  household)  "gave  unto  Jacob  all 
the  strange  gods  which  were  in  their  hand,  and 
all  their  ear-rings  which  were  in  their  ears."f 
This  language  implies  that  the  ear-rings  bore 
images  of  the  heathen  gods,  for  Jacob  had  asked 
them  to  put  away  their  strange  gods,  and  they 
complied  by  giving  up  certain  ornaments,  all  of 
one  kind,  not  nose-rings,  bracelets,  necklaces,  or  Toi 
ankle-rings,  but  mr-rings  alone.  This  statement 
agrees  with  facts.  Many  an- 
cient gold  ear-rings  bear  the 
figure  of  Cupid.  The  Greeks  were  particu- 
larly fond  of  them.  Our  illustration  is  cop- 
ied from  a  gold  ear-ring  found  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Padan-aram  ;  it  represents  Cupid 
laughing  and  holding  his  sides.  Gems  are 
also  not  unfrequently  found  with  the  images 
of  some  deity  carved  upon  them.  Most  of  these  were  prob- 
ably used  as  signet- rings,  and  worn,  as  now,  by  men  on  the 
finger.  In  Assyria  and  Mesopotamia  these  seals  were  often  in 
the  shape  of  cylinders,  and  to  this  day  the  women  of  that  coun- 
try wear  them,  strung  with  other  trinkets  from  their  ears,  hang- 
ing down  to  their  shoulders.  Thus  the  images  of  the  gods  of 
Babylon  and  Nineveh  adorn  the  persons  of  Muslim  women,  who 
belong  to  the  most  iconoclastic  people  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
But  the  question  remains,  has  the  worship  of  idols,  or  images 
made  with  men's  hands,  entirely  passed  away,  and  are  the  rel- 
ics above  described — broken  statues,  coins,  gems — the  only  re- 
maining mementos  of  idolatry?  In  a  word,  is  nothing  of  it 
left  in  the  hearts  of  the  people? 


Ear-riug,  witli  Cupid. 
(Gen.  XXXV.,  4.) 


*  Acts  xix. ,  3  "). 


t  Gen.  XXXV.,  4. 


708  BIBLE   LANDS. 

We  have  seen  that  idolatry  began  with  the  host  of  heaven, 
but  it  did  not  stop  there.  When  we  examine  the  ancient  niy- 
tliologies,  we  find  that  the  majority  of  the  gods  and  goddesses 
were  once  human  beings,  lil^e  their  worshipers.  Boodb  was  a 
heathen  Mohammed,  who  set  up  the  capital  of  his  religious  em- 
pire in  India,  and  is  now  worshiped  from  Thibet  to  China  and 
Japan ;  the  Jupiter  of  the  Greeks  was  originally  a  king  of 
Crete;  and  Asshur,  the  chief  deity  of  the  Assyrians,  was  the 
founder  of  Nineveh.*  The  veneration  which  men  feel  toward 
their  ancestors  is  enhanced  when  these  are  also  the  founders 
of  their  states.  This,  as  already  shown,  is  peculiarly  the  case 
where  princes  have  sought  to  produce  the  impression  that  they 
belonged  to  a  divine  race  by  keeping  out  of  sight  of  their  sub- 
jects, and  rendering  themselves  invisible,  like  the  Deity.  Hero- 
worship  has  also  often  led  to  idolatry. 

In  the  West  the  images  of  the  emperors  were  carried  about 
in  the  armies  and  set  up  in  the  cities,  to  be  worshiped  by  their 
subjects,  refusal  to  do  this  being  deemed  equivalent  to  high 
treason.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  to  discover  the  same  tend- 
ency among  their  descendants,  who,  after  casting  away  the  im- 
ages of  the  great  men  of  heathen  times,  have  set  up  the  pictures 
of  those  of  a  later  period,  viz.,  Christian  saints  and  martyrs,  and 
have  worshiped  them,  offering  sweet  incense,  burning  lamps, 
and  calling  upon  them  for  help.  They,  indeed,  disclaim  the 
worship  of  the  image  itself,  and  so  did  their  heathen  ancestors. 
Like  them,  they  solemnly  consecrate  the  images  before  making 
any  religious  use  of  them :  they  bow  down,  pray  to,  and  kiss 
them.f  They  believe  in  the  varied  efficacy  of  different  im- 
ages, and  in  the  miraculous  power  of  some,  as  well  as  acknowl- 
edge the  want  of  likeness  between  the  picture  and  the  being 
it  represents.  Modern  (Christian)  idolaters  point  out  the  fact 
that  they  use  painting  alone,  and  not  statuary,  as  an  apology 
for  their  practice.:}:  But  even  this  doubtful  superiority  can  not 
be  claimed  by  the  Church  of  Rome. 

*  Gen.  X.,  11.  +  1  Kings  xix.,  18. 

t  Oriental  Christians  believe  that  painted  images  are  nowhere  forbidden  in  the 
Bible,  but  only  those  that  are  carved.  Our  version  of  Lev.  xxvi.,  1,  does  not 
fully  give  the  idea  of  tlie  original,  which  covers  every  possible  form — "graven  im- 
age" being  a  bass-relief,  like  the  Assyrian,  Greek,  and  Egyptian  sculjitures — the 
"standing  image,"  or  statue — and  the  image  of  stone,  a  painted  stone,  the  only 
material  then  used  for  painting. — Prideaux,  vol.  iii.,  p.  250,  note. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND   MEN.  709 

The  use  of  images  was  not  established  in  the  Eastern  Churches 
without  long  and  often-renewed  struggles,  but  it  is  now  every- 
where practiced  except  in  the  Nestorian,  or  Chaldean,  Church. 
And  the  system  is  as  fully  carried  out  with  the  former  as  it  was 
by  their  heathen  progenitors,  who  are  said  to  have  had  thirty 
thousand  gods.*  Every  person,  church,  town,  or  spring  of 
water  has  a  tutelary  saint,  who  performs  the  part  of  a  guard- 
ian.f  The  attributes  and  powers  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  Pa- 
naghia  (the  all-holy)  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Sit  (lady)  of  the 
Arabic-speaking  peoples,  are,  in  the  minds  of  her  votaries,  as 
great  and  as  varied  as  those  of  Venus,  or  Ashtaroth ;  for  there 
is  the  Panaghia  of  the  rich,  that  of  the  poor,  and  one  suited  to 
meet  every  different  ailment.  Even  highway  robbers  have 
their  Kpixpt]  Tlavayla  (the  secret  virgin),  to  whom  they  promise 
a  part  of  their  booty  if  she  will  only  vouchsafe  to  aid  them  in 
the  perpetration  of  their  crimes. 

The  image -worship  of  Oriental  Christians  is,  therefore,  a 
remnant  of  the  ancient  idolatry  of  Western  Asia.  It  is  a  re- 
vival of  the  latter  under  a  specious  but  unimportant  change  of 
form.  This  is  so  well  understood  in  the  East  that  it  has  al- 
ways been  prominently  brought  forward  by  the  propagators 
of  Islam,  and  is  probably  one  of  the  principal  reasons  of  their 
success.  But  there  are  still  more  distinct  remains  of  the  an- 
cient idolatry,  which  is  now  practiced  in  secret,  because  in- 
volving all  participants  in  the  penalty  of  death.  Such  are  the 
peculiar  rites  of  the  Yezidies  and  of  the  heathen  Koords.  We 
have  already  spoken  of  the  tenets  of  the  former,  and  of  the 
facts  ascertained  by  Mr.  Layard,  during  a  visit  to  the  tomb  of 
Sheikh  Adi.  On  another  point  he  says,  "  When  they  speak  of 
the  devil  they  do  so  with  reverence,  as  Melek  Taoos  (King  Pea- 
cock,) or  Melek  el  Koot  (the  mighty  angel).  Sheikh  Nasr  dis- 
tinctly admitted  that  they  possess  a  bronze  or  copper  figure  of 
a  bird,  which,  however,  he  was  careful  in  explaining  was  only 
looked  upon  as  a  symbol,  and  not  as  an  idol.  This  always  re- 
mains with  the  great  sheikh,  and  is  carried  with  him  wherever 
he  may  journey.  When  deputies  are  sent  to  any  distance  to 
collect  money  for  the  support  of  the  tomb  and  priests,  they 
are  furnished  with  a  small  image  of  it  (I  understood  the  sheikh 

*  Gillies,  "  Greece,"  vol.  i.,  chap.  ii.  t  2  Kings  xvii.,  2G,  27. 


710  BIBLE   LANDS. 

to  say  made  in  wax),  which  is  shown  to  those  among  whom 
they  go,  as  an  authority  for  their  mission.  This  symbol  is 
called  Melek  Taoos,  and  is  held  in  great  reverence.  Much 
doubt  has  prevailed  among  travelers  as  to  its  existence,  but 
Sheikh  Nasr,  when  I  had  opportunity  of  speaking  to  him  in 
private,  so  frankly  admitted  it  that  I  consider  the  question  as 
completely  set  at  rest."* 

There  are  also  other  tribes  who  hold  to  this  same  Melek 
Taoos,  but  they  are  not  "  worshipers  of  the  devil,"  nor  do  the}' 
believe  in  Parsee  dualism.  They  are  the  heathen  Koords  and 
Turkmens,  who  appear  to  believe  in  a  sort  of  Pantheism,  and 
the  transmigration  of  souls.  As  one  of  them  expressed  it, 
"  When  a  man  dies,  his  soul,  which  is  like  a  small  fly,  goes 
into  some  creature,  where  he  suffers  the  punishment  of  his  sins; 
the  soul  of  a  pasha,  for  instance,  goes  into  the  body  of  a  don- 
key, which  is  ill  used,  and  beaten  almost  to  death."  We  have 
known  a  woman  from  among  these  people  who  was  converted 
to  Christianity  and  baptized.  She  spoke  of  their  secret  night- 
meetings  and  orgies,  on  account  of  which  she  had  renounced 
their  tenets.  We  understood  from  her  that  the  Melek  Taoos 
was  there  set  up  and  worshiped ;  that  a 
cock  was  killed  as  a  sacrifice  to  it;  that 
wine  was  drunk  in  abundance  by  all  pres- 
ent; and  that  this  was  followed  by  orgies 
in  the  dark  rivaling  the  worst  bacchana- 
lian performances.  The  accompanying 
illustration  is  a  faithful  copy  of  one  of 
the  curious  images  M'orshiped  both  by 
the  Koords  and  the  Yezidies,  which  play 

Koordish  bronze  Cock.  •  ,       ,  ^    •       .1  •  •       i.         j 

so  important  a  part  in  this  ancient  and 
almost  effete  superstition.  It  is  made  of  brass,  rudely  carved, 
and  has  never  before,  we  believe,  been  given  to  the  public. 

The  Druses  of  Mount  Lebanon,  Anti-Lebanon,  and  the  Hau- 
ran  possess  a  brazen  image  of  a  similar  character.     It  is  the  fig- 


*  Layaid, "  Nineveh,"  vol.  i.,  p.  246.  We  give  only  such  facts  about  the  Yezidies 
i\s  are  generally  stated  by  the  natives,  both  members  of  that  sect  and  others.  It  is 
difficult  to  discover  the  whole  truth,  where  so  powerful  a  motive  exists  for  conceal- 
ing it.  The  statements  contained  in  the  interesting  memoirs  of  the  American  mis- 
sionary, Dr.  Lubdell,  are  too  contradictory  to  tluow  any  reliable  light  upon  tliis 
subject. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND   MEN.  711 

lire  of  a  calf,  upon  which  they  insist  that  they  look  with  indif- 
ference, and  claim  that  they  preserve  it  simply  as  a  caricature 
of  their  first  teacher,  El  Dorazi,  who  lived  eight  hundred  years 
ago,  after  whom  they  are  called  Druses,  and  whom  they  hold 
in  derision  as  inferior  to  Hamzi,  another  of  their  teachers.  It  is 
well  known,  however,  that  there  are  no  greater  liars  in  the  world 
than  the  Druses,  and  that  their  books  enjoin  secrecy  respect- 
ing their  tenets.  Tlie  motive  by  which  they  claim  to  be  actu- 
ated in  making  and  keeping  these  images  is  quite  insufficient. 
It  is  highly  probable  that  the  golden 
calf,  having  been  long  worshiped  in 
Upper  Palestine,  brazen  copies  of  it 
have  from  time  to  time  been  found 
among  the  ruins  of  the  country,  and 
these  have  gradually  come  to  be  re- 
garded with  superstitious  reverence, 
or  employed  in  some  such  manner  as 
are  the  images  of  the  Melek  Taoos 
among  the  Yezidies.  The  form  and 
attitude  of  this  calf  are  more  artistic 
than  any  Arab  could  conceive  or  ex- 
ecute, and  the  bronze  is  very  old ;  at    -^      r^  ,f  fr,  „  iz- 

'  ^  .       "^  Druse  Calf,  of  Bronze.    (1  Kings 

least  such  is  the  case  with  the  only  xii.,2s.) 

specimen  we  have  ever  seen,  and  which  we  here  reproduce.* 

We  now  proceed  from  the  consideration  of  the  object  of  re- 
ligious worship  to  that  of  the  places  where  it  is  publicly  cele- 
brated :  to  the  temple,  the  synagogue,  the  church,  and  the  mosk. 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  form  and  dimensions  of  the 
tabernacle  erected  by  Moses,  and  of  its  successor,  the  Temple 
of  Jerusalem.  Many  drawings  and  plans  have  been  publish- 
ed, and  the  subject  may  be  deemed  quite  exhausted.  Instead 
of  entering,  therefore,  upon  any  further  inquiry,  we  shall  con- 
fine ourselves  to  a  more  general  view,  and  point  out  such  illus- 
trations as  are  afforded  by  the  modern  East. 

No  careful  student  of  the  Bible  can  have  failed  to  notice 
that  Divine  Providence  has,  from  the  beginning,  been  engaged 
in  imparting  a  moral  and  religious  education  to  the  human 


*  Stanley,  "Sinai  and  Palestine,"  p.  388,  note  3;  Newbold,  "Jour.  As.  Soc," 
vol.  xii.,  p.  27;  Churchill,  "Lebanon,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  105;  Clarke,  "Travels, "p.  279. 


712  IHBLE    LAXDS. 

race  through  the  portion  of  it  which  we  call  the  Hebrew  na- 
tion; and  every  step  in  the  process  is  characterized  by  wonder- 
ful wisdom  and  skill.  God  has  always  started  from  some  hea- 
then stand -point,  and  has  worked  up  thence  toward  the  de- 
velopment and  the  establishment  of  new  truths.  We  have  al- 
ready called  attention  to  the  use  made  of  fire  descending  from 
heaven  to  destroy  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies  and  of 
fire.  Let  us  now  point  out  another  particular  of  this  process 
which  has  reference  to  the  ^j/ace  of  worship. 

The  rule  might  have  been  laid  down  at  Sinai,  in  accordance 
with  already  revealed  truth,  and  as  more  fully  required  under 
the  Christian  dispensation,  that  God,  being  an  omnipresent  Spir- 
it, should  be  worshiped  everywhere  alike.  But  the  gods  of 
the  heathen  were  fixed  to  one  spot.  Even  the  sun  has  its  def- 
inite location,  and  had  an  earthly  image  ;  and  the  ignorant  were 
more  attracted  by  the  image  than  by  the  orb  of  day  itself.  God 
did  not  allow  an  image  of  himself  to  be  made,  but  he  selected 
a  spot  where  he  specially  abode,  and  showed  his  presence  by  a 
cloud,  or  a  voice,  or  by  the  answer  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim, 
corresponding  to  the  heathen  oracles.  As  the  people  became 
educated  to  believe  and  to  realize  his  spiritual  existence,  he 
dispensed  with  the  holy  place,  and  destroyed  it.  The  process 
was  gradual  and  slow.  The  heathen  gods  were  numerous,  and 
had  many  temples,  while  Jehovah,  in  order  to  impress  his 
unity  on  the  mind  of  the  world,  allowed  but  one  Temple  to  be 
built  for  his  worship,  and  there  manifested  his  glory. 

The  heathen  temple  was  not  a  place  of  meeting  for  the  peo- 
ple. It  was  the  house  of  their  god.*  There  the  god  dwelt, 
and  the  priests  alone  went  in  to  him,  while  the  people  stood 
and  worshiped  outside.  These  temples  were  generally  small, 
but  the  door  was  large,  so  that  the  idol  could  be  seen  by  the 
crowd  without,  where  the  altar  and  f^acrifice  stood  in  front  of 
the  door.f  The  interior  of  the  building  was  simple,  and  con- 
tained little  beside  the  idol  and  the  ex-votos,  or  gifts,  of  the  vo- 
taries hung  round  upon  the  walls ;  but  the  exterior  was  wrought 
of  the  finest  materials,  and  often  extremely  elaborate.  It  is  now 
found  that  the  most  celebrated  temples  of  Greece  were  gilded 
outwardly,  so  that  their  splendor  shone  far,  and  their  worship- 

*  1  Sam.  v.,  2  ;  2  Kings  x.,  21,  27.  t  Gell,  "Pompeiana,"  vol.  i.,  p.  71. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND    MEN".  713 

ers,  catching  the  distant  sight,  bent  the  knee  toward  the  sanctu- 
ary. They  were,  moreover,  built  upon  prominent  hills,  where 
they  could  be  seen  from  a  great  distance.  The  Temple  of  Mi- 
nerva, in  Athens,  stands  on  the  top  of  the  hill  of  the  Acropolis, 
which  rises  from  a  level  plain,  and  has  sides  too  steep  to  be 
ascended  except  in  one  place.  Where  the  whole  country  was 
level,  as  in  Egypt  and  in  the  plains  of  Assyria,  an  artificial 
mound  was  built  as  a  foundation  for  the  temple.  The  cele- 
brated temples  of  Baalbek  are  built  upon  such  a  mound,  rest- 
ing upon  arches  or  vaults,  some  of  whose  stones  are  found  to 
be  sixty  or  seventy  feet  in  length.  All  these  particulars  are 
met  with  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  which,  though  but  an 
imitation  of  the  Mosaic  tabernacle,  reveals  most  clearly  the 
ideal  of  a  heathen  sanctuary.  The  site  chosen  was  high,  steep, 
and  inaccessible  on  three  sides — the  east,  south,  and  west;  and 
the  inequalities  of  the  ground  were  filled  up  with  walls,  vault- 
ed passages,  and  cisterns.  The  Temple  itself  was  small,  being 
but  forty  cubits,  or  sixty  feet,  in  length,  and  half  as  wide  and 
high,  though  the  small  rooms  built  around  and  over  it  must 
have  made  it  seem  larger.  It  was  covered,  both  within  and 
without,  not  with  gilding  alone,  like  the  Grecian  temples,  but 
with  plates  of  solid  gold,  so  that  it  shone  with  dazzling  bright- 
ness when  struck  by  the  sun's  rays.'^  The  altar  of  sacrifice 
stood  on  the  outside,  before  the  door,  and  the  congregation 
worshiped  in  the  open  court  around,  or  under  the  shelter  of  the 
covered  verandas,  or  porches  supported  by  marble  pillars.  The 
space  forming  the  courts  was  divided  into  distinct  portions,  to 
prevent  confusion ;  this  was  also  the  case  with  some  heathen 
temples;  but  the  future  purposes  of  the  Divine  Designer  were 
foreshadowed  by  the  circumstance  that  there  was  also  a  court 
for  the  Gentiles.  The  structures  erected  around  the  courts 
were  comparatively  low,  for  the  "  House  of  God"  rose  far  above 
them,  and  was  visible  at  a  great  distance.  Every  devout  Jew 
prayed  toward  this  sacred  building  as  toward  Jehovah's  special 
habitation,  his  throne  upon  the  earth.f 

But  time  passed  on,  and  Providence  gradually  unfolded  the 
Divine  plan.  The  Temple  was  utterly  destroyed,  not  one 
stone  remaining  upon  another.     All  the  temples  of  the  hea- 

*  1  Kings  vi.,  21,  22;  Josephus,  "  J.  War,"  bk.  v.,  c,  v.,  §  6.       t  1  Kings  viii.,  35. 


714  BIBLE    LANDS. 

then  gods  have  perished  with  it,  showing  how  thorough  and 
radical  was  the  remedy.  But  the  same  Providence  has  left 
enough  to  illustrate  and  explain  the  old  state  of  things,  and 
impress  the  lesson  upon  the  mind  of  the  world.  Look,  for  in- 
stance, at  some  of  the  shrines  of  Muslim  saints — temples  we 
may  call  them — where  dead  men's  bones  are  all  but  worshiped. 
They  are  small  buildings,  containing  in  the  centre  the  tomb 
of  the  saint  whose  intercession  is  implored,  and  whose  mirac- 
ulous interposition  is  earnestly  sought,  by  the  votaries  who 
crowd  in  the  surrounding  court,  particularly  on  the  saint's  fes- 
tival. The  turbeh,  or  mausoleum,  is  often  built  at  great  ex- 
pense. That  of  the  Imam  Hosein,  at  Kerbelah,  where  im- 
mense numbers  of  pilgrims  gather  every  year,  is  a  building 
of  a  square  form,  whose  walls  are  covered  with  enameled  tiles 
of  white,  blue,  and  gold,  the  masonry  being  nowhere  visible. 
The  centre  of  this  brilliantly  decorated  structure  is  crowned 
by  a  gilded  dome,  and  the  people  of  Kerbelah  assert  that  it  is 
covered  with  thin  plates  of  gold.  Three  lofty  minarehs,  whose 
galleries  are  also  gilt,  stand  at  the  corners  of  the  building. 
They,  too,  are  covered  over  with  enameled  tiles,  and  with 
gaudy  arabesques  of  extreme  beauty  and  intricacy.* 

But  the  modern  building  which  gives  us,  in  most  respects, 
the  clearest  idea  of  the  Jewish  temple,  not  perhaps  in  its  de- 
tails but  in  its  general  character,  is  the  famous  Caaba  of  Mecca, 
a  very  ancient  heathen  temple,f  claimed  to  have  been  built  by 
Adam,  in  perfect  imitation  of  one  which  stands  right  over  it 
in  heaven.  Mohammed  cleansed  it  of  idolatry  by  simply  re- 
moving and  destroying  the  sixty  idols  it  originally  contain- 
ed. It  alone  is  called  by  the  Muslims  Beit  Oollah  (the  Ilouse 
of  God),  all  their  mosks  being  simpl}'  "meeting-houses."  We 
have  seen  many  drawings  of  this  building  by  native  artists, 
for  the  Koran  does  not  forbid  the  representation  of  inanimate 
objects.  None  of  them,  however,  is  superior  to  the  one  we 
now  offer  our  readers,  taken  from  Sale's  translation  of  the 
Koran  (London :  W.  Tegg  &  Co.,  1857).  The  Caaba,  or  Tem- 
ple itself,  is  even  smaller  than  that  erected  by  Solomon,  for  it 
is  only  forty-four  feet  in  length  instead  of  sixt}',  but  the  width 
and  height  are  greater,  being  respectively  thirty-five  and  forty 

*  Ussher,  pp.  458.  t  Diodorus,  lib.  iii.,  chap.  xliv. 


'&^m^- 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND   MEN.  717 

feet,  instead  of  thirty.  The  only  entrance  is  by  a  door  on  the 
north  side,  which  is  opened  but  two  or  three  times  in  the  year, 
whose  threshold  is  elevated  about  seven  feet  above  the  ground. 
To  enter  it  a  movable  wooden  staircase  is  rolled  up  to  it,  which 
is  mounted  on  five  large  rollers  of  bronze,  has  hand- railings 
on  each  side,  consists  of  ten  steps,  and  is  broad  enough  to  ad- 
mit four  persons  abreast.  The  door  is  coated  with  plates  of 
silver,  and  fastened  with  a  huge  padlock  of  the  same  metal. 
It  has  several  gilt  ornaments,  and  upon  the  threshold  are 
placed  every  night  numerous  small  lighted  wax-candles  and 
perfuming  pans,  filled  with  musk,  aloes-wood,  and  various  oth- 
er aromatics.* 

The  interior  of  the  Caaba  consists  of  a  hall  or  room,  whose 
floor  is  of  fine  marble,  and  the  lower  parts  of  whose  walls  are 
ornamented  with  inscriptions  and  arabesques.  It  is  lighted  by 
golden  lamps,  and  its  walls  are  draped  with  rose-colored  silk 
lined  with  white,  and  covered  with  flowers  embroidered  in  sil- 
ver. The  roof  is  flat,  with  a  parapet  and  a  golden  spout  to 
carry  off  the  rain-water. 

There  is  one  feature  in  particular  wherein  the  Caaba  resem- 
bles the  Hebrew  tabernacle  alone,  and  points  out  its  original 
connection  with  a  people  dwelling  in  tents;  it  is  the  tob,  or 
covering  of  silk,  which  hangs  outwardly  over  its  four  walls. 
This  practice  is  very  ancient.  The  drapery  is  renewed  every 
year,  being  furnished  by  the  sovereign  of  Turkey:  it  extends 
all  round  the  building  and  from  the  top  to  the  ground,  but  is 
looped  up  at  certain  distances,  showing  the  lower  part  of  the 
walls.  Running  along  the  middle  of  this  curtain  is  a  broad 
band,  wrought  in  gold,  and  covered  with  inscriptions.  This 
covering  is  now  black,  but  was  formerly  either  white  or  red. 

Around  the  Caaba  is  a  large  court  inclosed  by  galleries.  It 
measures  five  hundred  and  thirty-six  feet,  by  three  hundred 
and  fifty-eight.  The  galleries  are  covered  with  small  domes 
of  modern  construction,  and  supported  by  about  five  hundred 
columns  of  different  proportions  and  styles,  twenty  feet  high, 
and  some  of  them  set  upside  down.  There  are  six  minarehs, 
one  of  which  has  three  galleries;  this  suggests  the  query 
whether  the  pinnacle  of  the  Templef  may  not  have  been  the 


Exod.  xxvi.,  3.");  xxx  ,  8.  t  Matt.  iv..  5. 


718  BIBLE   LANDS. 

original  of  the  Muslim  minareh  (literally,  column).  The  He- 
brews bad  no  bells,  yet  they  had  regular  hours  for  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  sacrifice,  which  must  in  some  manner  have 
been  announced  to  the  public ;  for  the  means  of  ascertaining 
the  divisions  of  time  were  neither  precise  nor  common  in  those 
days.  The  regular  hours  of  prayer  enjoined  by  Islam  also 
seem  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  practice  of  devout  Jews.'* 
It  is  highly  probable,  therefore,  that  the  verbal  call  to  prayer 
now  practiced  in  the  East,  among  Christians  and  Muslims,  has 
a  Hebrew  origin,  though  no  record  of  its  existence  among  that 
people  has  survived  the  troublous  times  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  Muslims  attach  the  same  ideas  of  sacredness  to  the  Caaba 
as  the  Jews  did  to  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  They  pray  to- 
ward it,  and  make  pilgrimages  to  it;  and  it  is  death  for  any 
but  an  orthodox  Muslim  (a  Sunni)  to  enter  its  holy  precincts, 
or  even  the  surrounding  territory.f 

The  comparison  we  have  drawn  between  the  Jewish  tem- 
ple and  the  Caaba  is,  indeed,  defective  in  many  respects.  The 
former  was  surrounded  by  chambers,:}:  one  of  which  would 
even  seem  to  have  been  built  over  the  Holy  Place  and  the 
Holy  of  Holies.§  We  can  not  discover  the  resemblance  claim- 
ed by  some  to  exist  between  Solomon's  Temple  and  the  ruins 
of  Persepolis ;  but  rather  a  striking  one  between  the  latter  and 
the  "  house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon."  Still  we  believe  that 
the  Caaba  offers  the  best  general  notion  of  the  ideal  of  the  Jew- 
ish temple.  It  may  be  called  a  rude  imitation  both  of  the  tab- 
ernacle at  Shiloh  and  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 

The  God  of  Israel  allowed  the  erection  of  but  one  temple  to 
his  name.  The  sacrifices  which,  up  to  the  time  of  its  erection, 
might  lawfully  be  offered  on  many  sacred  spots  became  re- 
stricted to  the  one  altar  at  Jerusalem,  and  ceased  even  there 
when  the  great  Sacrifice  was  consummated  which  fulfilled  the 
purpose  of  all  sacrifices. 

By  the  side  of  the  temple  gradually  rose  the  synagogue, 
distinctly  traced  to  the  period  after  the  return  from  the  captiv- 
ity, but  probably  originally  instituted  in  connection  with  the 
schools  of  the  prophets,  like  the  tekkehs  of  the  modern  der- 


♦  Psa.  Iv.,  17 ;  Dan.  vi.,  10.  t  Acts  xxi.,  28,  2i>. 

X  1  Kings  vi.  ;   2  Clu-oii.  iii.  §  2  Chron.  iii.,  1) ;   2  Kings  xxiii.,  12. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND    MEN. 


719 


iiBii'ri'^ii'i'iiiB,,-  -'^^^iij' 


vishes.  It  was  a 
place  of  meeting 
for  the  purpose  of 
reading  the  law 
and  the  prophets, 
and  for  prayer.* 
There  was  a  mih- 
rab,  or  alcove,  to- 
ward which  every 
face  was  turned, 
and  this  pointed  to 
Jerusalem ;  in  it 
was  kept  a  chest 
containing  a  copy 
of  the  Scriptures, 
which  were  read 
every  Sabbath - 
day,f  as  is  still 
done  among  the 
Jews. 

The  mosk  of  the 
Muslims  offers,  in 
some     respects,    a 

closer  imitation  of    i 

the    Jewish    syna-  The  Mihiab,  Puipn,  i 

gogue  than  is  presented  by  the  Christian  Church,  They  have 
the  mihrab  generally  opposite  the  door  of  entrance,  and  al- 
ways pointing  toward  Mecca,  the  kiibleh  of  the  Muslim.  In- 
deed, Mohammed  originally  chose  Jerusalem  as  the  place  to- 
ward which  his  followers  should  pray,  but  soon  after  changed 
his  mind,  and  substituted  the  Caaba.  The  same  confusion 
of  ideas  presided  at  the  erection  of  one  of  the  oldest  mosks 
built  by  the  conqueror  of  Egypt  at  Fostat,  its  new  capital ;  it 
was  raised  on  the  site  of  an  old  fire-temple  of  the  Persians, 
and  consisted  of  a  small  octagonal  building  in  the  centre  of 
a  court,  surrounded  by  a  gallery  supported  by  several  rows 
of  pillars.  It  is  said  that  the  whole  Koran  was  written  upon 
its  walls   in   letters   of  gold.:}:      That  this   was    not  a   mosk. 


Cai  dlestick  m  the  Motk 


Luke  iv.,  17. 


t  Acts  xiii.,  27. 


t  Marcel,  p.  21. 


720  BIBLE   LANDS. 

but  a  rival  of  the  Mecca  temple,  soon  became  apparent ;  it 
could  no  more  be  tolerated  by  true  Muslims  than  the  temple 
built  by  Onias  at  Heliopolis,  in  Egypt,  could  be  countenanced 
by  the  loyal  Israelite;*  hence  it  soon  fell  into  disuse  and  ruin. 
Ever  since  mosks  have  been  erected  on  the  plan  which  still 
prevails.  They  are  merely  covered  inclosures  for  prayer. 
Every  man  as  he  enters  chooses  the  spot  he  prefers,  and  there 
offers  his  prayer  by  himself.  This  is  done  five  times  each 
day ;  but  many  prefer  to  say  their  prayers  at  home,  or  wher- 
ever they  happen  to  be.  On  Friday,  at  11  a.m.,  it  is  enjoined 
that  a  special  prayer  be  offered,  which  lasts  until  12  o'clock. 
Many  neglect  it  altogether,  and  some  merely  lengthen  their 
ordinary  petitions.  At  the  mosk  it  is  customary  for  the  faith- 
ful to  arrange  themselves  in  rows  upon  the  floor.  A  leader 
repeats  the  appointed  prayers  and  lessons  aloud,  and  the  rest 
participate  by  going  through  the  genuflections  and  other  mo- 
tions in  unison.  There  is  no  one  at  the  desk,  but  all  the  wor- 
shipers keep  together.  There  is  neither  singing  nor  preach- 
ing; but  at  the  close  a  khojah  (teacher)  sometimes  ascends 
the  pulpit,  and  delivers  a  short  exhortation  to  a  handful  of 
people  squatted  on  the  marble  floor  beneath.  This  is  also  done 
at  other  seasons.  The  usual  form  of  the  pulpit  is  extreme!}^ 
ill  adapted  to  preaching,  being  rather  intended  as  an  ornament 
to  the  rich  mosks,  while  the  plainer  ones  dispense  with  it  al- 
together.f  It  has  not  always  been  so,  however.  There  have 
been  times  when  speech  was  a  great  power  in  the  mosk.  Pub- 
lic lectures  are  also  given  from  some  pulpits  at  the  chief  mosks, 
which  are  attended  mostly  by  the  students  of  the  medresehs, 
or  colleges. 

In  some  of  these  places,  as,  for  instance,  in  St.  Sophia,  at 
Constantinople,  the  pulpit  is  a  broad  platform,  with  a  railing 
around  it.  The  khojah  sits  cross-legged,  and  holds  a  stick  in 
his  hand,  a  custom  which  points  to  the  times  when  the  Muslims 
were  not  undisputed  masters  of  the  land.  The  illustration  on 
the  opposite  page  represents  the  pulpit  of  the  old  Mosk  of  the 
Metuallies,  at  Cairo.  It  is  built  on  the  same  principle  as  our 
own,  but  is  ascended  by  a  movable  ladder.      A  copy  of  the 


*  Prideaux,  vol.  iii.,  p.  3'A. 

t  The  pulpit  in  the  Street  of  tlic  Kniglits  at  Kliodes  was  of  the  same  pntfevn. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND   MEN. 


(21 


Koran  is  usualW  kept  in  the  milirab,  but  it  is  never  read  as  a 
part  of  the  service.     Lectures  are  given  upon  portions  of  it,  but 
it  is  not,  like  our  Bible,  used  to  furnish  a  text  for  a  sermon  or 
popular  exposition.     Indeed,  all  the  re- 
ligious instruction  ever  received  bj  the 
masses  consists  in  committing  to  memory         i^asrfffllN        III       I 
certain  sentences  in  an  unknown  dialect, 
and  they  know  little  more  of  Islam  than 
the  ceremonies  it  requires,  and  the  hatred 
it  inculcates  toward  other  sects. 


Pulpit  in  the  Mosk  of  the  Metiiallies,  Cauo. 

The  plan  of  the  mosk  is  simple  and  uniform.  The  ground 
is  divided  into  two  equal  squares,  one  of  which  is  occupied  by 
the  mosk  itself,  and  the  other  by  an  inclosure  in  front  of  it, 
surrounded  by  a  gallery,  and  containing  a  fountain  for  ablu- 
tions, usually  in  the  centre  of  the  court,  but  sometimes  placed 
at  one  side,  and  connected  with  closets,  which  are  an  indis- 
pensable adjunct  of  every  mosk.  This  fountain  varies  in  de- 
sign, the  largest  being  covered  with  a  dome,  supported  by  col- 
umns. It  corresponds  to  the  molten  sea  of  the  Temple  of 
Jerusalem,  twelve  cubits  (eighteen  feet)  in  diameter,  borne  by 
twelve  oxen  of  brass,  and  holding  nearly  fifteen  thousand  gal- 
lons of  water.*  The  Koran  forbids  images  of  living  creatures, 
so  that  these  fountains  are  ornamented  only  with  arabesques 
and  writing:  they  are  called  khazneh  (reservoirs).  The  water 
flows  through  faucets  set  all  around  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  worshipers.  Our  illustration  on  page  723  represents  the 
fountain  of  a  mosk  at  Jaffa,  which  is  the  most  common  form 
throughout  the  country  in  the  finest  mosks. 

The  interior  of  the  mosk  is  plain.     Unlike  the  synagogue. 


*  1  Kings  vii.,  23-26. 


722 


BIBLE   LAXDS. 


it  has  no  benches  or  seats  of  any  kind,  and  of  course  no  aisles. 
The  floor  is  covered  with  carpets  or  matting,  and  every  wor- 
shiper takes  off  his  shoes  when  he  enters,  and  places  them  by 
his  side  when  he  kneels  to  pray.  The  mihrab,  an  ornamented 
alcove  in  the  wall,  contains  a  copy  of  the  Koran,  as  that  of  the 
synagogue  has  one  of  the  law.  One  or  two  massive  candle- 
sticks and  the  pulpit  are  the  only  other  objects  worthy  of  at- 
tention. There  are  also  many  little  lamps,  and  some  ostrich's 
eggs,  hung  in  a  circle  from  the  ceiling  ;  they  are  lighted  during 
the  fasting  month  of  Ramazan,  when  the  people  go  to  the  mosk 
in  the  night.  But  lights  are  kept  burning  every  night  at  the 
caaba  and  at  the  tombs  of  saints,  as  was  done  in  the  tiibernacle 
and  the  temple  of  the  Jews.*  Candlesticks  are  also  frequently 
seen  in  mausoleums ;  these  have  but  one  stem,  commonly  bear- 
ing a  massive  wax-candle,  and  may  be  similar  to  those  which 
were  lighted  on  festivals  in  the  Jewish  temple.f 

Nowhere  have  we  met  with  any  thing  resembling  the  seven- 
branched  candlestick  of  gold  construct- 
ed in  the  Desert,  and  finally  carried 
away  to  Babylon,  the  like  of  which 
was  placed  in  Zerubbabel's  temple,  and 
taken  to  Rome,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
figured  on  the  Arch  of  Titus.  The 
only  thing  we  have  seen  in  the  East 
at  all  similar  in  form  is  a  figure  upon 
an  antique  gem,  which  we  reproduce, 
very  much  enlarged.  It  was  obtained 
at  Ephesus,  and  contains  on  the  ob- 
verse an  inscription  in  some  unknown 
tongue,  whose  characters  bear  a  resem- 
blance to  those  of  Lycian  inscriptions 
and  coins. 

Besides  the  mosks,  there  are  smaller 
Candlestick.  From  a  Gem  found  placcs  for  prayer  Tcsorted  to  by  Mus- 
at  Ephesus.  y^^^^^  which  might  be  called  their  chap- 

els. They  are  small,  built  on  no  particular  plan,  and  have  no 
pulpit.  Instead  of  a  minareh,  the  acting  muezzin  stands  upon 
a  stone,  or  the  top  of  the  stairs,  where  he  utters  the  call  to 


M  I  C  X  ^  f 


Exod.  xxvii.,  20. 


t  Stanley,  "Sinai  and  Palestine," p.  420. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND    MEN.  725 

prayer.  The  tekkehs  are  the  private  chapels  of  various  relig- 
ious orders  of  dervishes,  who  there  perform  their  services  in 
unison. 

The  lavish  expenditure  of  the  Muslims  upon  the  erection  of 
their  places  of  worship,  particularly  upon  the  mosks  of  Cairo 
and  Constantinople,  is  an  evidence  of  their  religious  zeal.  This 
is  apparent  also  from  the  vast  number  of  the  various  religious 
structures  we  have  described  which  are  found  in  the  principal 
cities  of  the  empire,  altogether  beyond  the  necessities  of  the 
population.  It  is  said  that  the  number  of  mosks  and  chapels 
of  all  kinds  in  Broosa,  once  the  capital  of  the  empire,  is  equal 
to  the  number  of  days  in  the  year,  doubtless  an  Oriental  hy- 
perbole; but  this  is  nothing  in  comparison  with  Cairo,  where 
these  buildings  amount  to  no  less  than  twenty-three  thousand.* 
They  are  found  even  in  the  open  country,  and  we  have  fre- 
quently seen  by  the  roadside  a  beautiful  stone  structure,  in- 
closed on  three  sides,  covered  over,  and  having  a  niche  show- 
ing the  direction  of  Mecca,  where  the  traveler  can  rest  and  say 
his  prayers.  Instead  of  a  building,  however,  a  spot  is  some- 
times set  apart  in  the  shade  of  a  lofty  tree,  and  surrounded  by 
a  low  wall  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  animals.  Access  within 
the  inclosure  is  obtained  by  means  of  a  stone  step  or  two  pro- 
vided for  the  purpose.  Such  places  existed  among  the  Jews, 
and  seem  to  have  been  called  irpocnvxm  (places  of  prayer).  It 
has  been  thought  that  our  Lord  continued  all  night  in  one  of 
these  ;t  and  that  such  was  the  spot  where,  by  the  river-side, 
Paul  preached  at  Philippi.:};  Bat  we  have  repeatedly  seen 
chapels  in  isolated  spots  on  a  river  bank,  where  it  must  be  de- 
lightful to  worship  God,  and  adore  him  in  his  works ;  and  such 
may  have  been  the  place  near  Philippi,  "  where  prayer  was 
wont  to  be  made."§  In  times  of  drought  or  public  calamity 
such  places  are  sometimes  resorted  to  for  prayer  by  the  whole 
population,  led  by  the  clergy  of  the  various  sects,  and  by  the 
authorities,  all  of  whom,  for  the  time  being,  lay  aside  their  re- 
ligious animosities  and  bigotry.|| 

We  now  turn  to  the  houses  of  worship  of  Oriental  Christians, 
It  has  been  shown  that  the  Jewish  tabernacle  and  temple  were 


Thevenot,  p.  129.  t  Luke  vi.,  12.  t  Acts  xvi.,  13,  16. 

Pricleaux,  vol.  ii.,  p.  177.  ||  Pococke,  vol.  i.,  p.  36;  Jonnh  iii.,  8. 


726  BIBLE   LANDS. 

an  imitation  in  principle  of  the  buildings  erected  by  the  heathen 
to  their  idols;  they  were  intended  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
purer  and  more  intelligent  worship  of  the  omnipresent  Jehovah 
— "neither  in  this  mountain  nor  yet  at  Jerusalem"* — and  to 
be  then  replaced  by  more  appropriate  structures.  The  steps  in 
this  development  were  as  follows:  first,  the  constant  special 
manifestation  of  Jehovah's  presence  in  one  spot;  second,  prayer 
toward  that  spot;  then,  the  synagogue  with  a  Jerusalem  kiib- 
leh ;  and  then,  again,  the  Word  of  God  put  in  the  kubleh,  to- 
ward which  prayer  is  offered ;  destruction  of  the  Temple ;  and, 
finally,  prayer  toward  heaven,  the  Christian  k{ibleh.  Even 
Muslims,  who  never  pray  without  a  kiibleh,  justify  us  when  we 
tell  them  that  we  pray  in  any  direction,  because,  as  they  them- 
selves express  it,  "God  everywhere  is  present  and  seeing." 
But  Oriental  Christians  have  not  always  understood  this.  Dur- 
ing the  time  of  ignorance,  from  which  they  are  just  emerging, 
there  has  been  a  constant  struggle  between  the  several  princi- 
ples through  which  the  Church  has  been  carried,  i.  e.,  idolatry, 
the  temple,  the  synagogue,  and  the  purest  Christian  worship; 
and  these  are  each  and  all  expressed,  with  more  or  less  distinct- 
nes.s,  in  the  structure  and  the  services  of  their  churches  and  in 
their  ecclesiastical  systems. 

Jerusalem  is  still  the  Jewish  kubleh,  though  no  temple  is 
there,  nor  an}^  special  manifestation  of  God's  presence.  That 
of  the  Muslims,  as  already  stated,  was  the  same  at  first,  but 
was  afterward  changed  to  Mecca.  The  Yezidies,  who,  as  we 
have  seen,  worship  the  sun  and  fire,  turn  in  prayer  toward  the 
east,  where  the  sun  rises.f  The  Nestorians,  who  belong  to  the 
same  race,  also  worship  toward  the  east,  and  their  churches, 
and  those  of  some  others  of  the  oldest  Christian  sects,  are  built 
in  the  same  direction,  while  the  dead  are  buried  with  their 
faces  looking  that  way.:}:  What  is  the  origin  and  ground  of 
this  practice?  It  is  evident  that  it  was  not  taken  from  the 
Jews,  for  the  Temple  was  turned  to  the  west,  and  those  who 
presented  their  sacrifices  upon  the  altar  turned  their  backs  to 
the  east.  This  was  probably  enjoined  on  account  of  the  sun- 
worship  which  then  prevailed  in  Cnnnnn.  Orientals  defend 
their  practice  by  quoting  Matt,  xxiv.,  27 :   "For  as  the  light- 

*  John  iv.,  21.  t  Layard,  vol.  i.,  p.  241.  %  Perkins,  p.  186. 


EELIGIOUS   HOUSES  AND   MEN.  727 

ning  Cometh  out  of  the  east,  and  shineth  even  unto  the  west, 
so  shall  also  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  Man  be."  They  deem 
worship  toward  the  east  an  act  of  faith  in  the  Lord's  coming. 
Such  a  reason,  however,  would  seem  to  be  an  apology  for  the 
practice  rather  than  its  foundation.  It  seems  more  probable 
that  their  use  of  the  east  as  the  kiibleh  of  their  prayers,  and 
the  point  toward  which  they  build  their  churches  and  bury 
their  dead,  is  a  relic  of  the  sun-worship  of  their  ancestors ;  for 
these  practices  are  chiefly  found  among  Christians  whose  an- 
cestors were  addicted  to  this  form  of  idolatry.  This  is  surely 
a  striking  example  of  the  tenacity  with  which  the  human  mind 
clings  to  the  early-planted  seeds  of  error  and  superstition. 

We  scarcely  need  to  allude  to  the  lighting  of  candles  and 
lamps  in  churches  as  being  an  imitation  of  the  Jewish  temple 
practice.  The  people,  however,  derived  the  custom  from  the 
candlesticks  of  the  Apocalypse,  whose  real  origin  was  doubt- 
less the  same.*  The  setting  up  of  painted  images  within  the 
church  itself,  the  offering  of  prayers  and  incense  to  them,  the 
bowing  before  them,  devoutly  kissing  them,  and  giving  them 
gifts,  gold,  and  precious  stones,  finds  its  parallel  in  the  history 
of  the  Jewish  Church  during  the  often  recurring  sway  of  idol- 
atry. The  golden  calf  was  molten,  set  up,  and  worshiped  at 
the  very  foot  of  Sinai ;  and  while  the  mount  trembled  and 
shook  at  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  the  people  shouted,  "  These 
be  thy  gods,  O  Israel,  which  brought  thee  up  out  of  the  land 
of  Egypt."t  The  court  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  long  con- 
tained the  images  of  various  gods  that  were  worshiped,  as  in 
a  Pantheon,  together  with  Jehovah ;;{:  and  in  both  cases  the 
idolatry  of  the  flithers  clung  to  their  children  for  many  gener- 
ations. 

The  Abyssinians,  as  might  be  expected  from  their  connec- 
tion with  Judaism  before  the  existence  of  synagogues,  ap- 
proach nearest  to  the  Jewish  temple  in  the  internal  arrange- 
ment of  their  churches.  These  buildings  are  circular,  with  a 
conical  thatched  roof,  which  projects  eight  feet  beyond  the 
walls,  and  forms  a  veranda,  supported  by  wooden  pillars. 
The  centre  of  the  church  is  occupied  by  a  square,  divided  into 


*  Rev.  i.,  12,  13.  +  Exod.  x.xxii.,  4. 

t  2  Kings  xxiii.,  11 ;   2  Chron.  xxxiii.,  l'>  •  Ezek.  viii.,  11. 


728  BIBLE   LANDS. 

two  equal  parts  by  a  vail  or  curtain,  separating  the  holy  place 
from  the  holy  of  holies.  These  two  places  can  be  entered  only 
by  the  priests.  The  first  inclosure,  nearest  to  the  square,  is 
occupied  only  by  the  clergy,  but  the  people  sit  or  stand  in  the 
outer  one  after  taking  off  their  shoes.  No  one,  however,  can 
enter  a  church  who  is  ceremonially  unclean  according  to  the 
definition  of  the  Pentateuch.* 

Among  the  Nestorians  the  elements  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
are  kept  in  a  small  room  at  the  inner  end  of  the  church,  which 
can  be  entered  by  the  clergy  alone.  In  the  Greek  churches 
there  is  a  high  wooden  screen,  which  cuts  off  one  end  of  the 
church;  it  is  called  " iconostasis,"  from  its  being  hung  with 
the  pictures  of  Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  many  of  the  saints  who 
mediate  for  the  people  (in  the  body  of  the  church),  with  God 
(in  the  holy  place).  This  screen  has  three  doors.  The  two 
at  the  sides  are  alone  used  by  the  priests  and  the  other  serv- 
ants of  the  church,  to  go  in  and  out;  the  central  door  is,  prop- 
erly speaking,  but  a  half- door,  or  a  window,  usually  closed 
with  a  screen,  which  is  drawn  aside  during  mass,  showing  the 
altar  within,  and  a  copy  of  the  Gospels  lying  open  upon  it. 
The  portion  behind  the  screen  is  called  the  holy  sanctuary,t 
and  is  considered  an  imitation  of  the  holy  of  holies.  But  it  is 
also  used  as  a  sacristy.:}:  With  the  Armenians  the  arrange- 
ments resemble  more  those  of  the  Roman  Church,  the  altar 
being  in  full  sight,  with  an  array  of  candlesticks,  pictures, 
books,  silver  vessels,  and  flowers.  A  low  balustrade  runs 
along  the  front,  separating  it  from  the  body  of  the  church,  ex- 
cept in  the  centre,  where  the  deacon  reads  the  Scriptures. 
Here,  also,  is  placed  the  arm-chair  of  the  bishop,  the  only  pul- 
pit ever  used.  He  sits  in  state,  with  his  mitre  and  cope  on  his 
head,  and  his  sceptre  in  his  hand,  addressing  his  exhortation 
to  the  people  without  a  text,  and  in  a  desultory,  authoritative 
style. 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  statements  that  the  Oriental 
churches  are  a  closer  imitation  of  the  Jewish  tabernacle  and 
temple  than  the  mosks  of  the  Muslim.  This  will  be  still  more 
apparent  if  we  call   to  mind  that  every  church  contains  an 


*  Exod.  xix.,  l.'i ;  Nnmh.  v.,  2  ;  Bruce,  vol.  iii.,  p.  643. 

t  Lev.  iv.,  «;   1  Kiiiys  vi.,  1(1.  J  C-'mzon,  p.  2")0;  Tlievcnot,  p.  82. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND    MEN.  729 

altar,  and  upon  that  altar  is  offered  the  daily  sacrifice  of  bread 
and  wine,  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  typefied  by  the  Jewish 
sacrifice  of  a  lamb.  It  is  needless  to  enter  upon  the  question 
how  far  the  doctrine  of  the  Keal  Presence  is  received  by  the 
Oriental  churches.  We  only  point  out  the  fact  that  they  have 
endeavored  to  imitate  at  once  the  temple  and  the  synagogue 
— the  latter  by  making  it  a  place  of  meeting  for  instruction 
and  prayer,  and  the  former  by  the  introduction  of  much  that 
is  plainly  derived  from  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  not  even  ex- 
cepting a  daily  sacrifice. 

Travelers  have  sometimes  been  struck  with  the  small  size 
of  the  outside  door  of  the  churches,  and  have  credited  the  fiinci- 
•ful  explanations  with  which  they  have  been  entertained.  The 
true  one  is  the  same  which  has  placed  the  entrance  of  many 
monasteries  so  high  that  visitors  must  be  hoisted  up  in  bas- 
kets with  a  windlass.  The  Muslims  were  wont  to  ride  into 
the  churches  on  horseback,  and  thus  profane  what  they  called 
idol  temples;  and  a  small  iron  door  has  often  resisted  the  ef- 
forts of  the  lawless  marauders  intent  upon  murder  and  pillage, 
when  a  larger  door  would  have  given  way.* 

Priests  and  religious  men  have  always  constituted  a  large 
and  influential  class  in  the  East;  and  there  are  many  particu- 
lars in  the  condition  of  the  clergj'-  at  the  present  time,  both 
among  Christians,  Muslims,  and  even  the  heathen  tribes,  which 
are  derived  from  the  ancient  customs,  or  at  least  have  a  com- 
mon origin.  They  have,  for  this  reason,  an  important  bearing 
upon  our  general  subject,  and  deserve  an  inquiry. 

The  priesthood  was  anciently  confined  to  certain  families 
and  tribes — a  rule  which  was  strictly  adhered  to  among  the 
Jews.  The  sons  of  Levi  alone  were  consecrated  to  the  Lord, 
both  for  the  service  of  the  Temple  and  to  act  as  chaplains  in 
private  houses.  The  frequently  occurring  expression,  "The 
Levite  that  is  in  thy  house,"  is  a  proof  of  this.f  But  the 
priests  were  taken  from  the  family  of  Aaron,  the  high -priest 
himself  being  a  lineal  descendant  in  the  principal  branch.  It 
is  doubtless  the  tendency  both  of  Christianity  and  Islam  to 
remove  this  exclusive  monopoly,  and  open  the  sacred  pro- 


*  Smith  and  Dwight,  vol.  ii.,  p.  211. 

t  Deut.  xii.,  12,  18;  xvi.,  11,  U;  Jiidg.  xvii.,  7-13. 


730  BIBLE   LANDS. 

fession  to  all  classes  of  the  people,  substituting  for  hereditary 
rights  the  broader  principle  of  personal  fitness  and  the  choice 
of  the  people.  The  new  element  brought  in  has  not,  however, 
quite  destroyed  the  old^  and  facts  still  testify  to  its  former  sway. 
There  are  Christian  churches  in  the  East  where  the  office  of  a 
bishop,  and  particularly  of  the  highest  order  of  bishops,  called 
patriarchs,  is  as  carefully  handed  down  from  father  to  son  as 
though  it  were  the  government  of  a  principality  or  a  kingdom. 
This  rule  holds  particularly  in  the  Nestorian,  or  Chaldean, 
Church,  where  these  dignitaries  are  often  ordained  while  mere 
children.*  But  among  the  Yezidies  the  four  orders  of  the 
priesthood  are  not  only  hereditary,  as  among  the  Levites,  but 
they  are  even  assumed  by  women,  in  default  of  male  heirs, f  as 
was  the  case  among  the  ancient  Magians.:}:  The  Muslims,  how- 
ever, show  not  a  trace  of  this  hereditary  principle.  Even  the 
descendants  of  the  prophet  enjoy  no  privilege  but  that  of  wear- 
ing the  green  turban,  §  The  vow  of  the  Nazarite  is  found  among 
the  Nestorians  alone.  "  Mothers  vow  not  to  shave  a  child's 
head,  and  abstain  from  the  use  of  animal  food  during  the  pe- 
riod of  gestation;  and  the  child  must  do  the  same,  if  he  would 
assume  the  episcopal  office  to  which  he  may  be  destined."! 
It  is  also  required  among  them  that  he  have  no  physical  de- 
fect or  blemish,^ and  the  priest,  to  whatever  sect  he  may  belong, 
can,  in  addition,  only  marry  a  virgin.** 

The  celibacy  of  the  clergy  is  found  among  the  higher  orders 
in  fill  the  Oriental  churches.  This  practice  can  not  be  very 
old  in  some  of  them ;  for  the  liturgy  still  in  use  among  the 
Armenians  (Medz  Mashdots)  requires  that  at  the  ordination  of 
a  bishop  he  be  asked  whether  he  is  married,  and  when  he  has 
answered  in  the  affirmative,  the  presiding  officer  must  declare 
that  the  people  is  cursed  whose  spiritual  guide  is  not  married. 
There  are,  however,  monasteries  among  all  sects  except  the 
Nestorians.ff  Marriage  is  considered  honorable  among  the 
Muslims ;  for  all  classes,  indeed,  celibacy  is  deemed  disreputa- 

*  Smith  and  Dwight,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  211,  217.  t  Lavard,  vol.  i.,  p.  250. 

%  Prideaux,  vol.  i.,  p.  395.      §  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  1G7.      ||  Perkins,  p.  1!). 

t  Lev.  xxi.,  17.  **  Lev.  xxi.,  14. 

t+  They  had  their  origin  in  Egypt  many  centuries  before  our  era,  and  were  only 
increased  and  modified  by  an  ignorant  Christianity. — Wilkixson.  in  Kawlinson, 
"  Herodotus,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  47,  note. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND   MEN.  731 

ble.  Even  the  dervishes,  who  constitute  an  oraer  nearest 
akin  to  Christian  monks,  are  always  married,  and  differ  from 
the  rest  of  the  community  only  in  their  religious  zeal  and 
peculiar  rites.  The  Christian  clergy  of  our  times  in  Western 
Asia  probably  dress  very  nearly  like  the  priests  of  the  Old 
World.  There  was  not  much  difference  between  Jew  and  hea- 
then in  this  respect.  Yet  it  is  probable  that  the  latter  chiefly 
were  imitated  by  the  Oriental  churches,  for  the  Hebrew  com- 
monwealth was  destroyed  before  the  extensive  dissemination 
and  permanent  establishment  of  Christianity;  and  it  is  well 
known  that  for  several  centuries  Christians  endeavored  to  win 
the  heathen  to  their  religion  by  conforming  to  such  of  their 
usages  as  they  deemed  harmless. 

Among  Muslims  there  is  nothing  whatever  to  distinguish 
the  clergy  from  the  laity,  not  even  the  color  of  their  garments. 
Such  was  also  the  case  with  the  Christian  clergy  in  the  apos- 
tolic age.  Mohammed  only  re-established  a  custom  that  had 
once  prevailed  in  the  same  land.*  The  green  turban  which 
now  distinguishes  the  descendants  of  the  prophet  was  not  in- 
troduced till  several  centuries  after  Mohammed.  The  Nesto- 
rian  priests  wear  a  white  robe  while  celebrating  the  commun- 
ion ;  but  at  other  times  the  clergy  of  this  very  ancient  Church 
dress  like  the  laity.  There  is  nothing  to  distinguish  even  the 
patriarch  or  bishops  from  other  men.  The  Yezidy  priests  al- 
ways wear  white,  while  the  clergy  of  the  Christian  churches 
are  clad  in  dark  raiment,  usually  black.  All,  without  excep- 
tion, are  attired  in  the  flowing  robe  which  constitutes  the  pe- 
culiar garment  of  the  East. 

The  turban  is  worn  by  the  clergy  of  the  Coptic  and  Chal- 
dean churches,  the  oldest  in  existence.  The  head-dress  of  the 
priests  of  other  Christian  sects  appears  to  be  a  close  imitation 
of  the  caps  worn  by  the  Hebrew  priests  in  form,  though  not 
perhaps  in  color,  for  these  wore  caps,  or  cup-shaped  "  bonnets," 
in  form  like  a  cup-shaped  flower,  and  of  fine  linen.f  Those 
now  in  use  perfectly  correspond  to  this  description,  except  that 
they  are  of  black  felt.  The  illustration  on  the  following  page 
represents  a  Greek  priest  with  the  robe  and  cap  which  are 
his  every -day  dress.     This  is  the  mitre  of  the  ancients.     It 

*  1  Pet.  ii,,  5 ;  Rev.  i.,  G,  t  Smith,  "  Bible  Dictioniirv,''  art.  Priests. 

47 


782 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


implies  royal  digni- 
ty, was  often  worn 
by  ancient  kings, 
and  is  so  represent- 
ed on  Persian  mon- 
uments. The  high- 
est orders  of  the  Ar- 
menian clergy,  the 
monks,  bishops,  and 
patriarchs,  wear, 
over  the  cap  a  black 
hood,  which  rests 
upon  the  shoulders, 
and  hangs  down  the 
back ;  it  is  called 
"coocooly,"  like  that 
of  the  ancient  hea- 
then priests,*  and  is 
probably  an  imita- 
tion of  the  ephod  of 
the  Hebrews.f  A 
«'^^^^"^'  black  cloth  is  simi- 

larly worn  by  Greek  bishops.  These  orders  of  the  priesthood 
alone  preach  to  the  people  among  the  Armenians,  in  doing 
which  they  sit  upon  a  throne  (for  they  have  no  pulpits,  like  the 
Greeks  or  Latins),  and  hold  a  silver-mounted  crozier  in  the  right 
hand,  while  the  congregation  kneel  at  their  feet  or  squat  upon 
the  floor.  The  fact  that  they  are  the  lords  and  not  the  serv- 
ants of  the  Church,  is  further  attested  by  the  servile  bearing  of 
the  laity,  who  habitually  stand  or  kneel  in  their  presence,  and 
kiss  tlie  hem  of  their  garments.;}:  Surely  such  practices  do  not 
accord  with  the  teachings  of  the  apostles,  but  rather  befit  hea- 
then priests,  or  "scribes  and  Pharisees."§ 

Though  no  distinctive  garb  is  worn  among  the  Muslims 
by  the  clergy,  yet  the  learned  (oolema),  who  often  officiate  in 
the  mosk,  exclusively  wear  a  peculiar  white  turb«in.     There 


*  Churchill,  "Lebanon,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  S.s.  f  1  Sam.  xiv.,  3. 

t  Tlie  common  Greek  name  for  a  hislio])  is  (ha-ort/c,  despot.     The  Muslims 
have  greatly  contributed  to  bring  about  this  state  of  things. 
§  Matt,  xxiii.,  G,  7. 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND   MEN. 


736 


is,  however,  a  class  of 
people,  laying  claim 
to  great  piety,  who 
dress  unlike  other 
men ;  these  are  the 
dervishes,  of  whom 
there  are  several  or- 
ders, as  distinct  from 
each  other  as  the  dif- 
ferent monks  of  the 
papacy.  The  Mev- 
levies  are  probably 
the  most  numerous, 
and  certainly  the 
wealthiest,  of  the  reg- 
ular orders.  They 
date  several  centu- 
ries after  Moham- 
med ;  and  indeed  he 
had  nothing  to  do 
with  the  institution 
of  the  dervishes  at  all :  they 


Whirling  Dervish. 


Armenian  Bishop,  with  Hood. 

must  be  classed  with  other  ascet- 
ics, who  have  sprung  up 
in  Asia  in  every  age  and 
under  every  religious  sys- 
tem. 

The  higher  classes  of 
the  regular  religious  or- 
ders are  alone  supported 
by  their  endowments,  and 
they  only  usually  wear  the 
regular  costume  of  the  or- 
der. The  dress  of  the 
Mevlevies  consists  of  a 
tall  brown  cap  of  thick 
felt,  a  gray  jacket,  and  a 
robe  bound  to  the  body  by 
a  light  girdle.  The  lower 
part  of  the  robe  is  so  am- 
ple as  to  spread  out  in  a 


734 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


broad  circle  when  the  wearer  whirls  rapidly  round,  like  a  top, 
in  the  performance  of  his  devotions.  The  last  illustration  on 
the  preceding  page  is  the  portrait  of  a  man  well  known  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Mevlevi  tekkeh,  or  chapel,  at  Pera,  in 
Constantinople.  He  is  very  gentlemanly,  courteous,  and  well- 
informed.  He  is  represented  in  the  position  he  assumes  when 
about  to  begin  the  dance  which  characterizes  their  peculiar  mode 
of  worship.  This  class  of  dervishes  is  the  least  fanatical  of  all. 
Besides  the  regular  orders,  there  are  dervishes  who  belong 
nowhere,  but  assume  the  character  of  ascetics,  prophets,  or  mir- 
acle-workers, for  the  purpose  of  living  upon  the  public.  They 
claim  charity  as  a  right,  and  are  the  most  impudent  beggars 
in  the  world,  often  inviting  themselves  to  the  houses  and  ta- 
bles of  the  rich,  who  dare  uot  be  rude  to  them,  for  fear  of  the 

common  people,  who 
venerate  them.  They 
are  usually  filthy,  and 
covered  with  rags. 
Sometimes  they  retire 
to  solitary  places  in 
the  neighborhood  of 
large  cities,  and  at- 
tract crowds  by  pre- 
tending to  live  with- 
out food.  They  often 
carry  articles  that  are 
odd  and  strange  for 
the  purpose  of  draw- 
ing attention,  such  as 
the  saw  of  a  saw-fish, 
etc.,  in  the  specimen 
annexed.  They  have 
a  dish  suspended  b}' 
a  chain  for  receiving 


Begging  Der\  ibh. 


alms,  and  a  sachel  containing  all  the  bearer's  property.  A 
club  of  steel  testifies  their  hatred  of  infidels.  During  a  battle 
these  dervishes  follow  the  army  like  a  pack  of  hyenas,  killing 
and  plundering  those  of  the  enemy  left  wounded  upon  the  field. 
They  are  fond  of  wearing  some  unusual  article  of  dress,  like 
the  cap  in  our  illustration.     They  sometimes  carry  a  steel  rod 


RELIGIOUS   HOUSES   AND   MEN.  735 

two  feet  long,  with  a  curved  cross-piece  at  one  end,  upon  which 
they  rest  their  heads  in  sleeping  as  they  sit  in  the  mosk,  when 
they  make  a  vow  not  to  lie  down  during  the  whole  month  of 
Ramazan,  and  wear  a  leopard's  skin  upon  their  backs,  like  the 
ancient  Egyptian  priests.* 

The  "false  prophets"  among  the  Hebrews  doubtless  belong- 
ed to  the  class  of  people  now  called  "begging  dervishes."f 
We  may  regard  our  picture  not  only  as  a  fair  sample  of  the 
modern  Muslim  dervish  and  fakir,  but  also  of  the  ancient  sooth- 
sayers, jugglers,  and  fanatical  followers  of  Baal  and  other  idols; 
and,  if  we  take  away  the  odd  articles  with  which  our  dervish 
endeavors  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  public,  we  may  truly 
say  that  his  outward  appearance,  and  especially  his  garb,  gives 
us  a  not  altogether  incorrect  idea  of  Elijah  the  prophet  and 
John  the  Baptist.:}: 

In  Muslim  countries  the  support  of  the  clergy  is  almost 
wholly  obtained  from  the  rent  of  religious  endowments.  The 
property  thus  owned  is  very  large,  constituting  probably  one- 
fifth  of  the  entire  real  estate  of  the  country.  The  burden  is 
lightened  by  the  small  tax  imposed  upon  those  who  rent  it. 
It  is  bought  and  sold  like  any  other  property,  with  this  provi- 
so, that  it  can  not  be  transmitted  at  death  to  any  but  one's  own 
children,  but  reverts  to  the  vakoof^  and  is  sold  for  the  benefit 
of  the  ecclesiastical  fund.  This  system  prevails  both  with  the 
Muslim  and  with  the  Christian,  with  this  exception,  that  the  lat- 
ter never  sells  ecclesiastical  property,  finding  it  more  profitable 
and  safe  to  rent  it.  The  Jewish  system,  by  which  a  particular 
tribe  was  set  apart  for  divine  service,  and  had  cities  and  fields 
of  their  own,§  did  not  essentially  differ  from  the  modern,  but 
it  put  limits  to  ecclesiastical  property  which  the  New  Testa- 
ment priests  did  not  observe.! 

Whenever  church  property  is  insufficient  to  meet  expenses, 
the  Muslims  support  a  moollah,  or  priest  of  their  choice,  who 
becomes  their  religious  teacher,  chants  the  calls  to  prayer,  and 
leads  their  devotions  in  the  mosk  on  Fridays,  and  in  the  yearly 
celebration  of  the  fast  of  Ramazan,  as  well  as  at  the  two  feasts 
of  Bairam.     Sometimes  he  teaches  their  children  to  read  and 

*  Wilkinson,  vol.  i.,  p.  320,  fig.  283.  t  1  Kings  xxii.,  12. 

X  Movier,  quoted  by  Stanley,  "Jewish  Churc'.i,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  326. 

§  Numb.  XXXV.,  7,  8.  II  Matt,  xv.,  .'',. 


736  BIBLE    LANDS. 

say  their  prayers.  Among  the  Christians  the  support  of  the 
priests  in  such  cases  is  derived  from  the  altar.*  The  people 
pay  for  every  baptism,  marriage,  burial,  and  many  other  cere- 
monies, the  Armenians  alone  choosing  their  own  priests.  The 
wealthiest  religious  corporations  are  Muslim,  among  whom  the 
Mevlevies,  commonly  called  "the  whirling  dervishes,"  stand 
the  highest.  Their  chief  seat  is  Konieh,  the  ancient  Iconium. 
The  Turkish  Government  has  lately  taken  possession  of  their 
property,  paying  them  the  annual  rents  instead.  These  doubt- 
less in  course  of  time  will  be  suppressed.  In  Turkey,  as  ev- 
erywhere else,  it  is  found  that  wealth  destroys  the  activity  and 
usefulness  of  religious  corporations. 

*  Deut.  xviii.,  1 :  Josh,  xiii.,  14,  33. 


RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES.  737 


CHAPTER  XI. 

RELIGIOUS  PRACTICES. 

Our  consideration  of  the  religious  sentiment  among  the  peo- 
ple of  Bible  lands  has  thus  far  been  confined  to  that  expression 
of  it  which  is  found  in  the  temples  erected  for  the  worship  of 
the  Deity,  and  in  the  priesthood  which  is  consecrated  to  his 
special  service.  We  now  propose  to  go  a  little  forther,  and 
consider  religion  in  some  of  its  practical  applications  to  the 
daily  life  of  its  votaries. 

Humanly  speaking,  the  idea  of  a  written  revelation  of  the 
divine  will  is  an  Oriental  conception,  and  has  repeatedly  been 
carried  out  in  Western  Asia,  whether  honestly  or  through  im- 
posture. We  need  not  dwell  upon  its  value,  or  upon  the  bless- 
ings conferred  on  the  race  by  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  all  of  which  were  written  by  Orientals  in  Western 
Asia.  In  like  manner  were  the  Vedas  penned  in  Sanscrit, 
and  the  Koran  by  Mohammed  in  Arabic ;  besides  which  many 
other  works  of  a  similar  character  have  long  ago  perished,  the 
most  noted  being  the  Sibylline  oracles,  once  highly  esteemed 
in  Southern  Europe.  The  only  composition  of  this  kind  pro- 
duced outside  of  the  Asiatic  continent  appears  to  be  the  vol- 
ume put  forth  in  our  own  country  by  Joe  Smith,  the  founder 
of  the  polygamous  sect  known  as  the  Mormons. 

It  is  often  said  that  history  repeats  itself.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  manner  in  which  mankind  have  dealt  with  such 
books  as  they  have  believed  to  contain  a  divine  revelation. 
A  few  points  in  this  parallelism  can  not  fail  to  interest  the 
reader,  for  they  constitute  the  key  to  most  important  portions 
of  ecclesiastical  history,  and  throw  light  upon  some  pages  of 
Holy  Writ. 

The  books  of  the  Old  Testament  were  not  originally  named 
after  their  authors,  or  their  contents,  as  is  now  done  by  us. 
They  derived  their  names  from  their  first  word ;  Genesis,  for 
instance,  being  called  "Bereshith"  (In  the  beginning);  Exo- 


738        ■  BIBLE   LANDS. 

dus,  "Ve'elah  shamoth  "  (And  these  are  the  names),  or  simply 
"Shamoth"  (names);  Leviticus,  "Vayikra"  (And  he  called), 
etc.*  We  meet  the  same  thing  in  the  Koran:  chapter  viii.,  for 
instance,  is  entitled  "the  spoils;"  chapter  ix.,  "the  declaration 
of  immunity,"  etc.  There  is  sufficient  reason  for  this  in  the 
fact  that  the  ancient  manuscripts  were  voluminous,  and  rolled 
up  in  such  a  manner  that  they  were  best  recognized  by  open- 
ing at  the  first  line.  But  the  titles  of  most  of  the  chapters 
of  the  Koran,  unlike  our  Scriptures,  are  purely  fanciful,  being 
taken  from  some  story  or  word  which  occurs  anywhere  in  the 
course  of  the  chapter ;  such  as  the  cow,  cattle,  thunder,  the  ant, 
the  fig,  etc. 

The  Jews  now  maintain  that  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures 
must  not  be  translated. f  But  they  did  not  always  think  so. 
Nehemiah  read  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  to  the  people  in  public, 
and  gave  the  interpretation  in  the  cognate  Chaldean  dialect, 
which  had  been  adopted  by  the  Jews  at  Babylon.:}:  Subse- 
quently several  translations,  or  paraphrases,  were  made  ,into 
Chaldean,  and  were  read  in  the  synagogues  every  Sabbath-day.§ 
A  Greek  version  was  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  Alexandria 
Jews,  and  was  often  quoted  by  our  Lord  and  his  apostles.|| 
The  Jews  of  the  present  day,  however,  reject  all  translations  of 
the  Bible,  with  the  exception  of  the  Karaites,  a  small  sect  in 
Poland  and  the  Crimea,  who  discard  the  "  traditions  of  the  eld- 
ers," and  accept  the  Old  Testament  alone  as  their  law.^  On 
the  other  hand,  the  great  majority  of  the  Jews  treat  the  Scrip- 
tures as  a  dead  letter,  and  put  their  ftxith  alone  in  the  volumi- 
nous commentaries  called  the  Talmud.  So  likewise  the  Mus- 
lims maintain  that  the  Koran  is  not  to  be  translated,  nor  even 
printed  and  circulated  among  the  Arabic-speaking  populations. 
They  pay  it  great  outward  respect,  and  deem  the  reading  of  it 
a  work  of  merit,  to  be  put  in  the  balance  at  the  judgment-day. 
Many  of  their  sovereigns  have  copied  it  with  their  own  hand, 
as  was  enjoined  by  Moses  to  "  him  that  should  be  king  over" 
God's  people.**  At  the  same  time  they  follow  only  the  com- 
mentaries of  the  Koran,  which  are  numerous  and  often  contra- 
dictory, giving  rise  to  many  sects,  the  chief  of  which  are  the 

*  Piideaux,  vol.  ii.,  p.  106.  t  Stanley,  "Jewish  Church,"  Introd.,  p.  35. 

t  Nch.  viii.,  8.  §  Luke  iv.,  17  ;  Acts  xiii.,  27. 

II  MiUt.  iv.,  14-lG.  t  Prideaux,  vol.  iii.,  p.  4-49.  ♦*  Dent,  xvii.,  18. 


RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES.  739 

Sunni,  or  Turks,  and  the  Sheite,  or  Persians,  bitter  enemies  of 
one  another.*  Yet  there  is  a  large  class  of  men  whose  sole 
occupation  consists  in  copying  the  Koran ;  and  these  corre- 
spond to  the  scribes  of  New  Testament  times,  who  were  equal- 
ly invested  with  a  sacred  character  in  the  eyes  of  the  people. 
There  is,  however,  a  small  sect  of  Muslims,  corresponding  to 
the  Jewish  Karaites,  and  called  Wahabies,  who  reject  all  tra- 
ditions and  commentaries,  and  accept  the  Koran  alone  as  their 
rule  of  faith.  We  need  hardly  call  to  mind  the  parallel  which 
exists  in  Christendom,  nor  point  out  the  fact  that  the  Karaites, 
the  Wahabies,  and  the  Protestants  occupy  precisely  the  same 
position  with  relation  to  the  main  bodies  from  which  they  have 
withdrawn,  and  that  they  have  alike  been  the  objects  of  their 
deadly  hatred  and  persecution. 

Another  principle  originating  in  Western  Asia  is  the  union, 
indeed  the  almost  identity,  as  there  practiced,  of  church  and 
state.  Orientals  have  ever  been  intolerant  and  bitter  perse- 
cutors of  such  as  differed  from  them  in  religious  opinions  and 
practices,  and  they  have  furnished  by  far  the  largest  quota  to 
"  the  noble  army  of  martyrs."  Their  sovereigns,  anxious  to 
strengthen  their  authority  over  the  people,  have  ever  allied 
themselves  to  the  priesthood, f  often  assuming  the  office  of 
high-priest,  and  even  claiming  relationship  to  the  gods.  They 
made  themselves  the  avengers  of  the  Deity,  and  punished  her- 
esy as  treason.:}:  We  have  already  indicated  the  fact  that  in 
leading  the  human  family  to  the  adoption  of  a  purer  faith,  the 
author  of  Revelation  and  controller  of  Providence  started  from 
the  point  actually  occupied  by  the  heathen.  In  imitation  of 
them,  he  adopted  the  Hebrews  as  his  people,  bid  them  fight 
his  battles,  and  punish  idolatry  as  treason  to  the  state.§  Hence 
the  heathen  were  not  to  be  put  to  death  for  the  sin  of  idolatry, 
according  to  the  Mosaic  law :  this  was  the  punishment  of  the 
Hebrews  alone,  and  of  those  who,  by  "  dwelling  among  them," 
became  a  part  of  their  commonwealth. 

Wherever  Christianity  has  been  planted  in  its  purest  form, 
it  has  tended  to  develop  the  rights  of  conscience  and  to  cher- 
ish religious  liberty,  which  has  ever  led  ultimately  to  the  sev- 

*  Wortabed,  "  Religions  of  the  East,"  p.  184.  t  Gen.  xlvii.,  22. 

t  Rawlinson,  "Herodotus,"  vol.  i.,  p.  406,  note  9.  §  Lev.  xx.,  2-6. 


740  BIBLE   LANDS. 

erance  of  the  church  and  the  state.  Tliis  last  result  is  both  safe 
and  desirable  in  the  present  condition  of  society ;  but  it  was 
not  always  so.  Heretofore  true  religion  could  no  more  be  left 
unprotected  by  the  secular  arm  than  the  unarmed  traveler  can 
journey  through  a  land  infested  with  banditti.  Religious  in- 
tolerance is  still  the  rule  in  the  East,  which  is  slow  to  feel  the 
influence  of  the  reformed  Christian  civilization  of  Europe;  so 
that  we  yet  find  there,  especially  among  the  masses  of  the  peo- 
ple, a  pretty  correct  illustration  of  the  state  of  things  which  ex- 
isted in  Bible  times. 

The  Sultan  of  Turkey  claims  to  be  the  lawful  successor  of 
Mohammed,  through  the  caliphs  who  once  reigned  at  Bagdad. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  these  effeminate  sovereigns  were  sup- 
planted by  the  chief  of  their  Tartar  guards,  who,  it  is  claimed, 
was  related  to  the  founder  of  the  Osmanli  dynasty.  And,  what 
is  more  to  the  purpose,  the  sultans  possess  a  few  hairs  of  the 
prophet's  beard,  his  old  cloak,  and  his  original  standard — the 
famous  "Sanjak  Sherif" — which  is  never  unfurled  except  on 
occasions  of  great  danger  to  the  state.  All  Muslims,  except 
heretics  like  the  Persians,  acknowledge  the  validity  of  the  sul- 
tan's claim,  which  may  be  said  to  correspond  to  the  divine  ap- 
pointment of  the  king  among  the  Jews.*  The  office  of  the 
sultan,  as  successor  of  Mohammed,  is  both  temporal  and  spirit- 
ual :  he  is  at  once  king  and  high-priest,  and  in  the  latter  char- 
acter presides  at  all  the  great  religious  festivities,  in  the  same 
manner  as  was  done  by  the  Hebrew  kings,f  and  by  the  an- 
cient sovereigns  of  Assyria,  Persia,  and  Egypt.:}: 

The  position  occupied  in  the  state  by  the  different  portions 
of  the  population  depends  solely  on  their  religious  creed. 
Those  who  profess  the  state  religion,  which  is  Islam,  enjoy 
every  privilege  and  emolument,  every  office,  whether  civil  or 
military,  being  open  to  them.  They  constitute  the  only  nobil- 
ity or  privileged  class.  The  moment  a  man,  be  he  a  native  or 
a  foreigner,  utters  the  formula,  "  There  is  no  god  but  God,  and 
Mohammed  is  the  prophet  of  God" — though  he  be  well  known 
as  a  hypocrite,  an  infidel,  or  a  heathen — that  moment  the  high- 
est offices  are  open  to  him;  he  may  become  prime  minister, 

*  Deiit.  xvii..  IT..  t  1  Kings  viii.,  1-G. 

t  Stanley,  "  Jewisli  Church,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  430,  432. 


RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES. 


741 


genenil  in  chief,  or  grand  admiral.*  Idolaters  stand  at  the 
other  end  of  the  scale:  if  detected  in  the  performance  of  hea- 
then rites,  they  are  mercilessly  put  to  death.  Christians  en- 
joy a  certain  degree  of  toleration.  They  may  worship  God  in 
their  own  way,  but  may  not  build  new  churches.  They  may 
not  occupy  any  office  of  trust,  whether  civil  or  military.  They 
are  not  drafted  into  the  army,  but  pay  a  capitation-tax  instead  ; 
yet  they  are  common  seamen  in  the  navy,  both  because  they 
make  better  sailors  than  the  Turks,  and  on  account  of  their 
former  employment  in  rowing  the  galleys  as  slaves.  Their  tes- 
timony is  not  admitted  in  a  court  of  justice,  so  that  there  is 
no  possible  redress  for  the  wrongs  inflicted  upon  them  by  their 
enemies.  The  Turks  call  them  Kayas;  they  are  their  sheep^ 
kept  only  for  the  sake  of  their  wool  and  their  flesh  ;  and  though 
their  condition  has  been  greatly  improved  through  the  inter- 
ference of  Christian  governments,  yet  the  undiminished  jeal- 
ousy and  bigotry  of  the  Muslims  breaks  out  every  few  years 
into  massacre  and  rapine.  The  Jews  enjoy  privileges  in  Tur- 
key which  are  denied  to  the  Christians,  a  circumstance  explain- 
ed by  the  foct  that  they  aided  the  Turks  in  the  conquest  of  the 
country. 

The  spirit  of  intolerance  prevalent  in  the  East  may  be  fur- 
ther illustrated  by  the  ftict  that  though  the  word  "Christian" 
has  for  so  many  centuries  been  the  generally  adopted  name  of 
the  followers  of  Christ,  yet  the  one  hundred  and  twenty  mill- 
ions of  people  who  use  the  Arabic  language  and  profess  the 
Muslim  faith  have  no  better  name  for  Christians  than  "  Naza- 
rene."f 

Forcible  conversions  to  Islam  are  by  no  means  rare  in  the 
East.  When  a  Muslim  has  accidentally  by  some  fortuitous  cir- 
cumstance been  struck  by  the  beauty  of  some  Raya  woman,  or 
a  handsome  child  of  either  sex,  he  has  often  been  known  to  car- 
ry them  away  by  force.  An  uncle  of  the  writer  was  snatched 
out  of  his  nurse's  arms  by  some  passing  Turks,  and  reluctant- 
ly restored  only  on  account  of  his  belonging  to  European  par- 
ents. Such  persons  are  compelled  to  become  Muslim  in  or- 
der to  prevent  their  returning  to  their  people.  There  is  in 
some  places  a  standing  offer  of  money  and  clothes  to  any  one 

*  Prideaux,  vol.  iii.,  p.  409.  ,  t  Matt,  ii.,  23;  xxi.,  11  ;  Acts  iii.,  6. 


742  BIBLE   LANDS. 

who  will  turn  Muslim;  but  the  strongest  inducement  lies  in 
the  fact  that  the  renegade  inherits  the  property  of  all  his  rela- 
tives at  their  death.  It  argues  well  for  the  vitality  of  the 
Christian  religion,  even  when  encumbered  with  superstition 
and  ignorance,  that  it  has  for  twelve  hundred  years  successful- 
ly withstood  all  the  endeavors  of  Islam  to  root  it  out  of  the 
soil  of  Western  Asia. 

The  sumptuary  laws  of  the  East  constitute  another  instru- 
ment of  religious  oppression.  As  in  ancient  times,  so  now, 
each  class  of  the  people  is  obliged  to  wear  a  garb  or  badge, 
by  which  it  is  distinguished  from  every  other  class.  These 
sumptuary  laws  are  frequently  mentioned  in  history,  and  oc- 
cur in  the  Pentateuch.*  Nowhere  are  they  more  strictly  en- 
forced than  by  the  Muslims  upon  the  Raya  subjects,  whose 
garb  must  at  a  glance  indicate  who  they  are.  Formerly  the 
differences  of  costume  were  very  marked,  and  enforced  with 
great  severity.  The  influence  of  Europe  has  brought  about  a 
change  on  the  sea-board  ;  but  even  there  the  Eayas  must  wear 
a  distinctive  badge  upon  their  heads.  The  women  are  distin- 
guished by  the  form  and  material  of  the  veil,  and  the  color  of 
the  cloak,  the  Muslim  ladies  wearing  bright  colors,  while  neu- 
tral tints  alone  are  permitted  to  the  Christian  and  Jewish.  The 
slippers  and  boots  worn  by  the  former  are  bright  yellow,  while 
those  of  the  latter  are  black,  or  dark  purple.  Thus  a  Raya 
and  a  Muslim  may  easily  be  distinguished,  even  in  a  crowd. 
These  sumptuary  laws  arc  quite  as  fertile  a  source  of  oppression 
on  the  part  of  the  dominant  race  as  is  the  prohibition  to  Chris- 
tians to  bear  arms,  while  Muslims  are  allowed  to  carry  them 
at  all  times. 

This  feeling  of  hostility  toward  the  Rayas  is  kept  up  among 
the  Muslims  by  the  forms  adopted  in  social  intercourse. 

A  follower  of  Islam  neither  gives  the  salaam  (salutation  of 
peace)  to  a  Christian,  nor  accepts  it  from  him,f  and  instead  of 
making  the  usual  motion  with  the  hand  {temenah,  see  page  591), 
he  keeps  it  behind  his  back,  and  slightly  nods  his  head.  The 
same  feeling  is  both  expressed  and  fostered  by  a  portion  of  the 
regular  Friday  noon  service  at  the  mosk,  which  consists  of  an 
expressive  pantomime  with  a  wooden  sword.:}: 

*  Numb.  XV., 38-40,  etc.      t  Judg.  xix.,  20;  Luke  x.,  5.      t  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  lOG. 


EELIGIOUS   PRACTICES.  743 


The  precepts  of  the  Koran  respecting  war  are  cruel  enough  ; 
for  they  enjoin  that  when  an  enemy  refuses  to  submit  he  must 
be  put  to  death,  and  the  women  and  children  reduced  to  slav- 
ery. This  is  not  done  to  people  of  their  own  faith  and  sects, 
but  to  heathen,  Christians,  and  Muslim  heretics.  And  let  it 
not  be  supposed  that  we  are  speaking  of  the  Middle  Ages,  or 
of  a  period  when  modern  civilization,  inspired  by  the  Gospel, 
had  not  yet  softened  the  ruder  passions  of  men.  The  annals 
of  the  world  do  not  offer  worse  examples  of  fanatical  cruelty 
than  have  been  perpetrated  by  Muslims  in  our  own  day. 
Three  events  of  this  nature,  witnessed  by  the  present  genera- 
tion, are  particularly  worthy  of  our  notice.  They  will  serve 
to  illustrate  the  religious  bigotry,  combined  with  cruel  violence, 
that  have  disfigured  the  pages  of  the  history  of  Bible  lands 
from  the  earliest  ages  to  the  present,  and  thus  confirm  the  sa- 
cred narrative. 

In  1821  the  people  of  European  Greece,  after  bearing  the 
Muslim  yoke  for  more  than  four  hundred  years,  rebelled 
against  the  sultans,  and  claimed  their  freedom.  The  news  of 
an  outbreak  in  several  cities  of  the  Morea  ran  like  wild-fire 
through  all  parts  of  Turkey.  Instead  of  rousing  the  faithful 
to  an  effort  for  the  subjugation  of  the  rebels,  it  became  a  sig- 
nal for  a  general  massacre  and  plunder  of  their  unoffending 
co-religionists,  in  which  other  Christians,  and  even  Europeans, 
were  sometimes  included  by  the  undiscriminating  fanatics.  A 
holy  war  was  preached  in  the  mosks,  the  effects  of  which  were 
as  fully  felt  by  the  peaceable  Eayas  at  home  as  by  the  rebels 
on  the  other  side  of  the  ^gean.  It  would  require  volumes 
adequately  to  describe  the  scenes  of  horror  which  followed 
during  the  space  of  six  years,  until  aroused  Europe  finally  put 
a  stop  to  the  protracted  martyrdom.  Many  of  the  fairest  and 
most  fertile  islands  of  the  JEgean — Scio,  for  example — were 
utterly  ruined,  through  sheer  and  wanton  cruelty.  The  men 
were  put  to  the  sword,  the  cities  and  villas  burned,  the  beauti- 
ful plantations  ruined,  and  the  women  and  children  carried  away 
captive,  and  exposed  for  sale  in  the  markets  of  Smyrna  and 
Constantinople.  We  have  repeatedly  met  with  Greek  captives 
who  had  become  the  wives  of  Muslims,  yet  had  neither  forgot- 
ten their  mother  tongue  nor  relinquished  in  their  hearts  the 
faith  of  their  fathers. 


744  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Still  more  heart-rending,  if  possible,  were  the  events  which 
occurred  in  1843  in  some  of  the  deep  valleys  of  the  mountains 
of  Koordistan.  Bedr  Khan  Be}',  chief  of  the  so-called  Muslim 
Koords  of  that  region,  having  secured  the  connivance  of  the 
neighboring  pasha  of  Mossul,  and  the  support  of  high  officials 
at  the  capital,  assumed  the  airs  of  a  religious  devotee,  and  be- 
gan to  preach  a  war  of  extermination  against  the  Nestorian  or 
Chaldean  Christians  inhabiting  the  same  mountains,  though 
the  latter  had  done  nothing  whatever  to  excite  his  resentment. 
They  are,  indeed,  a  bold  and  hardy  race,  usually  able  to  de- 
fend themselves  against  an  assailing  foe.  But  they  were  caught 
with  guile,  and  their  fears  were  lulled  by  the  solemn  oaths  of 
their  enemies,  as  well  as  the  traitorous  assurances  of  the  Turk- 
ish authorities.  Unprepared  for  the  struggle,  they  were  sud- 
denly and  separately  attacked  by  their  blood-thirsty  foes.  No 
less  than  ten  thousand  men  were  put  to  the  sword,  and  many 
more  women  and  children  were  enslaved,  some  of  whom  were 
ransomed  and  sent  back  to  their  desolate  homes  through  the 
generosity  of  foreign  Christians. 

Three  years  after  these  events  the  scene  of  the  principal 
massacre  is  thus  described  by  a  visitor:  "  When  the  slaughter 
of  the  people  of  Ashita  became  known  in  the  valley  of  Lizan, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  villages  took  refuge  on  a  lofty  platform 
of  rock,  where  they  hoped  either  to  escape  notice,  or  to  defend 
themselves  against  any  number  of  assailants.  Bedr  Khan  Bey 
surrounded  the  place,  and  watched  until  hunger  and  thirst, 
in  the  sultry  hot  weather,  had  done  their  work.  After  three 
days  a  regular  capitulation  was  signed,  and  sworn  on  the 
Koran ;  their  arms  were  delivered  up ;  and  the  Koords  were 
admitted  on  the  platform.  Then  did  the  slaughter  begin.  To 
save  the  trouble  of  killing  them,  they  were  pitched  into  the 
Zab  below.  Out  of  about  one  thousand  only  one  escaped  from 
the  massacre.  The  face  of  the  rock  below  is  still  covered  with 
the  scattered  bones  of  the  dead,  bleached  skulls,  long  locks  of 
women's  hair,  and  torn  portions  of  the  garments  they  had 
worn!"*  It  was  thus  that  in  ancient  times  the  heathen  kings 
carried  unprovoked  war  into  their  neighbors'  lands,  and  mas- 
sacred the  inoffensive  inhabitants,  to  the  glory  of  their  gods. 


Layaril,  "  Ninevcli,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  IG.".,  166. 


RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES.  745 

The  deities  of  Egypt  fought  against  those  of  Assyria,  and  the 
gods  of  Babylon  against  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,  and  their  serv- 
ants only  went  forth  at  their  bidding.  This  is  clearly  stated 
in  the  speech  of  Eabshakeh,  Sennacherib's  cup-bearer,*  to  the 
people  of  Jerusalem.f  In  both  cases,  however — in  the  ancient 
as  well  as  in  the  modern — it  is  easy  to  distinguish  the  selfish- 
ness and  cruelty  of  the  human  heart  through  the  thin  veil  of 
religious  fanaticism  in  which  it  seeks  to  conceal  its  deformity. 
We  shall  refer  to  one  more  event  of  this  kind :  it  is  the 
massacre  of  the  Christians  of  Mount  Lebanon,  in  Syria,  by  the 
Turks  and  Druses,  in  1860.  There  was  a  rumor,  probably 
started  by  the  Druses  themselves,  that  the  Christians  were 
procuring  arms,  and  intended  soon  to  drive  them  out  of  the 
mountains.  The  officials  of  the  Porte  at  Constantinople  form- 
ed a  conspiracy  for  the  blotting  out  of  the  Christian  name  in 
those  parts;  they  appointed  their  own  creatures  to  the  gov- 
ernments of  Damascus,  Beirut,  and  Sidon,  and  furnished  them 
with  soldiers,  who  were  posted  as  garrisons  in  the  chief  towns 
inhabited  by  Christians,  under  pretense  of  defending  them 
against  the  Druses.  When  all  was  ready,  the  savage  Druses 
of  the  Hauran  were  summoned,  and  they  and  their  brethren  of 
Lebanon  and  Anti -Lebanon  immediately  set  themselves  to 
burning  the  villages  and  killing  the  people  without  any  prov- 
ocation. They  put  to  death  every  male,  even  the  infant  at  the 
breast,  and  enslaved  as  many  of  the  women  and  girls  as  they 
chose.:}:  The  Turkish  garrisons  at  first  simply  looked  on  ;  then 
they  urged  the  Christians  to  take  refuge  in  the  castles,  on  con- 
dition of  delivering  up  whatever  weapons  they  might  possess. 
They  swore  by  the  Koran  that  no  harm  should  be  done  them. 
But  no  sooner  were  they  thus  entrapped  than  the  Druses  were 
called  in,  and  every  one  of  these  helpless  victims  was  shot 
down,  or  had  his  throat  cut,  in  cold  blood.  The  streets  of 
Deir-el-Kamr,  Hosbayah,  andZahleh  flowed  with  human  gore, 
in  which  men  waded  ankle-deep.  The  worst  scenes  occurred 
in  Damascus,  the  centre  of  Muslim  fiinaticism,  where,  until 
lately,  no  Christian  was  allowed  to  ride  in  the  streets.  Here 
the  pasha  himself  directed  the  operations;  and  after  the  butch- 

*  Bonomi,  p.  172.       t  2  Kings  xviii.,  30,  33-35;  Isa.  xxxvii.,  10-13,  19,  23. 
J  Dent.  XX.,  13,  14. 


746  BIBLE   LANDS. 

ery  of  the  Christians  and  the  plunder  of  their  property,  their 
quarter  of  the  city  was  set  on  fire  and  burned  down.  But  for 
the  interference  of  the  Moorish  chief,  Ab'd-el-Kadir,  who  saved 
twelve  thousand  Christians  at  the  peril  of  his  own  life,  scarcely 
one  would  have  escaped  slavery  or  death.  The  following  is 
the  summing  up  of  the  results  of  those  few  days  of  unrestrain- 
ed religious  fury  ;  it  was  drawn  up  immediately  after  the  events 
by  a  commission  of  the  allied  European  powers:  "Eleven 
thousand  Christians  massacred ;  one  hundred  thousand  suffer- 
ers by  the  civil  war;  twenty  thousand  desolate  widows  and 
orphans;  three  thousand  Christian  habitations  burned  to  the 
ground ;  four  thousand  Christians  perished  of  destitution ;  ten 
million  dollars  (gold)  property  destroyed."* 

We  believe  that  a  better  day  is  dawning  upon  the  lands  of 
the  Bible,  and  that  religious  toleration  and  the  rights  of  con- 
science are  beginning  to  be  understood  by  many  minds  even 
there.  Bigotry  and  intolerance,  however,  form  the  essence  of 
Islam  as  well  as  of  all  the  heathen  systems  which  have  pre- 
vailed on  the  Asiatic  continent,  and  they  can  be  rooted  out 
only  by  the  diffusion  of  the  principles  of  religious  liberty 
which  are  taught  by  evangelical  Christianity. 

The  topics  which  come  within  the  scope  of  the  present  chap- 
ter occupy  so  wide  a  range  as  to  appear  to  have  little  connec- 
tion with  one  another ;  but  the  limits  we  have  set  for  ourselves 
compel  us  to  adopt  a  desultory  and  rapid  treatment  of  the  sub- 
ject, rather  than  one  which  would  more  clearly  indicate  the 
logical  connection  of  the  different  parts. 

The  offering  of  sacrifices  to  the  Deity  by  shedding  the  blood 
of  such  animals  as  are  at  once  the  most  harmless  and  the  most 
useful  to  man,  is  a  custom  which  originated  in  Western  Asia, 
a  rite  doubtless  instituted  by  God  himself,  at  least  so  far  as  it 
is  connected  with  the  idea  of  an  atonement.f  The  reader  of 
ancient  history  can  not  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  contrast  be- 
tween ancient  and  modern  times  in  this  respect.  Formerly  sac- 
rifices by  blood  were  of  constant  occurrence  in  all  parts  of  the 

*  Churchill,  "Lebanon,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  219.  The  fourth  volume  of  this  valuable 
work  contains  an  account  of  human  depravity  and  suffering,  whose  truthfulness 
we  could  not  admit  were  it  not  sujiported  by  the  strongest  concurring  testimony 
and  our  own  observations  both  on  Mount  Lebanon  and  in  other  parts  of  Turkey. 

t  Gen.  iii.,  15,  21;  iv.,  1,4. 


RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES.  747 

world,  except  among  the  Egyptians,  who  worshiped  that  which 
the  others  oifered  up.*  The  monuments  of  antiquity  confirm 
the  testimony  of  history.  The  sculptures  of  the  Romans  and 
the  Greeks,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Assyrians  and  the  Persians, 
abound  with  pictures  of  sacrifices,  often  executed  with  remark- 
able skill.  Many  ancient  ruins  contain  altars  upon  which  the 
blood  of  the  victims  has  left  indelible  marks,  traceable,  in  some 
cases,  to  the  lintels  of  the  temple  doors.f  What  a  contrast  to 
our  modern  times!  Christianity  has  abolished  sacrifices  by 
teaching  their  completion  in  the  death  of  Christ;  and  even 
those  forms  of  it  which  do  not  acknowledge  the  sufiiciency  of 
the  latter  have  softened  down  the  shedding  of  blood  to  the 
"offering"  of  bread  and  wine.  There  are  yet  no  less  than  six 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  heathen  in  the  world,  but  bloody 
sacrifices  have  become  comparatively  rare  even  among  them. 
Yet  there  still  exist  many  mementos  of  the  former  state  of 
things  in  Western  Asia  which  are  worthy  of  our  attention  as 
they  come  within  our  scope. 

Living  creatures,  sheep,  goats,  cattle,  and  even  camels  are  yet 
slaughtered  and  offered  in  sacrifice  to  the  Deity  in  the  lands 
of  the  Bible,  though  it  is  hard  to  say  how  much  the  idea  of  an 
atonement  is  connected  with  the  act.  To  begin  with  the  hea- 
then, we  find  some  of  the  Caucasian  tribes  offering  sacrifices 
at  annual  festivals,  or  on  occasion  of  special  deliverances.  This 
is  done  in  the  sacred  groves.  The  officiating  priest,  with  his 
head  uncovered,  bows  before  the  emblem  of  the  Deity,  and 
slaughters  a  lamb,  goat,  sheep,  or  even  a  full-grown  ox  of  unu- 
sual beauty,  according  to  the  importance  of  the  occasion.  Be- 
fore immolation  he  takes  one  of  the  pine  torches  that  stand 
blazing  before  the  religious  emblem,  and  burns  the  hair  off 
that  part  of  the  body  where  he  intends  to  strike.  He  then 
pours  upon  the  head  of  the  victim  a  goblet  of  "  bak-sima,"  the 
.strong  drink  of  the  Circassians  (the  "boza"  of  the  Turks). 
The  beast  is  then  slain,  and  a  cup  of  strong  drink  is  first  offer- 
ed to  the  Deity,:|:  and  then  drunk  in  turn  by  all  the  company 
present.  The  head  of  the  animal  is  hung  to  the  branch  of  a 
tree  in  the  sacred  grove;  the  skin  is  given  to  the  priest ;§  and 

*  Exod.  viii.,  26 ;  Prideaux,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  36,  37,  note. 
t  Layard,  "Nineveh,"  vol.  i.,  p.  202;  Exod.  xii.,  22. 
t  Numb,  xxviii.,  7,  §  Lev.  vii.,  8. 

48 


748  BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  flesh  is  eaten  by  all  who  take  part  in  the  sacrifice.*  Oth- 
er food  is  usually  added, f  so  that  the  religious  ceremony  ends 
with  a  feast,  the  guests  eating  and  drinking,  then  singing  and 
dancing  to  instrumental  music,  and  engaging  in  games  and  ath- 
letic sports.  Such  was  the  custom  among  the  heathen  in  an- 
cient times,  according  to  the  graphic  account  given  by  Moses 
of  the  worship  of  the  golden  calf  at  the  foot  of  Sinai :  "  The 
people  sat  down  to  eat  and  drink,  and  rose  up  to  play.":}: 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  sacrifice  of  a  cock  by  Ku- 
zul  Bash  and  Turkmen  tribes  in  their  secret  nightly  meetings; 
but  we  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain  the  ideas  they  connect 
with  the  rite.  The  Ali  Allahis  of  Persia  sacrifice  a  sheep  in 
similar  gatherings;  the  priest  distributes  the  flesh  to  the  vo- 
taries, who  receive  it  on  their  knees,  and  the  service  closes, 
with  prayers  and  chants. § 

The  Muslims  also  offer  sacrifices  of  slaughtered  animals, 
some  of  which  are  enjoined  by  the  Koran,  while  others  have 
an  anterior  origin.  To  the  latter  belong  the  ceremonies  per- 
formed by  the  Arabs  at  the  tomb  of  Sheikh  Saleh,  on  the  Si- 
naitic  peninsula,  in  which  they  sacrifice  sheep  and  camels, 
sprinkling  the  blood  on  the  walls  of  the  chapel;  the  assembled 
Desert  tribes  feast  upon  the  flesh,  and  close  the  ceremonies  with 
dances,  races,  and  athletic  sports.||  The  Arabs  sacrifice  a  sheep 
on  the  top  of  Mount  Serbal  (near  Horeb).  and  cast  its  body 
over  the  rocks,  somewhat  reminding  us  of  the  scape-goat  of  the 
Mosaic  ritual.^  Muslims  also  offer  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving 
after  a  special  deliverance  (see  page  198).  In  this  light  must 
be  viewed  the  slaughtering  of  beasts  which  takes  place  on  the 
shah's  entrance  into  his  capital  after  an  absence,**  while  the 
confectionery  poured  at  his  horse's  feet  is  an  expression  of 
pleasure.ft 

But  the  great  sacrifice  enjoined  by  the  Koran  occurs  at  Cor- 
ban-Bairam  (the  Feast  of  Sacrifices).    Some  of  the  observances 

*  Lev.  vii.,  19.  t  Lev.  vii.,  12, 13. 

t  Exod.  xxxii.,  C, ;  Judg.  xvi.,  2.3,  2r> ;  1  Cor.  x.,  7. 
§  Iliiwlinson,  "Herodotus,"  vol.  i.,  p.  218,  note  4. 
II  Stanley,  "Sinai  and  Palestine,"  p.  57. 

t  Lev.  xvi.,  22;  Stanley,  "Jewish  Church,"  vol.  i.,  p.  187,  note. 
♦*  This  used  to  be  done  on  festive  occasions  in  all  parts  of  Turkey. — Thevenot, 
part  i.,  chap.  Ixvi.,  p.  2.33. 

+t  Moricr,  "Second  Journey," p.  387. 


RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES.  749 

bear  a  resemblance  to  the.  Jewish  Passover,  but  no  historical 
association  attaches  to  any  of  them.  The  head  of  every  house- 
hold, having  provided  himself  with  a  sheep,  slaughters  it  on 
the  morning  of  that  day  at  sunrise,  the  act  being  accompanied 
with  prescribed  ceremonies  and  prayers.  The  flesh  is  eaten  by 
the  family,  and  the  rich  send  portions  to  the  poor.  The  sul- 
tan's own  share  amounts  to  no  less  than  three  hundred  thou- 
sand sheep,  which  he  gives  away  beforehand,  to  be  slaughtered 
by  the  recipients.  The  whole  number  offered  on  that  day  by 
the  one  hundred  and  fifty  millions  who  constitute  the  Muslim 
population  of  the  world  must  indeed  be  large,  though  it  is  im- 
possible exactly  to  estimate  it.  On  this  day  the  pilgrims  who 
yearly  visit  the  Caaba,  or  temple,  at  Mecca,  assemble  in  the  val- 
ley of  Mineh  to  sacrifice  rams,  goats,  cows,  and  she-camels,  the 
flesh  of  which  they  eat  or  give  to  the  poor.  They  also  at  this 
time  shave  their  heads,*  clip  their  nails,  take  off  their  pilgrim's 
garb,  dress  in  holiday  attire,  and  give  themselves  to  rejoicing 
and  feasting.f  The  number  of  animals  slaughtered  on  this 
occasion  varies  from  one  hundred  and  eighty  to  four  hundred 
thousand;:}:  and  the  accumulated  offal  frequently  breeds  a  fatal 
pestilence,  which  is  carried  home  by  the  pilgrims  on  their  re- 
turn to  their  respective  countries.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  sacrifices  offered  by  the  Muslims  are  really  in  excess  of 
those  of  the  Hebrews  of  ancient  times,  who  were  forbidden  to 
offer  theirs  out  of  Jerusalem,  and  were  often  remiss  in  their 
observance  of  the  Passover  ;§  for  the  daily  morning  and  even- 
ing sacrifice  of  a  lamb  in  the  Temple,  and  the  other  required 
oblations,  amounted  to  eleven  hundred  for  the  whole  year,||  and 
it  was  only  on  such  an  occasion  as  the  dedication  of  the  Tem- 
ple by  Solomon  that  "twenty-two  thousand  oxen  and  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  thousand  sheep"  were  slaughtered. T" 

The  sacrifices  most  closely  resembling  the  offering  of  the 
Paschal  lamb  are  those  which  still  yearly  occur  on  Mount 
Gerizim,  according  to  the  rite  of  the  Samaritans.  After  the 
capture  of  Samaria  by  the  Assyrians,  her  people  were  carried 
away  to  the  modern  province  of  Azerbijan,  and  a  colony  of 
foreigners  was  settled  in  their  place.     The  ravages  of  war  had 

*  Acts  xxi.,  24.  t  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  116 ;  Wortabed,  p.  221. 

t  Thevenot,  p.  157.  §  2  Kings  xxiii.,  22  ;  2  Chron.  xxxv.,  1. 

II  Prideaux,  vol.  ii.,  p.  270.  t  1  Kings  viii.,  G3. 


750  BIBLE    LANDS. 

caused  the  wild  beasts,  especially  lions,  greatly  to  increase,* 
and  the  superstitious  notions  of  these  people  became  the  means 
of  introducing  among  them  the  five  books  of  Moses  in  the  orig- 
inal Hebrew,  written — as  first  penned  by  the  author — in  the 
old  character,  for  which  the  Chaldean  was  substituted  after  the 
captivity.  This  they  still  preserve  with  jealous  care.  The  old 
enmity  between  the  Jews  and  the  Samaritans  yet  exists.f  The 
latter  had  a  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  (built  B.C.  409),  a  place 
more  appropriate  in  their  view  than  Moriah,  a  part  of  Mount 
Zion,  being  hallowed  by  early  Hebrew  history, :{:  by  Abraham's 
offering  of  Isaac,  and  his  presenting  to  Melchisedek  a  tenth  of 
the  spoil.§  After  the  destruction  of  this  temple,  the  people 
continued  to  venerate  the  mount,||  and  they  still  worship  to- 
ward that  sacred  spot  as  their  kubleh.  Every  year,  too,  at  the 
Passover  they  ascend  to  the  top  of  Mount  Gerizim :  standing 
before  an  altar  of  twelve  stone  slabs,  said  to  have  been  brought 
there  from  the  bed  of  the  Jordan  by  order  of  Joshua,^"  they 
slay  the  Paschal  lamb,  eat  the  flesh  upon  the  spot,  and  burn 
the  remainder.** 

Many  of  the  ancient  heathen  offered  human  victims  to  their 
gods.  The  Phoenicians  and  the  Moabites  burned  their  chil- 
dren to  Moloch,  and  the  Hebrews  repeatedly  fell  into  this  form 
of  idolatry.ft  Even  the  polished  Greeks  were  very  anciently 
addicted  to  the  same  superstition.  These  cruel  rites  have  long 
ago  disappeared  from  the  lands  of  the  Bible;  but  mementos 
of  the  practice  are  occasionally  met  with.  Such  is  a  part  of 
the  ceremony  of  letting  the  water  of  the  Nile  into  the  canals. 
The  Arabic  history  of  Ben  Ayas  contains  the  following  inci- 
dent, which  has  probably  some  foundation  in  truth :  The  Mus- 
lim conqueror  of  Egypt,  Amroo,  was  asked  permission  by  the 
people  of  that  country,  at  the  time  of  the  rising  of  the  Nile,  to 
propitiate  the  river  by  the  offering  of  a  human  sacrifice ;  for 
said  they,  "  It  is  our  custom  on  the  13th  of  the  month  Baooneh 
(June  7)  to  select  a  young  and  handsome  virgin  ;  we  carry  her 
away  by  force  from  her  parents,  and  throw  her  into  the  Nile 

*  2  Kings  xvii.,  25.  t  John  iv.,  9 ;  viii.,  48. 

X  Josh,  viii.,  33.  §  Stanley,  "Sinai  and  Palestine,"  p.  234. 

II  John  i v.,  20.  f  Josh,  i v.,  1-3. 

**  Stanley,  "Sinai  and  Palestine," p.  245;  "Jewish  Church," vol.  i.,  \>.  563. 

+t  Jer.  xxxii.,  35  ;  Ezek.  xx.,  31. 


RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES.  751 

at  the  spot  consecrated  to  this  ceremony."  Amroo  forbade  the 
cruel  rite,  and,  instead  of  the  virgin,  cast  into  the  Nile  a  paper 
on  which  the  Caliph  Omar  had  written  a  prayer  to  God  to  fur- 
nish the  water  of  the  river.  The  unusual  rise  of  the  Nile 
which  ensued  forever  settled  the  question  of  sacrificing  a  vir- 
gin ;  but  the  ancient  custom,  is  commemorated  at  the  yearly 
opening  of  the  canals  by  throwing  into  the  river  a  rudely 
formed  image  of  a  woman,  made  of  clay  and  adorned  with 
flowers,  which  is  called  "  arooseh,"  or  the  betrothed.*  It  is 
not  probable  that  the  barbarous  rite  to  which  we  have  alluded 
was  tolerated  by  Christianity  ;  but  the  well-known  modern  cer- 
emony can  be  explained  only  by  supposing  the  early  exist- 
ence of  some  such  custom.f 

Human  sacrifices,  indeed,  still  exist ;  but  they  are  mostly 
confined  to  the  interior  of  Africa,  whose  climate  and  deserts 
render  it  difficult  of  access  to  the  influence  of  civilization.  It 
is  there  intimately  connected  with  the  system  of  slavery.  It 
is  well  known  that  the  blood-thirsty  tyrants  of  Dahomey,  after 
sacrificing  many  human  victims  during  their  lives,  are  mourned 
for  at  their  death  by  the  slaughter  of  many  hundreds  more.  In 
Eastern  Africa  the  slave-traders,  when  carrying  their  merchan- 
dise to  market,  throw  a  beautiful  slave  into  the  Lake  Umo,  to 
propitiate  the  spirits,  and  obtain  a  good  price  for  the  rest. 
And  at  Senjero,  in  the  same  region,  an  ancient  custom,  strictly 
maintained  by  the  soothsayers  or  priests  of  that  unhappy  land, 
requires  certain  families  to  deliver  up  their  first-born  sons  to 
the  sacrifice,  and  their  blood  is  poured  upon  the  king's  throne.:}: 

The  existence  of  human  sacrifices  is  recognized  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch by  the  provision  made  for  "singular  vows,"  which  re- 
quired the  commission  of  murder.  In  all  cases  of  this  nature, 
money  was  to  be  paid  instead,  according  to  age  and  sex.§  The 
story  of  Jephthah  and  his  daughter  shows  how  great  occasion 
existed  for  such  a  law.|  The  Israelite  hero  was  evidently  ig- 
norant of  the  legal  provision  made  to  meet  his  case.  He  lived 
in  the  very  region — east  of  the  Jordan — where  human  sacrifices 
were  most  common,  and  where  Moloch  was  the  ruling  deity. 
Jephthah  was  a  freebooter,  a  highway  robber;  he  had  nei- 


*  Marcel,  pp.  19,  20.  t  Thevenot,  p.  234 ;  Pococke,  vol.  i.,  p.  27. 

t  Krapf,  p.  r)8.  §  Lev.  xxvii.,  2-8.  ||  Judg.  xi.,  30-40. 


752  BIBLE    LANDS. 

ther  priest  nor  prophet  to  guide  him.  His  daughter  herself 
was  ready  to  die,  "  forasmuch  as  the  Lord  had  taken  vengeance 
upon  his  enemies,  even  the  children  of  Ammon."  And  so,  af- 
ter two  months  delay,  "  he  did  with  her  according  to  his  vow." 
His  family  perished ;  for  she  was  his  only  child,  and  "  had 
known  no  man."*  The  extraordinary  character  of  the  occur- 
rence produced  a  deep  impression  upon  the  Israelites,  which 
was  maintained  by  the  yearly  celebration  of  the  day.  It  be- 
came a  warning  to  the  Hebrews  against  rash  vows;  and  yet 
such  an  immolation  of  a  daughter  is  far  better  than  the  hea- 
then practice  of  giving  her  up  to  the  obscene  service  of  the 
idol  temple, f  or  even  to  the  seclusion  of  a  convent,  Christian 
only  in  name. 

Vows  are  still  common  in  the  East,  even  among  Christians, 
despite  the  command  of  our  Lord  upon  the  subject.:}:  The 
common  form  is  a  promise  that,  should  protection  be  vouch- 
safed against  an  impending  calamity,  or  aid  granted  in  the  ac- 
quirement of  some  desired  object,  a  sheep,  a  goat,  or  a  speci- 
fied sum  of  money,  will  be  offered  at  the  shrine  of  a  particular 
saint.§  In  testimony  of  such  vows  a  piece  of  one's  garment  is 
sometimes  torn  off  and  tied  to  a  bush,  or  other  convenient  ob- 
ject near  the  grave  of  the  saint,  or  in  the  wilderness  where 
such  a  vow  may  have  been  made.|  Another  form  of  pledge 
consists  of  a  pile  of  stones,  commonly  but  two,  set  one  upon 
the  other,  over  which  the  vow  is  pronounced.  This  custom 
particularly  prevails  among  the  Persians,!"  and  reminds  us  of 
Jacob's  pillar  at  Bethel,  and  of  the  vow  he  pronounced  upon 
it.**  The  shepherds  of  Koordistan  pour  butter  upon  a  prom- 
inent rock,  as  Jacob  poured  oil  upon  his  pillar.  But  their  prac- 
tice simply  consists  in  the  offering  of  the  first-fruits  of  their 
flocks,f  t  and  it  occurs  once  a  year,  in  early  spring.  The  rock 
upon  which  this  offering  is  made  is  a  natural  altar,  to  which 
the  shepherds  of  the  region  all  resort;  it  is  called  the  "Rock 
of  Butter.":j:+    The  custom  of  offering  the  first-fruits  of  the  earth 

.  *  All  the  earlier  interpreters,  Josephns  and  Jonathan  the  Targumist  among 
them,  adopt  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  sacrifice  of  Jephthah's  daughter. 

t  Strabo,  bk.  xvii.,  chap,  i.,  §  46.  t  Matt,  v.,  33-37. 

§  Gen.  xxviii.,  20;  Jonah  i.,  16;  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  302.         ||  Perkins,  p.  191. 

If  Morier,  "  Second  Journey,"  p.  84 ;   "  Haji  Baba,"  vol.  i.,  p.  29.5. 

*♦  Gen.  xxviii.,  18-22.     tt  Lev.  ii.,  12.     Jt  Layard,  "Nineveh,"  vol.  i.,  p.  180. 


RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES.  753 

is  particularly  prevalent  among  the  heathen  Circassians,  and 
constitutes  a  feast  in  which  all  the  tribes  take  part  for  several 
days.* 

Another  religious  practice  common  among  the  people  of  Bi- 
ble lands  is  fasting  and  "  afflicting  the  body."  Grief,  as  well 
as  joy,  is  intense  with  them ;  and  its  common  outward  form 
consists  in  the  neglect  of  the  body,  the  putting  away  of  every 
ornament  as  well  as  whatever  can  render  the  person  attractive, 
and  the  use  of  a  meagre  diet ;  indeed,  they  often  partake  of  no 
food  for  an  incredibly  long  time.  Hence  fasting  has  come  to 
be  a  regular  religious  practice  with  them,  quite  as  much  as 
prayer,  and  is  usually  performed  with  as  little  discernment  or 
spiritual  benefit.  Absolute  abstinence  from  food  being  im- 
possible beyond  a  limited  period,  various  devices  have  been 
adopted  to  enable  a  person  to  observe  a  long  fast,  and  yet  con- 
tinue his  usual  labor.  The  Christians,  anxious  to  outdo  the 
Jews  in  their  short  but  thorough  fasts,  content  themselves  with 
abstinence  from  meat  and  the  products  of  the  dairy.  But  they 
make  up  for  the  lack  of  severity  by  length  of  time,  one  of  their 
fasts  continuing  forty  days,  and  another  sixty.  They,  more- 
over, fast  twice  a  week  through  the  whole  year.f  The  Mus- 
lims ridicule  what  they  call  a  mere  change  of  diet ;  they  ab- 
stain from  tasting  food  from  sunrise  until  sunset,  not  taking  a 
drop  of  water  into  their  mouths  in  the  hottest  weather,  nor 
even  a  puff  from  their  much-loved  chibook  or  nargileh.  But, 
as  they  are  unwilling  to  be  outdone  by  the  Christians  in  the 
length  of  their  fast,  they  must  needs  continue  it  during  the  en- 
tire lunar  month  of  Eamazan,  and  make  up  for  fasting  by  day 
by  feasting  at  night.  Thus  the  day  and  the  night  simply 
change  places,  and  the  people  spend  in  feasting  all  the  earnings 
of  the  preceding  year.  Business  is  virtually  at  a  stand-still 
for  a  whole  month,  the  rich  spending  most  of  the  day  in  sleep, 
while  the  poor  have  but  little  energy  for  work,  and,  as  a  con- 
sequence, grow  poorer  than  before.  Add  to  this,  that  the  fast 
comes  gradually  round  to  every  season  and  month  of  the  year, 
and  interferes  in  turn  with  every  branch  of  labor  and  every 
industry.:}:    Exemption  from  the  observance  of  this  fast  is  al- 

*  Spencer,  vol.  ii.,  p.  349  ;  Lev.  xxiii.,  10.  t  Luke  xviii.,  12. 

t  Smith  and  Dwight,  "Researches," vol.  ii.,  pp.  209,  235. 


754  BIBLE   LANDS. 

lowed,  as  by  the  law  of  Moses  in  the  case  of  the  Passover,  only 
on  account  of  sickness  or  on  a  journey,  on  condition  that  it  be 
observed  upon  recovery  or  at  the  journey's  end,* 

The  student  of  the  Scriptures  can  not  fiiil  to  have  noticed 
the  importance  attached  in  New  Testament  times  to  the  giving 
of  alms.  The  increased  population,  the  inequality  of  condi- 
tions, the  ravages  of  war,  and  bad  government  had  reduced  vast 
numbers  of  human  beings  to  a  state  of  utter  destitution,  and  it 
became  the  imperative  duty  of  the  rich  to  provide  for  the  poor. 
Hence  the  frequent  commendation  passed  by  the  inspired  vol- 
ume upon  such,  even  among  the  heathen,  as  give  alms  to  the 
destitute.f  Our  Lord  commended  the  giving  of  alms  on  more 
than  one  occasion ;:{:  and  the  apostles  and  early  disciples  were 
examples  of  this  virtue,  and  taught  it  every  where.§  The  con- 
dition and  numbers  of  the  poor,  so  far  from  indicating  an  im- 
provement in  modern  times,  are  an  evidence  of  still  greater 
suffering  than  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  moral- 
ists of  every  religious  sect  have  been  agreed  upon  the  impera- 
tive duty  of  caring  for  them.  Few  well -to -do  people  in  the 
East  can  pass  by  a  beggar  without  giving  him  the  customary 
piece  of  copper,  the  five-para  bit  (equal  to  half  a  cent).  The 
police  never  interfere  with  the  beggars,  except  to  push  them 
aside  when  too  obtrusive.  There  are,  of  course,  all  sorts  of 
characters  among  them.  Some  are  impostors,  and  live  in  com- 
parative ease,  while  the  most  deserving  and  wretched  of  the 
poor  never  appear  in  the  street.  Most  of  the  poor,  however, 
make  their  wants  known  to  the  public  by  begging.  Paralyt- 
ics are  laid  down  at  the  doors  of  the  rich,  or  of  the  church  or 
mosk,  with  the  idea  that  men  are  most  inclined  to  be  charita- 
ble when  they  come  from  the  house  of  feasting  or  of  prayer.|| 
The  blind  lift  up  their  voices  as  they  grope  their  way  from 
door  to  door  along  the  streets.^f  In  some  cities  Saturday  is 
beggar's  day,  and  every  merchant,  shop-keeper,  and  housewife 
lays  by  a  store  of  coppers  and  the  remnants  of  food.  As  the 
beggars  go  from  door  to  door,  and  from  one  shop  to  another, 
their  voices  are  heard  from  morning  till  night,  crying,  "  It  is 

*  Numb,  ix.,  10, 11. 

+  Acts  X.,  4,  etc.  t  Matt,  xix.,  21 ;  Luke  xi.,  41 ;  xii.,  33. 

§  Acts  iv.,  34;  xxiv.,  17;   I  John  iii.,  17. 

II  Luke  xvi.,  20;  Acts  iii.,  2.  f  Matt,  ix.,  27;  Mark  x.,  47. 


RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES.  755 

Saturday  to-day,"  and  invoking  blessings  upon  their  benefac- 
tors, as  well  as  upon  their  ancestors  and  their  posterity.* 
Some  charitable  persons,  not  content  with  giving  the  custom- 
ary pittance,  build  houses  for  the  poor,  who  pay  a  merely  nom- 
inal rent,  which  serves  to  keep  the  building  in  repair.  Others 
construct  an  aqueduct,  or  erect  a  public  fountain,  whether  in 
the  town  or  upon  the  road,  for  the  relief  of  travelers ;  they 
build  a  khan,  or  caravanseray,  in  which  lodgings  may  be  had 
without  charge,  or  pave  a  road  through  some  difficult  pass. 
Among  the  Nestorian  Christians  dwelling  in  the  fertile  plain 
of  Ooroomia  charity  assumes  an  almost  apostolic  form ;  for  it 
is  their  yearly  practice  to  lay  by  a  certain  portion  of  their 
crops  in  order  to  supply  the  wants  of  their  brethren  living 
among  the  rugged  mountains  of  Koordistan,  whose  food  oft- 
en fails  them  altogether,  or  is  carried  away  by  their  more  pow- 
erful enemies.f  Deeds  of  charity  are  highly  extolled  in  the 
Koran,  and  the  value  of  such  acts  is  more  particularly  felt 
where  the  rulers  take  no  interest  in  works  of  public  utility. 

Modern  Orientals,  like  the  Hebrews,  the  Egyptians,  and  oth- 
er ancient  nations,  give  themselves  much  concern  about  cere- 
monial or  conventional  cleanliness,  and  though  Christians  have 
become  free  from  the  superstitious  dread  of  uncleanness,  yet 
there  are  remains  of  it  even  among  them.  The  Persians  are 
most  noted  in  this  particular,  deeming  it  a  compensation  for 
many  vices.  The  Abyssinians,  though  nominal  Christians, 
practice  circumcision,  and  regard  the  uncircumcised  as  un- 
clean, refusing  to  eat  out  of  the  same  plate  or  drink  out  of  the 
same  cup  with  them.:};  Muslims  are  required  by  their  religion 
to  wash  the  whole  body  every  Friday  morning,  which  is  their 
Sabbath  ;  the  same  is  done  at  every  festival.  Washing  is  also 
required  before  each  of  the  five  daily  prayers,  called  "namaz;" 
but  it  is  confined  to  the  face,  hands,  and  feet,  being  accompa- 
nied by  a  short  form  of  prayer.  When  in  a  hurry,  the  whole 
is  performed  in  two  minutes,  the  namaz  itself  being  included; 
and  when  water  is  not  to  be  had  sand  may  be  used  instead, § 
a  practice  probably  derived  from  the  early  Christians,  who 
baptized  by  the  application  of  sand  when  they  had  no  water.|| 


*  Lam.  iv.,  14.  t  Rom.  xv.,  26.  J  Acts  xi.,  3;  Bnice,  vol.  iii.,  p.  671. 

§  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  89.  ||  Sales,  Koran,  "Preliminary  Discourse," p.  75. 


756  BIBLE   LANDS. 

The  practice  of  washing  before  prayer  appears  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  Jews,  who  also  held  to  many  other  wash- 
ings and  baptisms,  as  they  still  do,  particularly  when  defiled 
by  touching  a  dead  body  or  blood*  The  same  is  the  case 
with  the  Muslims;!  but  the  Persians,  though  filthy  in  many 
of  their  habits,  have  usually  more  horror  of  touching  blood 
than  of  shedding  it,  and  will  not  use  white  sugar  because  they 
have  heard  that  it  is  clarified  with  blood.:]:  In  New  Testa- 
ment times,  the  Jews  practiced  washing  before  eating  as  a  re- 
ligious duty ;  but  the  similar  custom  of  modern  Orientals  is 
simply  an  act  of  cleanliness.  The  bigoted  Muslim  believes 
that  the  use  of  an  article  by  a  Christian  renders  it  unclean,  so 
that  it  must  be  broken  if  it  belongs  to  the  class  of  absorbents, 
like  an  earthen  vessel,  and  must  be  washed  if  it  be  of  metal  or 
cloth.§ 

The  same  animals  are  now  deemed  unclean  in  the  East  that 
were  pronounced  to  be  so  by  the  Mosaic  law.|  But  the  Arab 
tribes  eat  the  camel,  and  offer  it  in  sacrifice.  The  gypsies 
make  little  distinction,  for  they  eat  even  mice  (see  page  284). 
Most  Christians  eschew  the  hare,  but  partake  of  the  flesh  of  the 
wild  boar,  which  the  Muslims  kill  and  sell  to  the  Christians 
without  touching  it.^[  The  ancient  Egyptians  similarly  re- 
garded swine  as  unclean,  and  so  do  their  descendants,  the 
Christian  Copts,  as  well  as  the  Abyssinians.** 

We  now  come  to  the  chief  expression  of  the  religious  senti- 
ment of  a  people,  the  act  of  worship,  which  usually  comprises 
adoration,  thanksgiving,  and  prayer.  And  here  the  first  point 
worthy  of  notice  is,  that  Orientals  of  every  religion  make  use 
of  set  forms.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  case  among  the 
Jews  in  our  Lord's  time ;  for  his  disciples  requested  him  to 
teach  them  a  set  form  of  prayer,  as  John  liad  taught  his  dis- 
ciples; and  he  complied  with  their  request.ff  But  this  form 
did  not  preclude  the  use  of  extempore  prayer ;:}::}:  nor  does  it  at 


*  Lev.  xi.,  24,  etc.  ;  Josephus,  vol.  ii.,  p.  27.'5,  note ;  Mark  vii.,  4,  orig. 
t  As  it  was  with  the  ancient  Babylonians  and  Arabians. — Herodotus,  bk.  i., 
2h.  198. 
X  Perkins,  p.  271.  §  Layard,  "  Nineveh,"  vol.  i.,  p.  80. 

II  Lev.  xi.,  4-7.  t  Deut.  xiv.,  8,  21. 

♦*  Herodotus,  bk.  ii.,  ch.  47  ;  Maurice,  p.  143. 
tt  Luke  xi.,  1.  H  Matt,  xxvi.,  39;  John  xvii.  ;   Acts  iv.,  23-30. 


RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES.  757 

the  present  day,  among  any  class  of  people  whatsoever.  This 
appears  also  to  have  been  the  case  in  the  ancient  synagogue 
service,  where,  as  now,  a  liturgy  of  prayer  and  praise  was  used.* 
The  forms  of  prayer  employed  in  the  East,  both  in  the  churches 
and  in  private  devotions,  have  doubtless  produced  this  good 
effect,  that  in  times  of  great  ignorance  and  most  cruel  oppres- 
sion, they  have  preserved  alive  among  the  people  the  memory 
of  Christianity,  and  have  prepared  the  way  for  its  revival. 

Church  services  take  place  daily — in  the  morning  at  sunrise, 
and  in  the  evening  near  sunset,  corresponding  to  the  offering 
of  the  Temple  sacrifice.  The  communion  is  administered  at 
the  great  festivals,  and  the  priests  fast  until  the  service  is  over. 
The  Abyssinians  use,  instead  of  wine,  a  marmalade  prepared 
of  the  unfermented  juice  of  the  grape.f  Much  is  made,  in  all 
the  sects,  of  the  consecrated  oil,  prepared  under  the  direction 
of  their  highest  ecclesiastical  dignitary,  and  sold  with  no  little 
profit  to  the  treasury  of  the  church.  It  is  prepared  according 
to  the  Mosaic  rule;:}:  but  the  sacred  oil  of  the  Hebrews  was 
made,  once  for  all,  in  the  wilderness ;  it  was  lost  at  the  captivi- 
ty, and  after  it  neither  high-priest  nor  king  was  ever  anoint- 
ed.§  The  Christian  "miron,"  however,  is  manufactured  every 
year  at  the  metropolis;  it  is  found  in  every  church,  and  is  used 
in  a  variety  of  circumstances  from  baptism  to  extreme  unction. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  "  namaz,"  or  daily  prayer 
of  the  Muslims.  It  is  recited,  as  nearly  as  convenient,  at  sun- 
rise, noon,  three  o'clock  p.m.,  at  sunset,  and  an  hour  and  a  half 
later,  which  is  called  bed-time.  This  is  an  amplification  of  a 
Jewish  "tradition  of  the  elders,"  which  enjoined  three  seasons 
of  daily  prayer,  i.  e.,  morning,  noon,  and  night.||  The  Muslim 
may  pray  anywhere,  and  the  more  ostentatious  the  place  the 
greater  the  merit.^  To  obtain  a  reputation  for  sanctity,  they 
often  "make  long  prayers,  using  vain  repetitions."**  It  is  evi- 
dent that  their  minds  are  little  engaged  in  these  exercises,  for 
they  look  around,  salute  a  friend,  or  tell  a  person  that  they 
will  give  him  some  desired  information  as  soon  as  they  get 
through.ff     The  services  of  the  mosk  on  Friday  differ  little 

*  Prideaux,  vol.  ii.,  p.  160.  t  Bruce,  vol.  iii.,  p.  664. 

X  Exod.  XXX.,  22-31.  §  Prideaux,  vol.  i.,  p.  314. 

II  Ibid.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  167.  t  Matt,  vi.,  5. 

**  Matt,  vi.,  7;  xxiii.,  14.  +t  Perkins,  "Persia,"  p.  85. 


758  BIBLE   LANDS. 

from  the  dcaily  prayer,  certain  passages  from  the  Koran  and 
other  forms  serving  to  lengthen  the  performance.  Repetitions 
are  used  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  the  votaries  of  every  re- 
ligion in  the  East,  and  for  this  purpose  beads  are  counted  upon 
a  string.* 

Orientals  are  very  particular  in  selecting  the  spot  on  which 
they  pray ;  it  must  not  have  been  used  for  unclean  purposes, 
nor  in  any  way  have  been  defiled.  Hence  Muslims  never  pray 
in  a  sleeping  apartment  or  a  closet,f  but  in  an  open  hall,  gar- 
den, or  on  a  house-top.:}:  They  never  kneel  upon  the  bare 
ground,  if  they  can  help  it,  but  spread  a  cloth  or  rug,  upon  which 
they  perform  their  devotions,  after  removing  their  shoes.  A 
stag  or  deer  skin  is  deemed  the  holiest,  and  many  keep  them 
for  this  purpose;  but  the  "sejadeh,"  or  praying -carpet,  is  in 
general  use.  The  custom  is  probably  very  ancient,  and  the 
pattern  of  the  rug — doubtless  quite  antique — uniformly  repre- 
sents a  garden  whose  flowers  gradually  turn  toward  the  ku- 
bleb,  while  large  leaves  show  where  the  knees  ought  to  rest. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Christians,  most  Orientals  turn 
their  faces,  when  they  pray,  toward  a  particular  point  in  the 
heavens,  which  they  call  their  kiibleh.  This  with  the  Jews  is 
Jerusalem, §  and  was  at  first  with  the  Muslims;  but  Moham- 
med soon  changed  it  to  Mecca.||  The  kubleh  of  the  Yezidies 
is  the  east,  where  the  sun  rises,  as  it  used  to  be  with  the  Ma- 
gians  ;T[  while  the  Nestorian  Christians  betray  their  origin  by 
turning  their  faces  toward  the  same  point,  even  in  their  pri- 
vate devotions,**  The  word  kubleh,  however,  is  also  used  to 
denote  the  niche  in  the  mosk,  or  elsewhere  the  table,  the  chair, 
the  turban,  or  other  object  set  down  temporarily  to  indicate 
the  direction  of  Mecca.  Should  this  article  be  displaced,  or 
should  any  thing  pass  between  it  and  the  worshiper,  it  is  sure 
to  excite  his  wrath,  for  he  has  to  begin  his  prayers  over  again. 

Various  positions  are  assumed  in  prayer,  both  in  public  and 
in  private.  The  common  postures  are  the  same  which  are  as- 
sumed in  the  presence  of  a  superior,  i.  e.,  standing,  with  the 
hands  placed  one  upon  the  other  on  the  girdle  (see  page  593); 
kneeling,  with  the  body  resting  upon  the  feet;  or  bowing,  with 

*  Lane,  vol.  i.,  pp.  99,  etc,  t  Matt,  vi.,  6,  X  Acts  x.,  9. 

§  1  Kings  viii.,  38  ;  Dan.  vi.,  10.  ||  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  89. 

1  Layard,  vol.  i.,  p.  248.  •*  Perkins,  "  Persia."  p.  186. 


RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES.  759 

the  hands  resting  upon  the  knees  (see  page  648).  The  position 
of  the  hands,  which  denotes  adoration  and  prayer,  consists  in 
stretching  out  the  arms  and  turning  the  palms  upward.  This 
was  evidently  the  practice  with  the  ancients.  "Moses  stretch- 
ed out  his  hands  "  in  prayer  during  the  battle  with  Amalek.* 
Solomon,  at  the  dedication  of  the  Temple,  "stood  and  spread 
forth  his  hands  toward  heaven"  while  he  offered  prayer.f 
And  in  the  New  Testament  it  is  mentioned  as  synonymous 
with  prayer.:}:  We  have  pictures  of  this  posture  in  ancient 
sculptures.!  There  seems,  however,  to  have  been  a  slight  dif- 
ference in  the  manner  of  holding  the  fingers  among  different 
nations,  and  they  may,  for  aught  we  know,  have  attached  as 
much  importance  to  the  matter  as  different  Christian  churches 
now  do  to  the  number  of  fingers  with  which  they  make  the 
sign  of  the  cross.  || 

But  standing  and  kneeling  are  not  the  only  postures  as- 
sumed in  prayer.  The  worshiper  sometimes  prostrates  him- 
self, with  the  palms  of  his  hands  lying  fiat  on  the  earth,  and 
his  face,  forehead,  or  turban  touching  the  ground^  (for  the 
head  is  not  uncovered),  the  sleeves  are  brought  as  far  as  possi- 
ble over  the  hands,  and  the  bare  feet  are  hidden  by  the  nether 
garments.  The  positions  assumed  by  Christians  are  more  spon- 
taneous than  those  of  the  Muslims,  for  the  latter  are  very  form- 
al, every  posture  and  motion  being  minutely  prescribed,  as  well 
as  the  words  they  repeat. 

It  is  customary  in  the  East,  when  a  person  expresses  a  wish 
or  a  hope,  to  respond  by  saying  "Amen,"  where  an  Occident- 
al would  merely  give  assent,  or  an  assembly  clap  their  hands. 
This  practice  prevails  as  much  among  the  Muslims  as  among 
Christians,  and  special  emphasis  is  given  to  it  by  laying  the 
hand  upon  the  breast.**  The  use  of  the  word  Amen  is  very 
ancient,  and  we  have  so  far  adopted  it  as  to  place  it  at  the  close 

*  Exod.  xvii.,  11.  t  1  Kings  viii.,  22.  t  1  Tim.  ii.,  8. 

§  Bonomi,  p.  309. 

II  Ibid.,  p.  292  ;  "  Travels  in  Asia  Minor,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  134, 136. 

t  Lev.  ix.,  24  ;  Numb,  xiv.,  5  ;  Josh,  vii.,  6;  Matt,  xxvi.,  39.  In  Gen.  xlix., 
33,  the  meaning  probably  is  that  Jacob  would  have  prostrated  himself  on  his  face, 
but  being  too  feeble,  he  did  so  upon  his  couch,  like  David  in  similar  circumstances 
(1  Kings  i.,  47)  ;  or,  as  the  Septuagint  has  it,  leaning  upon  a  staff,  as  often  done  by 
cripples  in  the  East. 

**  Numb,  v.,  22.      "Selali  "  ajipears  to  have  been  used  similarly. 


760  BIBLE   LANDS. 

of  our  prayers,  chiefly  as  a  sign  that  they  are  ended.  In  the 
East,  it  was  not  the  priest  but  the  people  who  said  Amen,  in 
order  to  show  that  they  joined  in  the  petition.*  But  when 
the  language  of  the  church  service  came  to  be  an  "  unknown 
tongue"  to  the  people,  "they  that  occupied  the  room  of  the 
unlearned"  knew  not  when  to  say  Amen,  so  that  the  officia- 
ting priest  had  to  say  it  for  them.  Thus  our  own  practice  in 
this  respect  is  really  an  inheritance  from  the  Dark  Ages  and 
our  step-mother,  the  Papal  Church.  Wherever  in  the  East, 
at  the  present  day,  the  vernacular  has  supplanted  the  ancient 
tongue  in  divine  worship,  there  the  people  have  spontaneously 
gone  back  to  the  old  Hebrew  and  apostolic  practice :  the  ear- 
nest ejaculation,  "Amen,"  is  often  heard  during  both  prayer 
and  sermon,  and  at  the  close  the  whole  congregation  respond 
as  with  one  voice. 

Orientals  never  read  or  recite  in  a  conversational  tone,  but 
use  what  we  call  intoning,  while  their  bodies  sway  backward 
and  forward.  The  prayers  of  the  Church  are  chanted,  and  so 
is  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures.  There  is  not  much  musical 
taste  exhibited  in  the  performance,  which  has  an  origin  prob- 
ably anterior  to  Christianity.  The  chanting  of  the  different 
sects  is  very  similar.  Many  of  the  hymns  date  back  to  an  ear- 
ly age  of  the  Church,  particularly  those  in  Armenian,  which 
are  pronounced  very  fine  by  competent  judges;  but  their  me- 
tre is  peculiar,  every  line  containing  more  than  twenty  sylla- 
bles, and  there  being  no  rhyme,  as  in  the  ancient  Greek  verses. 
They  are  sung  by  the  men  and  boys  who  compose  the  choir, 
the  priests  also  joining  in.  No  musical  instruments  are  ever 
used  except  in  the  Syrian  Church,  where  cymbals  are  struck 
in  this  part  of  the  servicc.f 

The  Muslim  services  contain  nothing  which  corresponds  to 
the  Christian  singing  of  hymns ;  Mohammed  evidently  had  no 
music  in  him;  but  the  various  orders  of  dervishes  which  have 
sprung  up  since  his  day  make  signal  use  of  it  in  their  devo- 
tions. Their  practice  in  this  respect  is  worthy  of  a  moment's 
consideration,  as  it  illustrates  some  interesting  passages  of 
Scripture. 

The  Mevlevies  are  known  in  the  West  by  the  name  of 


1  Chron.  xvi.,  30 ;  1  Cor.  xiv.,  IG.  t  Flctclier,  p.  :50L 


RELIGIOUS    PRACTICKS.  763 

"whirling  dervishes,"  derived  from  the  peculiar  dance  which 
characterizes  their  religious  services.  Their  idea  seems  to  be 
that  the  highest  form  of  religious  contemplation  cousists  in  a 
dizzy  dreaminess,  which  is  produced  in  the  following  manner: 
their  sheikh,  or  leader,  takes  his  place  on  a  small  mattress  near 
the  edge  of  a  circular  space  bounded  by  a  colonnade  and  rail- 
ing, occupying  the  centre  of  their  tekkeh,  or  chapel.  After  the 
repetition  of  sundry  forms  of  prayer,  the  dervishes,  barefoot, 
and  wearing  their  tall  felt  caps  and  full  robes,  stand  around  the 
circle,  each  with  his  arms  crossed  upon  his  breast,  and  his  hands 
resting  on  his  shoulders.  The  silence  is  now  broken  by  the 
soft  and  mellow  harmony  of  several  flutes  (nay),  whose  notes 
are  uttered  in  a  plaintive  minor  key.  Catching  the  inspira- 
tion, one  and  then  another  of  the  dervishes,  with  eyes  closed 
and  arms  stretched  out,  begins  to  whirl  like  a  top,  first  slowly 
and  in  a  stationary  position,  then  rapidly  and  around  the  cir- 
cle, his  robe  stretching  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  some  five  feet  in 
diameter.  The  music  now  becomes  more  animated,  and  some 
tambourines  join  in;  the  rapidly  whirling  devotees  keep  won- 
derfully clear  of  each  other,  and  finally  come  to  a  stand-still  in 
turn,  each  finishing  with  a  graceful  bow  to  the  sheikh.  The 
scene  is  striking  and  peculiar,  and  some  idea  of  it  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  sketch  on  the  opposite  page. 

There  is  another  order  of  religious  devotees,  still  more  nu- 
merous than  the  Mevlevies,  though  not  so  wealthy,  who  are 
well  characterized  by  their  popular  name  of  "  howling  der- 
vishes." They  usually  meet  Tuesdays  and  Thursdays  in  the 
evening,  and  sit  upon  the  floor  in  a  circle,  the  sheikh  occupy- 
ing a  little  mattress,  slightly  raised  above  the  rest.  After  some 
preliminary  chanting  and  recitations,  they  begin  to  pronounce 
ninety  times  each  of  the  ninety-nine  names  by  which  they  des- 
ignate the  Deity,  bowing  the  head  every  time,  while  the  sheikli 
counts  the  numbers  on  a  long  string  of  beads.  They  go  on 
thus,  becoming  more  and  more  excited,  and  bowing  lower  and 
lower,  until  they  come  to  the  last  and,  in  the  opinion  of  Mus- 
lims, the  greatest  name  of  all,  "  Hoo ;"  they  then  spring  to  their 
feet,  and  holding  each  other's  hands,  begin  to  dance  in  a  circle 
in  the  most  frantic  manner,  bending  their  bodies  double,  then 
raising  them  and  bending  them  backward,  all  the  time  crying 
in  unison,  "Hoo!  IIoo!"  Thev  presentlv  pull  off  their  upper 
49 


76-i  BIBLE    LANDS. 

garments,  leaving  iheir  chests  bare,  and  drop  their  caps,  or  tur- 
bans: and  as  they  never  shave  their  heads  nor  cut  their  hair, 
their  long  locks  now  fly  loosely  about  their  faces  and  shoul- 
ders. Some  one  outside  the  circle  now  strikes  the  timbrel, 
beating  the  time  and  adding  to  the  excitement;  the  devotees 
perspire  at  every  pore;  their  cries  grow  frantic;  but  as  they 
ere  long  become  faint  with  exhaustion,  the  sound  gradually 
dies  away  into  a  mere  groan,  until  the  fanatics  drop  one  by 
one,  apparently  more  dead  than  alive,  and  looking  as  though 
they  had  fallen  in  a  fit.* 

The  Druses  of  Syria,  it  would  seem,  sometimes  dance  in  con- 
nection with  religious  rites.  The  Yezidy  performances  at  the 
tomb  of  Sheikh  Adi  very  nearly  resemble  those  of  the  howl- 
ing dervishes;  but  they  sing  Arabic  hymns,  and  the  musi- 
cians play  upon  timbrels  and  flutes.  The  young  men,  and 
even  the  young  women,  join  in  the  dance  of  the  "debka." 
When  the  excitement  reaches  its  highest  pitch,  the  singing  be- 
comes a  yell,  and  "the  women  join  in  with  their  shrill  tahlil. 
The  musicians,  giving  way  to  the  excitement,  throw  their  in- 
struments into  the  air,  and  strain  their  limbs  into  every  con- 
tortion, until  they  fall  exhausted  to  the  ground. "f 

Scenes  of  similar  fanatical  excitement  may  also  be  witnessed 
yearly  in  many  Christian  churches,  and  are  sometimes  carried 
so  far  as  to  endanger  the  lives  of  the  crowds  usually  present 
on  such  occasions.  This  is  particularly  the  case  at  the  so-called 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem,  where  the  fanati- 
cism of  the  pilgrims  reaches  such  a  pitch  that  "a  race-course 
is  made  around  the  sepulchre,  and  some  of  them,  almost  in  a 
state  of  nudity,  dance  about  with  frantic  gestures,  yelling  and 
screaming  as  if  they  were  possessed.";}: 

There  are  passages  in  the  Old  Testament  which  clearly  in- 
timate that  the  scenes  we  have  described  were  not  unknown 

*  While  we  can  not  deny  that  we  have  long  and  intimately  known  some  howl- 
ing dervishes  who  were  sincere  and  honest  men,  and  who,  we  believe,  were  often, 
at  their  private  meetings,  jjowerfiilly  influenced  by  religious  fanaticism,  such  per- 
haps as  is  exhibited  sometimes  in  a  Western  camp-meeting,  yet  we  are  sure  that 
the  principal  characters  among  them  are  rogues,  and  their  public  exhibitions  usual- 
ly frauds.  It  is  in  the  latter  that  they  j)ass  iron  skewers  through  the  skin  of  their 
necks,  and  jjurforin  all  the  tricks  of  the  fire-eater.  They  also  stab  themselves  with 
a  dagger  whose  blade  springs  back  into  the  handle. 

+  Layard,  vol.  i.,  p.  'IVI.  X  Curzon,  p.  183. 


Self-torture  of  Iteligious  Devotee. 


RELIGIOUS   PRACTICES.  767 

to  the  ancient  heathen  and  even  to  the  Hebrews.*  Indeed  it 
would  be  easy  to  trace  a  near  resemblance  between  the  der- 
vish associations  and  the  "schools  of  the  prophets,"  as  insti- 
tuted by  Samuel,  and  continued  through  the  period  of  the  He- 
brew monarchy.f  But  our  special  object  now  is  to  point  out 
the  fact  that  there  has  always  been  in  the  East  a  connection 
between  the  dance  and  certain  phases  of  religious  feeling,  to 
which  the  Scriptures  bear  ample  witness.:}:  This  fact  must 
have  its  foundation  in  the  peculiar  temperament  of  Orientals, 
else  the  Shakers  and  some  other  sects  would  have  met  with 
better  success  in  introducing  it  among  more  Northern  races. 

The  practices  of  the  howling  dervishes  also  illustrate  the 
"cuttings"  of  the  ancient  heathen  priests,  such,  for  instance, 
as  are  described  in  the  graphic  account  of  the  scene  on  Mount 
Carmel,  when  the  prophet  Elijah  contended  with  the  prophets 
of  Baal :  "  They  cried  aloud,  and  cut  themselves  after  their 
manner  with  knives  and  daggers,  till  the  blood  gushed  out 
upon  them."§  Indeed  the  language  of  Jer.  xli.,  5,  seems  to  im- 
ply that  the  Hebrews  sometimes  imitated  their  heathen  neigh- 
bors in  this  matter,  in  connection  with  the  worship  of  Jehovah, 
though  positively  forbidden  by  their  law.|| 

Our  modern  dervishes  indulge  in  these  practices  only  on 
special  occasions,  as,  for  instance,  when  a  procession  is  organ- 
ized and  proceeds  to  the  suburbs  of  a  town  to  pray  for  rain,  or 
for  deliverance  from  some  public  calamity :  they  then  exhibit 
some  of  their  fanatical  performances,  calling  upon  God,  and  cut- 
ting themselves  with  knives  and  swords,  so  that  the  blood  runs, 
or  piercing  their  almost  naked  bodies  with  wooden  or  iron 
spikes,  from  which  they  hang  small  mirrors.  They  sometimes 
become  so  exhausted  with  pain  and  loss  of  blood  as  to  faint 
away,  so  that  they  have  to  be  borne  off.  We  give  two  draw- 
ings, taken  from  life,  among  the  devotees  who  figured  in  a 
Muslim  procession  at  Shoosha,  in  Armenia.  They  were  not 
dervishes,  however,  but  common  people  carried  away  by  a  sim- 

*  1  Sam.  X.,  5,  6;  xix.,  23,  24.  f  Stanley,  "Jewish  Church,  "vol.  i.,  p.  440. 

t  Exod.  XV.,  20 ;  2  Sam.  vi.,  14,  16  ;  Psa.  cxlix.,  .3. 

§  1  Kings  xviii.,  28.  See  an  excellent  description  of  the  locality  and  siinound- 
ings  of  this  remarkable  event  in  Van  de  Velde,  "Syria  and  Palestine,"  vol.  i., 
pp.  322-327. 

II  Lev.  xix.,  28;  Deut.  xiv.,  1. 


768  BIBLE   LANDS. 

ilar  impulse,  who  hoped  to  render  themselves  acceptable  to 
Grod  by  undergoing  these  voluntary  tortures.  One  of  them 
cuts  his  forehead  with  a  sword,  so  that  "  the  blood  gushes  out;" 
he  wears  a  sheet  in  front  to  protect  his  clothes,  and  his  face  is 
covered  with  clots  of  blood. 

There  is  yet  another  religious  practice  of  modern  Orientals 
referred  to  in  the  Scriptures:  it  is  that  of  making  pilgrimages 
to  holy  places.  The  Mosaic  law  required  "  every  male  to  ap- 
pear three  times  a  year  before  the  Lord  "  at  Shiloh,  and  subse- 
quently at  Jerusalem.  These  periods  were,  in  the  spring,  at 
the  Passover;  in  early  summer,  at  the  Feast  of  Harvest;  and 
in  the  autumn,  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  This  practice  was 
not  arduous  for  the  inhabitants  of  so  small  a  land ;  and  its  fre- 
quency prevented  superstition,  and  brought  the  people  under 
instruction.  It  corresponded  to  the  heathen  custom  of  yearly 
celebrating  the  festival  of  their  gods,  in  their  most  famous  tem- 
ples,* but  it  looked  forward  to  the  time  when,  the  temple  being 
destroyed,  God  would  be  worshiped  "  neither  at  Jerusalem  nor  " 
in  any  other  particular  spot.f  The  East,  however,  has  returned 
essentially  to  its  old  practices.  Each  Christian  church  has  its 
special  festival  in  honor  of  its  own  particular  saint;  the  most 
noted,  as  the  Evangelistra  of  Tinos,  the  Balookly  of  Constanti- 
nople and  others,  draw  pilgrims  from  great  distances,  some  of 
whom  come  in  fulfillment  of  a  vow,  others — sometimes  even 
Muslims — in  the  hope  of  being  cured  of  a  troublesome  disease, 
and  all  with  the  certainty  of  being  fleeced  of  their  last  pen- 
ny by  the  cunning  priests.  The  greatest  of  these  gatherings 
takes  place  at  Jerusalem,  at  the  Feast  of  Easter,  in  the  so-called 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  where  a  motley  crowd  assem- 
bles yearly  of  not  less  than  twenty  thousand  people  of  both 
sexes,  who  come  from  every  part  oif  the  Christian  world.  We 
have  already  spoken  of  some  of  the  scenes  transacted  in  that 
spot  (see  page  764),  and  might  fill  a  volume  with  a  description 
of  the  degrading  superstitions,  vices,  and  even  crimes  there 
transacted.  It  is  surely  a  comfort  to  know  that  our  Holy  Lord 
probably  was  never  on  that  spot  at  all,  living  or  dead,  and  that 
it  is  less  likely  to  be  the  place  of  his  death  and  burial  than 
that  of  the  hanging  and  the  very  grave  of  Judas  Iscariot.     Ori- 


I'liileaux,  vol.  i.,  p.  30G.  +  -Tohn  iv.,  23. 


Muslim  Devotee  cntting  himself  like  the  Prophets  of  Banl.    (1  Kings  xviii.,  28.) 


I  ( )i  BIBLE    LAXDS. 

The  Yezidies  perform  pilgrimnges  to  the  shrine  of  Sheikh  Adi, 
and  the  Koords,  Kuzulbashes,  and  Turkmens  to  their  princi- 
pal tekkehs,  or  chapels,  where  there  are  usually  one  or  more 
venerated  graves.  For  all  these  there  is  a  particular  day  ap- 
pointed wherein  the  visit  is  specially  meritorious  and  beneficial. 
Orientals  continue  to  believe,  as  of  old,  in  supernatural  agen- 
cies, not  only  in  the  all -pervading  and  all -controlling  provi- 
dence and  personal  influence  of  the  Deity,  which  they  have 
ever  pushed  to  extreme  fatalism,  but  also  in  the  existence  and 
activity,  either  for  good  or  for  evil,  of  spirits  and  invisible  be- 
ings, who  people  the  air.*  What  to  us  are  the  absurd  fables 
of  the  "Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments  "  are  to  most  Orientals 
glimpses  into  an  invisible  world  and  living  realities.  This  is 
still  the  style  of  narrative  which  affords  them  the  most  absorb- 
ing delight.  The  stars  are  believed,  especially  in  Persia,  to  ex- 
ert a  powerful  influence  upon  the  destinies  of  men  ;  hence  the 
king,  the  royal  princes,  the  chief  ministers  of  state,  and  men 
of  wealth  and  position,  often  keep  an  astrologer  in  their  pay, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  calculate  the  most  auspicious  moment  for 
commencing  any  important  undertaking,  to  cast  the  horoscope 
of  a  new-born  son  and  heir,  etc.f  This  superstition  originated 
in  Chaldea,  and  was  there  reduced  to  a  system;:}:  and  though 
it  is  met  with  in  all  parts  of  Western  Asia,  yet  the  Persians 
are  more  particularly  addicted  to  it.§  The  belief  is  quite  gen- 
eral in  the  East  that  there  exists  a  class  of  beings  whom  they 
call  "Jins,"both  male  and  female,  good  and  bad,  which  hold 
an  intermediate  position  between  angels  and  men,  were  created 
before  the  latter,  are  made  of  fire,  or  perhaps  of  gas,  and  are 
capable  of  assuming  a  variety  of  forms,  or  of  becoming  invisi- 
ble at  pleasure.  They  eat,  drink,  and  marry — sometimes  hu- 
man beings — as  well  as  die,  though  they  live  several  centuries. 
Many  events  are  accounted  for  in  the  East  by  the  agency  of 
the  Jins;  so  that  they  do  not  exist  in  stories  alone,  but  are 
recognized  as  active  agents  in  human  affairs.|| 

*  2  Kings  vi.,  17  ;  Job  i.,  6-12;  ii.,  1-6;  Heb.  i.,  U. 

t  "Arabian  Nights,"  p.  343.  t  ^latt.  ii.,  1,  2. 

§  Morier,  "First  Journey," pp.  Gi),  73,  29 1  ;  " Second  Jonniev," pp.  40,  93,  103, 
106,  104,388,  380. 

II  Job  iv.,  If);  Matt,  xiv.,  26.  Information  on  witchcnift  and  spiritualism  on 
Mount  Lebanon  will  be  found  in  riiurcbill,  "  Lebanon,"  vol.  i.,  p.  166. 


RELIGIOUS    PRACTICES.  773 

Orientals  believe  in  charms,  spells,  and  talismans,  chiefly 
consisting  of  the  names  of  certain  saints,  or  Jins,  or  of  fanciful 
and  senseless  formulas,  written  upon  a  piece  of  paper  or  parch- 
pfient.  This  is  kept  in  a  case  of  silver  or  gold,  or  more  com- 
monly sewed  up  in  a  small  cloth  bag,  an  inch  long,  and  hung 
round  the  neck,  or  fastened  to  the  leathern  girdle  which  every 
Bedawy  wears  about  his  waist  next  to  the  skin.  They  have 
great  dread  of  the  "evil  eye,"  Envy  or  jealousy  are  believed 
to  endow  a  single  glance  with  a  deadly  venom ;  and  some 
persons,  it  is  thought,  thus  inflict  injury  quite  unintentionally. 
It  is  certainly  a  very  annoying  superstition,  to  say  the  least. 
Upon  the  walls  of  a  new  house  must  be  written  in  large  char- 
acters, in  some  conspicuous  place,  the  word  "Mashallah" 
(Praise  be  to  God),  lest  a  glance  of  admiration  doom  it  to  the 
flames,  or  bring  a  blight  upon  its  inmates.  If  a  pretty  child  is 
noticed,  it  must  be  spit  upon  at  once  to  save  its  life.  In  Cairo 
the  children  of  the  wealthy  are  kept  dirty  and  in  rags,  for  no 
other  reason  than  to  prevent  their  being  admired.*  The  dread 
of  the  evil  eye  exists  among  all  classes  and  in  every  religious 
sect;  and  though  no  direct  allusion  to  it  occurs  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, it  can  not  be  doubted  that  it  generally  prevailed  among 
the  Hebrews,  as  well  as  among  their  heathen  neighbors.f  In- 
deed some  of  the  Mosaic  precepts  are  best  explained  by  sup- 
posing that  they  were  chiefly  intended  to  counteract  such  a 
superstition.:]: 


*  Lane,  vol.  i.,  p.  70.  t  Wilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  chap,  x.,  p.  372. 

t  Deut.  vi.,  8;  xi.,  20. 


774  BIBLE   LANDS. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

COMMERCE,  AND  THE  MECHANIC  ARTS. 

The  comparison  we  have  drawn  between  the  ancient  and 
the  modern  condition  of  Western  Asia,  with  a  view  to  illus- 
trate and  explain  some  of  the  pages  of  Holy  Writ,  would  not 
be  homogeneous  and  complete  did  we  fail  to  notice  the  busi- 
ness intercourse  of  men,  arising  from  the  manufacture  of  vari- 
ous articles  of  consumption  as  needful  to  civilized  society  as 
the  direct  products  of  the  soil. 

Commercial  intercourse  has  probably  a  more  ancient  origin 
than  is  generally  supposed.  The  human  race  was  early  di- 
vided into  two  distinct  classes,  which  still  constitute  society  in 
the  countries  it  originally  occupied,  and  whence  mankind  have 
spread  over  the  whole  earth.*  These  are  the  dwellers  in  tents 
— keepers  of  flocks  and  hei'ds,  and  the  dwellers  in  houses — till- 
ers of  the  soilf  (see  page  398).  The  two  classes  are  mutual- 
ly dependent,  and  in  the  constant  exchange  of  the  products  of 
each  originally  consisted  all  the  commerce  of  mankind. 

We  must  not  imagine  the  nomads  of  Western  Asia  and 
Northern  Africa  to  be  half-naked  savages,  clad  in  the  skins 
of  animals,  like  the  North  American  Indians,  and  with  them 
equally  hostile  to  civilization.  Far  from  it.  The  wandering 
Arab,  Turkmen,  and  Koord  are  as  civilized,  well-dressed,  and 
polite  as  the  Turk,  the  Raya,  or  the  Fellah.  Both  classes  buy 
and  sell,  the  one  to  the  other.  There  is  more  lawlessness  on 
the  mountains  and  in  the  Desert,  simply  because  it  can  be  prac- 
ticed with  greater  impunity.  Intermarriages  are  of  frequent 
occurrence,  and  social  intercourse  is  unrestrained.;}: 

It  would,  however,  argue  a  very  primitive  state  of  society  to 
suppose  that  traffic  is  confined  to  the  two  classes  we  have  men- 
tioned. The  nomads  have  no  commerce  whatever  among  them- 
selves; no  shop  is  ever  set  up  in  their  camps  for  the  sale  of 

*  Gen.  ix.,  19.       t  Gen.  iv.,  2,  20.       J  Gen.  xxxiii.,  18,  19 ;  xxxiv.,  1,  6,  9,  10. 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE    MECHANIC   ARTS.  775 

the  simplest  article  of  wearing  apparel.  Their  flocks  and  herds 
afford  them  food,  while  their  wives  and  daughters  weave  their 
tent-cloths  of  goats'  hair  and  their  most  necessary  garments, 
as  well  as  carpets  of  wool  or  camels'  hair.  Whatever  they 
may  need  more  than  these,  such  as  cooking  utensils,  weapons, 
ornaments  for  their  women,  their  better  clothing,  and  other  ar- 
ticles of  luxury,  are  obtained  in  the  nearest  market-towns  in 
exchange  for  cheese,  dates,  locusts,  sheep,  goats,  cattle,  boards, 
beams,  charcoal,  sackcloth,  or  carpets.  The  life  of  the  villagers 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  nomads,  except  that  the  former  are  sta- 
tionary, and  subsist  on  the  products  of  the  soil ;  they  raise  ce- 
reals, vegetables,  and  fruits,  cultivate  the  vine  and  the  olive, 
and  produce  silk.  In  some  mountainous  districts  saw -mills 
are  occasionally  met  with,  which  supply  the  wants  of  the  neigh- 
boring regions ;  flour  mills  are  also  very  common  wherever 
there  is  a  sufficient  supply  of  water.  All  these  branches  of 
industry,  excepting  the  production  of  silk,  are  of  extremely 
ancient  origin.  We  have  seen  a  saw,  taken  out  of  a  very  an- 
cient tomb  ;*  and  the  use  of  the  instrument  was  familiar  to  the 
HebrewSjf  even  as  applied  to  the  cutting  of  stones,  which  is 
still  practiced  in  all  parts  of  the  country.;}:  And  these  people 
carry  the  products  of  their  industry,  as  of  old,  upon  asses,  mules, 
horses,  or  camels,  to  the  nearest  market-town,  and  supply  their 
own  wants  in  exchange. §  When  the  village  is  of  a  consider- 
able size,  the  first  shop  set  up  in  it  is  sure  to  be  the  bakal,  or 
grocer's  stall,  where  are  sold  the  plainest  articles  of  food  for  the 
passing  traveler — bread,  cheese,  olives,  salt  fish,  and  dried  fruits, 
as  well  as  whatever  is  most  likely  to  be  called  for  by  the  farm- 
er— vessels  of  wood,  iron,  or  earthenware,  of  which  the  shop- 
keeper obtains  a  small  supply  in  some  neighboring  town. 
Most  of  this  business  is  carried  on  by  exchange,  the  farmers 
paying  for  their  purchases  with  the  produce  of  their  farm  or 
flocks,  which  the  shop-keeper  sells  in  town,  or  retails  to  travel- 
ers, who  always  pay  in  coin. 

As  the  village  increases  in  size  and  wealth  other  shops  are 
added.  If  the  place  is  near  a  thoroughfare,  a  blacksmith's  and 
farrier's  shop  (nalbant)  are  next  set  up;  then  a  cofiee-shop,  a 


*  Wilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  p.  118,  fig.  398,  1.  t  Isa.  x.,  ir. 

t  1  Kings  vii.,  9.  §  Neli.  xiii.,  15,  19. 


776  BIBLE    LANDS. 

cobbler's  and  saddler's,  a  butcher's,  and  a  baker's  stall,  a  vari- 
ety store,  and  so  on.  It  will  be  noticed  in  this  enumeration 
that  commerce  and  manufactures  go  hand  in  hand.  The  first 
step  consists,  indeed,  of  the  mere  exchange  of  natural  products; 
but  the  peddler,  who  often  anticipates  even  this,  goes  from  vil- 
lage to  village,  bearing  his  own  pack,  or  driving  his  laden  don- 
key before  him,  and  he  does  not  fail  to  provide  himself  with 
articles  of  manufacture ;  while  the  shops,  which  rise,  one  after 
another,  in  the  growing  town  by  no  means  contain  the  prod- 
ucts of  other  men's  industry  alone:  the  entire  display  is  often 
the  shop-keeper's  own  work ;  and  he  may  be  seen  alternately 
busy  with  his  trade  and  waiting  upon  his  customers. 

Oriental  shops  or  stores  are  nearly  all  built  after  the  same 
pattern,  the  points  of  difference  between  them — not  always  dis- 
cernible from  the  street— consisting  chiefly  in  the  depth  of  the 
structure,  and  the  form  of  the  inner  part,  occupied  as  a  work- 
shop or  for  storing  surplus  goods.  The  portion  which  appears 
upon  the  street  commonly  consists  of  a  platform  about  two  feet 
high,  which  occupies  the  entire  front  of  the  shop,  usually  not 
over  ten  feet  wide :  a  small  door  leads  to  a  room  at  the  back. 
The  rest  of  the  wall  is  covered  with  shelves,  upon  which  are 
displayed  the  merchant's  goods  in  the  most  attractive  form,  the 
richest  and  handsomest  articles  being  spread  out  and  suspend- 
ed on  cords  and  rods.  The  platform  itself  is  usually  covered 
with  a  small  carpet  (sejadeh),  or  a  thin  mattress  with  a  cush- 
ion or  two.  There  sits  the  shop-keeper,  cross-legged,  his  ac- 
count-books close  at  hand,  into  which  he  peers  from  time  to 
time  and  notes  down  items,  or  keeps  himself  otherwise  busy; 
nor  does  he  forget  to  address  the  passers-by,  and  invite  them 
to  inspect  his  goods.  Presently  a  customer  stops  and  seats 
himself  on  the  edge  of  the  platform  ;  the  merchant  takes  down 
whatever  is  called  for,  and  spreads  it  before  him.  He  is  fre- 
quently offered  coffee  and  a  pipe  from  the  nearest  cafe,  whose 
master  keeps  an  open  account  with  all  the  neighboring  stores. 
Young  women,  whether  married  or  not,  are  never  permitted 
to  go°shopping  in  the  East,  being  thus  deprived  of  one  of  the 
dearest  privileges  of  our  Western  ladies.  This  is  considered 
proper  only  for  the  aged.  The  shop  is  closed  at  night  by 
means  of  boards,  which  entirely  cover  the  shelves;  they  are 
strengthened  with  iron  bars  and  padlocked:  a  portion  of  them 


COMMERCE,   AND   THE    MECHANIC    ARTS, 


777 


serve  as  an  awn- 
ing during  the 
day.  The  ac- 
companying il- 
lustration from 
Lane  (vol.  ii., }). 
12)  will  give 
the  reader  a  cor- 
rect idea  of  the 
front  part  of  a 
shop;  itis rather 
narrower  than 
is  usual,  howev- 
er, and  for  this 
reason,  proba- 
bly, the  back 
part  of  it  is  not 
separated  into  a 
distinct  room, 
which  is  more 
frequently  the 
case. 

Some  stores, 
however,  con- 
sist of  a  room, 
with  a  door  and 
windows  upon 
the  street;  but 
there  is  often  a 


Merchant  s  bh  p  in  Cairo 


narrow  platform  on  the  outside  even  of  these  for  the  display  of 
goods.  Such  are  the  shops  of  the  shekerjies  and  helvajies^  the 
manufacturers  of  several  varieties  of  sweetmeats  and  confection- 
ery. The  baker's  shop,  already  pictured  (page  89),  may  serve 
as  a  specimen  of  this  class;  the  bread  and  pastry,  hot  from  the 
oven,  are  exposed  for  sale  upon  the  counter  in  front.  Some- 
what similar  is  the  butcher's  stall,  which  is  hung  round  with  the 
bodies  of  sheep,  suspended  from  hooks.  The  cafe  (more  prop- 
erly kaliiceh)  is  a  nearer  approach  to  Western  ideas,  and  de- 
serves a  passing  notice,  being  an  important  institution  of  the 
East.     It  consists  of  a  room  furnished  with  benches  fixed  in 


778  BIBLE    LANDS. 

the  walls,  and  a  few  low  stools.  In  one  corner,  on  a  raised 
fire-place,  coffee  is  ever  simmering  in  a  copper  pot.  Long 
wooden  pipes  are  set  horizontally  upon  a  rack  on  the  wall,  and 
smoking  bottles  (argileh)  stand  in  a  row  upon  a  shelf.  This  is 
the  general  place  of  resort  for  the  men :  women  are  excluded. 
Here,  on  his  way  to  his  business  or  his  shop,  every  man  takes 
his  morning  sip  of  coffee,  and  fills  a  pipe  with  his  own  tobacco 
from  a  bag  which  he  takes  from  his  bosom.  It  costs  him  just 
half  a  cent.  Here  friends  meet  by  appointment,  to  have  a  chat. 
This,  too,  is  the  Bourse  of  the  town,  where  merchants  gather 
to  transact  business;  and  here,  outside  of  the  door,  the  work- 
men who  seek  employment  often  sit  on  little  stools,  or  upon 
the  ground,  waiting  to  be  hired  for  a  day's  work  in  the  vine- 
yard or  the  field.*  Within  the  coffee-shop  there  is  sometimes 
a  gallery,  accessible  by  a  narrow  staircase,  whither  guests  may 
retire  and  order  refreshments,  or  even  a  full  meal  from  a  cook- 
ing establishment  in  the  neighborhood,  or  from  a  passing  rno- 
halehijy.  The  cafe  has  spread  far  and  wide  throughout  the 
East.  It  not  only  takes  its  place  among  the  other  shops  of 
the  town  as  part  and  parcel  of  the  system  of  business  and  com- 
mercial transactions,  but  even  encroaches  upon  the  quarters 
set  apart  for  family  residences;  it  particularly  selects  the  most 
picturesque  sites,  especially  such  as  combine  the  beauties  of 
nature  with  the  ever- varying  movements  of  a  sea -port  or  a 
thoroughfare.  Such  a  spot  is  the  paradise  of  the  Oriental, 
where  he  dreams  and  builds  castles  in  the  air,  under  the  inspi- 
ration of  his  favorite  narcotics,  coffee  and  tobacco,  enhanced, 
perhaps,  by  the  dreamy  thrumming  of  the  mandolin  or  saz, 
accompanied  by  a  plaintive  Oriental  air.  The  caf^  may  also 
be  found  upon  the  high-road,  offering  a  momentary  refresh- 
ment to  the  weary  traveler,  or  affording  him  a  resting-place 
for  the  night. 

The  barber's  shop  is  constructed  like  the  cafe.  It  can  be 
distinguished  only  by  the  razors  and  strops  on  the  wall,  and 
by  a  coarse  cloth  hung  at  the  window,  displaying,  in  a  grim 
style  of  embroidery  set  off  by  large  blue  beads,  the  many  teeth 
which  tlie  owner  has  had  the  honor  to  extract  from  his  custom- 
ers' jaws.     The  razor  of  the  ancients  was  precisely  like  that  of 


Matt.  XX.,  3. 


All  Oneutal  Cafe. 

50 


COMMERCE,   AND   THE   MECHANIC   ARTS.  781 

the  moderns,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying  sketch  of 
one  found  in  a  very  old  tomb;  there  were  with  it  a  number 
of  beads,  apparently  made 
of  bone.  The  barber  in 
Turkey  is  the  ordinary 
surgeon,  doing  the  bleed- 
ing, cupping,  and  tooth- 
pulling,  while  the  apothe- 
cary administers  the  drugs. 
These  two  also  prescribe 

r       ,1  ,•       ,         ^^  T         Aucieut  Razor-blade  aud  Beads.    (Numb,  vi.,  5.) 

tor  the  patients :  they  dis-  '   ' 

dain  to  put  themselves  under  the  orders  or  to  follow  the  pre- 
scriptions of  the  doctor.  There  is,  indeed,  no  room  left  for  the 
latter  personage.  According  to  the  ideas  of  the  country,  a 
mere  consultation  is  never  paid  for,  but  simply  the  drugs  fur- 
nished to  the  patients. 

The  shops  and  stores  we  have  described  cluster  together  in 
some  convenient  part  of  the  town,  and,  in  the  larger  cities,  in 
several  distinct  quarters,  for  the  greater  convenience  of  the  in- 
habitants. Each  group  of  shops  is  called  a  market  (Arabic, 
sook;  Greek,  ayopa;  Turkish,  charshy ;  Armenian,  s/zoo^^a),*  and 
is  intended  to  supply  the  principal  wants  of  the  immediate 
neighborhood,  being  almost  exclusively  limited  to  the  sale  of 
articles  of  food.  There  is  not  a  town  of  any  considerable 
size,  however,  that  is  not  provided  with  a  bazar,  or  bezesten, 
more  or  less  complete ;  and  this  is  so  peculiarly  an  Oriental  in- 
stitution— one,  moreover,  of  which  there  are  such  distinct  in- 
timations in  the  Scriptures  and  contemporary  writings — that 
it  requires  a  brief  description,  as  it  may  now  be  seen  in  Con- 
stantinople, Damascus,  Cairo,  and  Bagdad,  and  anciently  exist- 
ed in  Jerusalem,  Memphis,  and  Babylon. 

A  particular  portion  of  the  city,  varying  in  size  according 
to  the  necessities  of  the  case,  is  exclusively  devoted  to  pur- 
poses of  trade.  This  space  is  cut  up  into  narrow  streets,  each 
of  which  consists  of  a  fire-proof  stone  building,  open  at  both 
ends,  with  the  street  running  through  it  covered  by  an  arched 
roof,  pierced  with  windows  to  let  in  the  light;  this  street  is 
lined  on  both  sides  with  shops  of  little  depth,  such  as  we  have 

*  Ezek.  xxvii.,  13  ;  Luke  vii.,  32. 


782 


BIBLE    LANDS. 


Street  iu  the  Bazar  at  Cairo.    (Ezek.  xsv 


already  described.  Merchants  dealing  in  similar  goods  find  it 
for  their  advantage  as  well  as  for  that  of  their  customers  to 
cluster  together ;  hence  each  of  these  covered  streets  is  usually 
exclusively  occupied  by  a  particular  trade,  and  is  accordingly 
called  the  dry-goods  bazar,  the  shoe  bazar,  etc.  This  was  also 
the  case  anciently,  for  Joseph  us  speaks  of  the  place  "  at  Jerusa- 
lem" where  were  "  the  merchants  of  wool,  the  braziers,  and  the 
market  for  cloth."* 

As  a  general  rule  the  most  valuable  goods  occupy  the  most 
solid  structures,  which  are  closed  at  each  end  at  night.  Such 
strong  buildings  are  apt  to  be  erected  side  by  side,  though  this 
is  not  always  the  case,  and  then  all  the  issues  being  closed  with 
heavy  iron  doors,  the  whole  forms  a  sort  of  fortress,  capable 
of  resisting  a  siege  or  an  outside  conflagration,  though  by  no 
means  proof  against  an  earthquake.  No  one  is  allowed  to  re- 
main within  but  the  watchmen  and  the  dogs.     The  gates  are 


Josepluis,  "  Jewisli  "War,"  bk.  v.,  cha]).  viii.,  §  1. 


I 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE   MECHANIC   ARTS,  783 

shut  at  evening  at  an  early  hour,  and  belated  merchants  must 
make  their  exit  through  the  little  door  kept  open  for  that  pur- 
pose (see  page  453).  But  the  whole  bazar  is  by  no  means 
so  solidly  built.  Around  these  stone  structures  spreads  out 
a  far  more  extensive  net-work  of  streets,  the  continuation  and 
ramification  of  those  in  the  central  bezesten,  covered  over  sim- 
ply with  wood -work,  or  with  an  awning,  and,  still  farther 
on,  left  open  overhead ;  each  shop,  however,  being  protected 
against  rain  or  sunshine  by  a  projecting  roof  This  part  of 
the  sook  is  not  provided  with  gates.  Many  of  the  owners  live 
in  the  upper  story  of  their  shops,  and  the  whole  is  under  the 
special  surveillance  of  the  police.  The  khans,  occupied  by 
merchants  and  workmen  from  abroad — called  bekiars  (bache- 
lors), because,  having  left  their  families  at  home,  they  lead  a 
hachelor''s  life — are  mostly  situated  in  this  part  of  the  sook,  for 
the  purpose  of  being  near  the  place  of  business.  Indeed,  not 
a  few  of  these  buildings  are  used  as  shops  for  the  sale  of  for- 
eign goods,  or  even  for  manufacturing  purposes.  They  are 
generally  square  in  shape,  with  a  single  broad  entrance,  closed 
at  night  by  an  iron  door,  which  itself  is  sometimes  provided 
with  a  little  door  in  one  of  its  folds.  The  interior  consists  of 
a  central  court  with  a  double  gallery,  or  veranda,  upon  which 
open  two  stories  of  rooms,  each  supplied  with  a  door  and  a  win- 
dow upon  the  gallery,  and  another  window  at  the  back. 

Having  described  the  bazar  with  its  streets  of  shops,  contain- 
ing within  the  narrowest  convenient  limits  all  the  products  of 
the  soil  and  the  manufactures  of  the  province,  or  even  of  the 
whole  empire  as  well  as  of  foreign  lands,  with  the  exception 
of  articles  too  bulky  to  be  thus  stored,  which  are  laid  up  in 
distinct  portions  of  the  town,  we  may  now  pass  on  to  consider 
the  state  of  the  mechanic  arts.  And  here  it  is  evident  that  the 
great  and  mighty  political  changes,  whose  shifting  scenes  have 
rapidly  followed  each  other  in  the  East,  could  not  fail  to  exert 
a  deleterious  influence  upon  human  industry.  We  see  how 
even  modern  European  warfare  causes  every  loom  and  wheel 
to  stand  still,  and  paralyzes  all  branches  of  labor.  This  is  the 
case  to  a  much  greater  degree  where  the  strong-limbed  artisan 
is  forcibly  dragged  into  the  battle-field,  and  where  the  victor 
puts  every  male  to  the  sword,  or  at  least  gives  up  the  conquered 
city  to  be  sacked  and  pillaged,  as  a  part  of  the  soldiers'  pay. 


784  BIBLE   LANDS. 

Moreover,  when  invading  nations  or  races  settle  in  a  vanquish- 
ed land,  as  has  often  occurred  in  Western  Asia,  they  are  very 
apt  to  despise  and  discourage  the  native  manufactures,  and  to 
introduce  and  patronize  those  to  which  they  were  accustomed 
in  their  former  home.  It  would  not,  therefore,  be  surprising 
to  discover  that  every  vestige  of  ancient  art  had  disappeared, 
and  that  not  a  trace  of  it  could  be  seen  in  the  industrial  prod- 
ucts of  the  moderns.     This,  however,  is  not  the  case. 

Independently  of  these  general  considerations,  there  are 
three  causes  that  have  conspired  to  produce  a  change  in  these 
matters,  which  we  here  notice,  not  so  much  for  tbe  purpose  of 
accounting  for  the  notable  differences  between  ancient  and 
modern  art  and  industry,  as  in  order  to  define  more  clearly 
wherein  these  differences  consist : 

I.  The  religion  of  the  ancients  encouraged  the  imitation  of 
animated  nature,  and  no  expense  was  spared,  whether  in  ma- 
terial or  in  workmanship,  in  order  to  make  the  images  of  the 
gods  the  embodiment  of  the  highest  conception  of  physical 
beauty  or  grandeur.  The  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  particularly 
excelled  in  this  art,  and  surpassed  even  their  own  countrymen 
of  Europe.*  The  effect  was  very  noticeable :  the  gifts  pre- 
sented to  the  heathen  temples  chiefly  consisted  of  the  works 
of  genius,  whether  in  sculpture  or  painting.  The  public  build- 
ings were  ornamented  with  historical  friezes,  statues,  and  paint- 
ings. The  fine  arts  adorned  the  houses  of  the  rich,  and  the 
poor  obtained  cheap  but  tasteful  imitations  in  baked  clay.  No 
one  can  visit  the  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  departments  of 
the  museum  at  Naples  without  being  struck  with  the  extent 
to  which  the  fine  arts  were  cultivated  by  the  ancients.  In 
Western  Asia  Minor,  at  the  sites  of  the  old  cities,  the  soil 
teems  with  fragments  of  clay — images,  lamps,  marble  statues, 
mosaic  pavements,  or  painted  stucco.  The  public  monuments, 
as  well  as  household  effects  of  ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria,  pro- 
duce the  impression  that  they  too  were  eminently  an  artistic 
people.  We  draw  the  same  conclusion  from  the  fact  that  they 
stamped  upon  their  coins  carefully  drawn  images  of  their  gods 
or  sovereigns,  and  of  the  emblems  of  their  state,  instead  of  the 
rude  pieces  of  precious  metal  so  long  current  in  other  lands. 

*  Gillies,  "Greece,"  chap.  xiv. 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE   MECHANIC   ARTS. 


785 


The  Hebrews  were  not  forbidden  the  making^  but  only  the 
religious  use,  of  images.  Indeed,  representations  of  animated 
creatures  were  carved  bj  special  divine  command.*  We  have 
reason  to  suppose,  however,  that  devout  Jews  abstained  from 
the  making  of  images  on  account  of  the  propensity  of  that  age 
to  the  sin  of  idolatry,  but  that,  on  the  other  hand,  they  might 
strongly  incline  to  the  imitation  of  inanimate  objects.  Ac- 
cordingly we  find  that  Solomon  adorned  the  Temple  with  carv- 
ings of  trees,  fruit,  and  flowers.f  Had  not  the  hand  of  war 
so  ruthlessly  passed  over  that  sacred  land,  we  might  have  had 
more  specimens  of  Hebrew  ornamental  carving,  and  could 
compare  them  with  similar  works  of  the  modern  Muslims,  who 
likewise  eschew  all  representations  of  living  creatures.  Un- 
fortunately, nearly  all  these  monuments  are  in  a  more  or  less 


Lid  of  Sarcophagus.    From  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings  of  Judah. 

shattered  condition.  But  there  still  exists  one  at  least  in  a 
fair  state  of  preservation  as  well  as  of  undoubted  antiquity ;  it 
is  the  lid  of  a  sarcophagus,  found  in  an  artificial  cavern  near 
Jerusalem,  called  by  the  Arabs  Kaboor  el  Melook  (the  sepul- 
chres of  the  kings).  This  "  lid,"  now  at  the  Louvre,  in  Paris, 
exhibits  a  graceful  carving  of  "flowers,  fruit,  and  leaves,  among 
which  may  be  distinguished  the  iris,  grapes,  pomegranates, 
gourds,  almonds,  acorns,  and  anemones."  There  are  also  dou- 
ble rows  of  olive -leaves  and  fruit.  This  sarcophagus  cover 
(of  which  we  give  a  picture),  is  supposed  by  Mr.  De  Saulcy, 


Exod.  XXV.,  18;  Numb,  xxi.,  9;  ]  Kings  vii.,  25,  29.        +  1  Kings  ni.,  18-20. 


786  BIBLE   LANDS. 

who  brought  it  to  France,  to  have  been  made  by  Solomon  for 
his  father,  David.  However  this  may  be,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  its  date  is  anterior  to  the  captivity,  and  is  probably  not 
much  below  one  thousand  years  B.C. 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  religions  which  have  pre- 
vailed in  the  East  for  the  last  eighteen  centuries  have  not  giv- 
en much  encouragement  to  the  arts  of  sculpture  and  painting. 
Christianity,  indeed,  merely  abstained  from  introducing  them 
into  its  churches.  Constantinople,  its  Eastern  metropolis,  be- 
came a  museum  filled  with  the  productions  of  the  heathen  art- 
ists, whose  talent  was  tolerated  for  the  purpose  of  honoring 
civic  or  military  pre-eminence  ;  but  the  idols  of  the  dying  su- 
perstition were  pursued  with  unrelenting  fury,  and  not  a  ves- 
tige of  them  was  left  to  tell  the  follies  of  a  by-gone  age.  When 
Islam  appeared,  in  the  seventh  century,  it  declared  deadly  war 
against  images  of  all  kinds,  whether  painted  or  carved,  and 
swept  through  the  land,  shattering  and  mutilating  the  remains 
of  ancient  art.  The  Muslims  have  made  it  unsafe  for  the 
Christians  among  them  to  indulge  any  desire  to  imitate  living 
nature,  and  have  always  persecuted  them  for  keeping  pictures 
of  saints  in  their  churches,  which  they  persist  in  calling  "the 
temples  of  idols."  Still  there  is  occasionally,  even  among  them- 
selves, a  cropping  out  of  artistic  propensities  which  is  usually 
let  alone.  Some  of  the  buildings  which  belong  to  the  period 
of  the  Saracens  are  adorned  with  carvings  of  lions,  a  favorite 
emblem  with  that  martial  people.  Such  is  the  celebrated 
"Fountain  of  the  Lions"  in  the  Alhambra,  at  Granada.  The 
Persians  are  less  strict  on  this  point  than  the  sect  of  the  Sun- 
nis.  The  shah's  throne  is  adorned  with  representations  of 
men,  women,  lions,  and  birds  (page  642),  and  on  the  walls  of 
his  palaces  are  painted  battle  and  hunting  scenes,  as  on  those 
of  Persepolis  and  Nineveh.  Every  one  is  familiar  with  the 
little  boxes,  pen-cases,  etc.,  which  come  from  Persia,  and  are 
adorned  with  miniature  pictures  of  hunts  and  portraits  of  men 
and  women ;  and  even  among  the  Sunnis  the  cafe  and  the 
barber's  shop  seem  to  enjoy  a  special  license  for  the  exhibition 
of  such  rude  sketches  of  liuman  beings  as  the  people  are  yet 
capable  of  producing.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  nearly  all 
the  taste  and  talent  of  the  East  for  ornamental  picturing  has 
abandoned  the  imitation  of  nature's  animated  models,  and  con- 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE   MECHANIC   ARTS.  789 

fines  itself  to  the  representation  of  trees,  fruits,  and  flowers,  as 
with  the  ancient  Ilebrews,  or,  still  more,  to  the  working  out  of 
ingenious  and  intricate  patterns  combining  natural  objects  with 
Arabic  characters.  This  may  be  seen  in  their  beautiful  jewel- 
ry, whether  in  filigree  or  otherwise,  of  which  we  have  already 
given  some  specimens  (page  594).  It  is  also  noticeable  in  their 
architecture,  whether  it  be  gorgeously  painted  ceilings  and 
walls,  or  finely  carved  tombs  and  mosks.  Having  already  giv- 
en a  specimen  of  ancient  Hebrew  ornamental  carving,  we  now 
reproduce  a  sample  of  Muslim  work  of  the  same  general  style 
for  the  purpose  of  comparison.  It  is  the  door-way,  or  entrance 
of  a  medreseh,  or  college,  at  Sivas,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  dates 
back  to  the  Saracenic  period  and  the  twelfth  centurj'. 

II.  There  is  another  change,  unconnected  with  any  religious 
ideas,  which  must  not  be  forgotten  when  we  compare  the  in- 
dustrial products  of  the  ancients  with  those  of  the  moderns. 
The  world  is  improving  in  a  material  sense  even  in  the  East, 
and  among  the  most  important  signs  of  progress  is  the  discov- 
ery and  extensive  use  of  cotton  and  silk.  The  cultivation  of 
the  former  now  furnishes  a  livelihood  to  millions  of  human 
beings,  mostly  in  Egypt  and  Southern  Asia  Minor,  while  the 
production  and  manufacture  of  silk  employs  a  still  greater 
number  in  Syria  and  in  Northern  Asia  Minor.  Wool  is  prob- 
ably used  almost  as  much  as  anciently,  but  linen  fabrics  have 
greatly  deteriorated,  the  article  being  now  in  little  use  even 
among  the  rich,  who  prefer  silk.  It  is  now  raised  chiefly  for 
exportation.  It  would  be  an  interesting  question,  but  one 
which  we  confess  ourselves  quite  incompetent  to  discuss, 
whether  the  change  of  apparel,  and  especially  the  exchange  of 
an  animal  for  a  vegetable  substance  as  an  article  of  dress,  has 
exerted  any  influence  upon  the  physical  condition  or  charac- 
ter of  the  people.  It  is  certainly  much  easier  to  perceive  the 
effects  of  the  present  all  but  universal  use  of  narcotics,  which 
have  been  introduced  within  the  last  three  hundred  years. 

III.  But  the  source  of  the  greatest  changes  in  the  industry 
and  arts  of  Bible  lands  must  be  looked  for  not  in  the  religious 
or  political  condition  of  their  own  people,  but  in  the  influence 
exerted  upon  them  by  their  neighbors  of  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope. A  severe  blow  was  struck  at  their  commercial  prosper- 
ity by  the  discovery  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  de- 


790  BIBLE    LANDS. 

prived  them  of  the  carrying  trade  between  Eastern  Asia  and 
Europe,  the  source  of  untold  wealth  to  Babylon,  Jerusalem, 
and  Alexandria  successively.  Europe  long  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  Asia  in  arts,  science,  and  arms.  It  was  only  fif- 
ty years  ago  that  the  charm  was  fully  dispelled  by  the  wars 
of  the  Greek  revolution,  when  the  naval  power  of  Turkey  was 
annihilated  at  the  battle  of  Navarino,  and  a  Russian  army  en- 
camped on  the  Bosphorus.  The  triumph  of  the  "West  open- 
ed a  wide  door  for  European  manufactures,  which  were  sold 
cheaper  than  the  native  products,  because  they  paid  a  lighter 
duty.  Time  wore  on,  and  the  introduction  of  steam  as  the 
great  motive-power  cheapened  still  more  the  manufactures  of 
Europe,  and  no  "protective  tariff"  being  allowed  by  the  pow- 
ers, which  styled  themselves  "the  Protectors  of  Turkey,"  the 
native  fabrics  were  withdrawn  from  market,  and  gradually  dis- 
appeared. Only  thirty  years  ago  there  were  yet  a  score  of 
khans  in  Broosa,  each  of  whose  rooms  contained  a  loom  em- 
ployed in  weaving  the  celebrated  silk  fabrics  to  which  that 
city  gave  its  name.  Instead  of  these,  there  are  now  three  or 
four  factories  under  European  patronage,  which  produce  only 
a  light  and  flimsy  gauze.  Manufacturing  industry  is  confined 
chiefly  to  articles  too  bulky  or  too  cheap  to  be  brought  from 
Europe.  Almost  every  thing  of  value  or  of  artistic  worth — 
jewelry  and  the  like  —  is  either  imported,  was  made  at  least 
fifty  years  ago,  or  belongs  to  a  style  or  class  of  work  not  yet 
imitated  by  Europeans.  The  exports  of  the  country  now  con- 
sist mostly  of  raw  material,  and  the  imports  of  manufoctures. 
In  many  cases  this  raw  material  is  exported  to  be  manufac- 
tured in  Europe,  and  returned  to  the  East,  all  at  the  expense 
of  the  Oriental  consumer. 

The  circumstances  explained  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs 
will  serve  to  account  for  the  deterioration  so  perceptible  in 
the  mechanic  arts  of  Western  Asia,  even  during  the  last  cen- 
tury. Nevertheless,  there  are  yet  many  striking  points  of  re- 
semblance in  these  matters  between  the  ancient  and  the  mod- 
ern East,  distinguishing  them  from  our  own  civilization,  and 
well  deserving  our  attention.  These  we  shall  now  briefly  no- 
tice, and  thus  conclude  this  part  of  our  subject. 

There  is  not,  nor  has  there  ever  been,  any  thing  like  caste 
in  this  part  of  the  world,  yet  it  is  observable  that,  both  now 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE   MECHANIC   ARTS.  791 

and  anciently,  certain  trades  and  occupations  have  always  been 
carried  on  by  particular  races,  classes,  or  families:  certain  man- 
ufactures are  monopolized  by  distinct  classes  of  the  people. 
Solomon's  chief  artist  in  making  the  ornamental  works  of  the 
Temple  was  Hiram,  a  descendant  of  the  Danite  Aholiab,  who 
did  the  same  work  in  the  wilderness,*  and  he  had  learned  his 
trade  from  his  own  father,  who  had  practiced  it  in  Tyre,  his 
native  city.  So  now  the  various  arts  and  trades  are  monopo- 
lies, and  their  secrets  are  rarely  revealed  to  any  but  the  chil- 
dren and  near  relations  of  those  who  are  already  initiated. 
This  has  given  rise  in  the  large  cities  to  the  guilds  so  common 
in  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  which  are  associations  of  mem- 
bers of  the  same  trade,  who  combine  to  defend  their  mutual 
interests,  act  in  accordance  with  rules  adopted  by  common  con- 
sent, and  particularly  seek  to  keep  out  intruders,  and  maintain 
a  high  standard  of  workmanship.  Such  plans  are  the  more 
easily  carried  out  because  the  shops  of  each  particular  trade 
cluster  together  in  one  bazar.  This  explains  the  circumstances 
attending  the  tumult  raised  at  Ephesus  by  the  makers  of  Di- 
ana's silver  shrines.  Demetrius  was  probably  the  vakil  (rep- 
resentative) of  his  guild  ;  for  one  of  the  best  workmen,  an  ex- 
perienced man,  and  ready  speaker,  is  usually  chosen  to  that 
ofiice.f 

Among  the  Hebrews  the  Gibeonites  were  the  "  hewers  of 
wood  and  drawers  of  water.":}:  At  Constantinople  water  is 
supplied  to  all  the  houses  by  Armenian  Christian  sakkas,  who 
convey  it  in  large  leather  bags  suspended  from  the  shoulder; 
and  no  one  belonging  to  any  other  nation  would  venture  to  in- 
fringe upon  the  monopoly.  They  are  also  the  porters  of  the 
capital.  But  the  trade  in  charcoal  and  wood  is  in  the  hands 
of  Turks,  who  alone  hew  the  latter.  The  celebrated  Smyrna 
porters  are  all  Turks  from  Konieh  (Iconium),  and  the  business 
is  confined  to  certain  families,  whose  children  are  trained  to  it 
from  childhood.  Instances  might  be  mentioned  of  cities  where 
the  same  manufactures  have  been  carried  on  from  time  im- 
memorial. A  case  is  mentioned  by  Pococke,  which  at  once  il- 
lustrates this  tenacity  and  the  changes  produced  by  the  prog- 

*  Exod.  XXXV.,  34;  Stanley,  "Jewish  Church,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  227. 

t  Acts  xix.,  24-27.  t  Josh,  ix.,  21. 


792 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


ress  of  human  society :  the  town  of  Akraim,  in  Egypt,  is  the 
ancient  "  Panopolis,"  famous  of  old  for  its  linen  manufactures  ;* 
at  present  they  make  coarse  cottons  there.f 

Again,  we  are  able  in  many  cases  to  compare  the  tools  used 
by  the  ancients  with  those  of  the  moderns,  and  it  is  a  curious 
fact  that  they  are  so  much  alike,  and  that  both  differ  in  the 
same  respects  from  those  of  the  West.  Our  drill  takes  the 
form  of  a  "brace  and  bits;"  but  Orientals  use  a  bow  which 
causes  the  drill  to  revolve,  one  end  turning  in  a  nut  held  with 
the  left  hand,  while  the  right  draws  the  bow  forward  and  back- 
ward. We  could  make 
no  better  picture  of  this 
instrument  than  we  find 
in  Wilkinson,  who  cop- 
ied his  from  the  sculp- 
tures of  ancient  Thebes. 
Moreover,  if  we  com- 
pare the  tools  and  ap- 
pliances of  the  modern 
mason  and  carpenter 
with  the  pictures  on 
the  ancient  monuments, 
or  with  such  tools  as 
Lave  survived  the  wear 
of  ages,  we  find  no  es- 
sential difference  between  them.  The  only  saw  the  ancients 
seem  to  have  used  is  a  plain  handsaw,:}:  and  it  was  held  pre- 
cisely as  at  present,  and  seems  to  have  had  its  teeth  as  they 
are  now,  turned  in  the  opposite  direction  from  ours,  so  as  to  cut 
by  pulling,  and  not  by  shoving.  But  the  adze  is  the  chief  tool 
of  the  modern  carpenter  and  joiner,  with  which  he  does  every 
conceivable  thing,  being  never  seen  without  it,  either  clinging 
to  his  shoulder  or  stuck  into  his  belt;  and  a  similar  instrument 
seems  to  have  been  as  great  a  favorite,  and  to  have  been  used 
in  the  same  manner,  in  ancient  Egypt.§ 

We  conclude,  from  the  modern  tools  so  closelj^  resembling 
the  ancient,  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  ascertain,  that  we  are  war- 


Aucient  Egyptian  Drill. 


*  Strabo,  lib.  xvii.,  chap,  i.,  §  41. 

t  Wilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  p.  118,  fig.  3'J8,  1. 


t  Pococke,  vol.  i..  chap,  ii.,  p.  76. 
§  Ibid.,  fig.  398,  2. 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE   MECHANIC   ARTS. 


793 


ranted  in  supposing  the  former  to  be  correct  illustrations  of 
the  latter.  The  accompanying  cut  contains  the  chief  instru- 
ments now  in  use  by  carpenters  and  masons.  They  consist  of 
saws,  planes,  adzes,  gimlets,  triangular  levels,  lines,  plummets, 
and  trowels.     If  the  tools  used  by  the  ancients  are  similar  to 


Modern  Carpenters'  and  Masons'  Tools. 

those  of  the  moderns,  the  manner  of  employing  them  is  equal- 
ly so.  They  have  no  carpenter's  bench,  nor  screws,  nor  any 
of  the  many  appliances,  models,  forms,  and  other  knickknacks 
which  fill  our  shops.  The  man  sits  down  upon  the  floor  and 
makes  that  his  bench.  He  employs  four  hands  instead  of  the 
two  of  ordinary  humanity,  for  his  feet  are  bare,  and  his  toes 
are  trained  to  do  almost  as  effectual  service  as  other  men's  fin- 
gers. It  is  wonderful  to  see  how  a  board  is  held  with  the  toes 
and  turned  about,  while  the  hands  are  engaged  in  sawing  or 
otherwise  fashioning  it.  We  have  never  seen  these  men  at 
work  without  being  riveted  to  the  spot,  and  reflecting  that  the 
capabilities  and  powers  of  the  human  foot  are  quite  unknown 
to  our  higher  civilization.  The  resemblance  between  the  an- 
cient and  the  modern  processes  may  be  distinctly  traced  in  the 
various  operations  connected  with  the  other  trades,  which  are 
graphically  pictured  upon  the  Egyptian  monuments,  such  as 
the  manufacture  of  pottery,  rope-making,  and  the  fuller's  busi- 
ness.* Nor  does  there  seem  to  be  much  difference  in  the  prod- 
ucts of  their  industry,  as  far  as  we  may  judge  from  what  has 


Wilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  pp.,  89,  106, 108, 


794  BIBLE   LANDS. 

resisted  the  influence  of  time.  Both  ancients  and  moderns  were 
equally  successful  in  veneering,  inlaying,  and  enameling,  while 
articles  of  jewelry  are  often  so  similar  in  form  or  style  that  it 
is  difficult  to  tell  them  apart. 

As  to  work  in  cloth  and  weaving,  the  modern  and  the  an- 
cient Eg3^ptians  push  the  woof  downward.*  The  embroidery 
of  the  East  is  still  celebrated.  The  Smyrna  edging,  with  oth- 
er styles  of  lace-work,  are  sought  by  the  merchant,  while  em- 
broidery in  wool,  and  still  more  in  silk,  imitating  flowers  in 
their  natural  colors,  is  extremely  beautiful,  but  rarely  leaves 
the  country.f  The  carpets  of  Ooshak,  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
those  made  by  the  Koords  and  the  Persians,  are  quite  as  much 
esteemed  as  those  anciently  sold  at  Babylon.:}: 

Western  Asia  is  celebrated  for  its  drugs  and  dyes,  which 
have  never  failed  to  attract  particular  attention  at  the  "  Uni- 
versal Expositions  "  in  which  they  have  been  displayed.  Some 
of  these  appear  to  be  particularlj^  alluded  to  in  connection  with 
the  erection  of  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Mosaic  ritual.  The  "blue"  there  spoken  of 
appears  to  be  wool  dyed  with  indigo,  a  color  so  common  as  to 
be  used  for  the  garments  of  the  lower  classes  through  the  en- 
tire country. §  Scarlet  is  still  obtained  from  the  madder-root, 
which  is  sown  in  trenches,  left  to  grow  for  three  years,  and 
then  dug  partially  up  year  after  year.  It  is  an  important  arti- 
cle of  commerce,  and  as  fast  a  color  as  is  known  in  the  East, 
where  it  goes  by  the  name  of  kirmiz  (crimson).  "  Gold  "  (in 
Exod.  xxxix.,  22)  is  gold-thread  and  gold-foil,  which  are  still 
greatly  used  by  the  rich,  either  woven  into  the  cloth  or  em- 
broidered upon  their  garments.! 

There  has  been  a  good  deal  of  obscurity  and  doubt  respect- 
ing the  measures  of  length  used  by  the  ancients,  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  the  evidently  varying  sizes  of  the  cubit,  not  only  in 

*  Wilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  p.  85.  t  Exod.  xxxix.,  3,  5,  24,  29. 

X  Lay.ard,  vol.  ii.,  p.  315.  §  Exod.  xxviii.,  5,  6. 

II  During  the  last  century  it  was  fashionable  for  Turkish  ladies  to  wear  dresses 
containing  a  great  deal  of  s?7f'er-thread,  which  is  still  done,  but  to  a  less  extent. 
European  ladies  living  in  the  East  could  not  then  conveniently  dress  in  any  other 
than  the  native  costume,  and  the  writer's  grandmother,  after  wearing  such  dresses 
the  greater  part  of  her  life,  finally  laid  them  aside  for  the  garments  of  Europe. 
She  had  the  silver-thread  of  her  Turkish  dresses  melted  down,  and  made  into  a 
sugar-basin,  which  is  still  preserved  in  the  family  as  an  iiite'csting  heir-loom. 


COMMERCE,   AND   THE    MECHANIC   ARTS.  795 

dijBferent  countries,  but  even  in  the  same  country,  as  applied 
to  different  classes  of  objects.  A  similar  perplexity  has  been 
complained  of  by  modern  travelers  with  regard  to  the  endazeh, 
OT pik,  which  is  of  three  different  sizes,  i.  e,  the  Constantinople 
pik  of  26|  inches,  the  land  endazeh  of  24:-^  inches,  and  the 
Egyptian,  of  22  inches.  All  these,  like  the  cubit,  are  measured 
from  the  elbow  to  the  end  of  the  fingers ;  but,  as  the  arm  va- 
ries in  size,  iron  rods  have  been  substituted,  which  may  be  in- 
tended to  correspond  to  the  different  average  sizes  of  people's 
arms  in  the  several  provinces,  the  Egyptians  being  the  shortest 
race,  while  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  Minor  are  the  tallest.  Our 
own  measures  were  originally  based  upon  parts  of  the  human 
body,  viz.,  the  thumb  and  the  foot,  but  their  indefinite  char- 
acter caused  them  long  ago  to  be  replaced  by  an  arbitrary  foot- 
measure,  which  is  kept  in  the  Tower  of  London.  In  the  East 
the  measures  commonly  used  are :  One  finger  (?'.  e.,  the  finger- 
breadth)  up  to  four;*  the  hand-breadth,  which  includes  the 
thumb  ;t  the  span ;:}:  and  the  endazeh  (cubit),  as  already  ex- 
plained. All  these  are  commonly  measured  with  the  hand  or 
arm ;  yet  merchants,  carpenters,  and  masons  are  usually  pro- 
vided with  wooden  or  iron  standard  endazehs,  which  vary  in 
size,  as  we  have  explained,  and  are  apt  to  be  made  a  little 
longer  or  shorter  as  best  suits  the  interests  of  the  owner. 

We  have  briefly  described  the  present  manufactures  of  the 
East,  and  must  now  locate  their  workshops  and  other  indus- 
trial establishments.  They  can  not  be  set  up  outside  of  the 
cities,  in  the  open  country,  as  they  would  there  be  exposed  to 
the  lawless  rapine  of  marauders  and  highway  robbers.  The 
space  usually  allotted  to  manufacturing  establishments  in  the 
towns  lies  within  the  general  area  of  business,  close  to  the  ba- 
zars and  khans,  whose  shops  and  merchants  must  be  supplied 
with  goods  as  fast  as  those  on  hand  are  disposed  of.  There 
you  may  see,  arrayed  in  groups,  the  workmen  in  such  indus- 
tries as  we  have  already  described,  as  well  as  the  manufac- 
turers of  articles  in  copper,  iron,  brass,  tin,  the  tent-makers,§ 
and  the  manufacturers  of  shoes  and  boots,  which  are  made  of 
the  fine  Turkey  morocco  prepared  in  several  parts  of  the  coun- 
try.     All  these  goods  are  made  at  the  workshops,  and  are 


*Jerlii.,21.       t  Exod.  xxv.,  25.       |  Exod.  xxviii.,  16.       §  Acts  xviii.,  3. 
51 


796  BIBLE    LANDS. 

mostly  sold  in  the  bazar.  There  are  also  auction  sales  of  sec- 
ond-hand articles  conducted  in  a  very  different  manner  from 
our  own :  instead  of  the  auctioneer  taking  the  stand  and  the 
crowd  pressing  around  him,  he  walks  through  the  bazar,  call- 
ing aloud  the  last  offer  made,  and  holding  out  the  article,  which 
every  one  is  allowed  to  examine.  The  owner  is  not  obliged  to 
part  with  it  unless  he  is  satisfied  with  the  price  offered.  Lot- 
teries are  quite  unknown. 

The  commercial  system  of  the  East  can  not,  however,  be 
fully  understood  without  an  allusion  to  its  fairs.  These  occur 
in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  are  intended  to  supply  every 
district  with  such  necessaries  or  comforts  of  life  as  it  is  found 
convenient  to  purchase  by  the  quantity  at  stated  periods,  rath- 
er than  to  eke  out  day  by  day.  The  merchant,  on  the  other 
hand,  finds  it  profitable  to  supply  several  districts  in  turn, 
though  he  may  have  to  transport  his  goods  for  the  purpose. 
This  system  is  so  advantageous  that  it  is  carried  out  even 
within  the  limits  of  such  cities  as  are  supplied  with  the  best 
bazars.  In  Constantinople,  for  instance,  a  fair  is  held  every 
day  of  the  week,  in  different  parts  of  the  city.  Booths  are  set 
up,  shops  and  stands  are  extemporized,  and  so  great  a  throng 
is  gathered,  from  early  dawn  till  near  sunset,  as  to  make  it  a 
hard  task  to  pass  through.  Indeed  one  of  these  fairs  is  held 
in  the  bazar  itself.  It  takes  possession  for  one  entire  day 
every  week  of  several  streets,  whose  merchants  shut  up  their 
shops,  and  yield  their  places  to  those  from  abroad.  Another 
fair  has  its  centre  in  the  yard  of  the  great  mosk  of  the  Yalideh- 
sultan,  and  spreads  thence  into  the  adjoining  streets.  Still  an- 
other occupies  the  steep  street  of  Galata,  leading  dow.n  from 
the  tower  to  the  sea,  which  is  thence  called  "  the  Street  of  the 
Thursday  Fair." 

The  inhabitants  of  the  villages  obtain  their  supplies  and  dis- 
pose of  their  produce  at  the  fairs  held  in  the  neighboring  cities. 
Where  no  such  cities  lie  near  enough  for  the  convenience  of 
the  district,  the  authorities  appoint  a  weekly  fair  in  one  of  the 
villages,  which  is  often,  from  this  circumstance,  called  Pazar 
(bazar)  Keuy  (the  fair  village),  where  in  process  of  time  rise 
also  a  few  permanent  shops.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  these 
fairs  are  so  gonerally  held  on  Sunday  that  the  Lord's  day  has 
come  to  be  called,  in  the  Turkish  language,  Pazar  Gunu  (fair 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE   MECHANIC   ARTS.  797 

day).  This  has  been  done  purposely  by  the  Muslims  in  order 
to  desecrate  the  Christian's  day  of  rest  and  worship,  and  thus 
gradually  to  destroy  their  religion.  The  petitions  sent  to  the 
authorities  upon  the  subject  have  rarely  produced  any  perma- 
nent effect.  The  people  of  many  districts  must  starve  if  they 
do  not  purchase  their  supplies  at  the  fair;  nor  do  the  Muslims 
ever  allow  Friday,  their  own  sacred  day,  to  be  unhallowed  in 
this  manner. 

But  there  are  fairs  which  supply  the  wants  of  much  more 
extensive  regions  of  country.  These  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes — the  purely  secular,  and  those  held  in  connection  with 
religious  ideas  and  ceremonies.  The  chief  of  the  former  are 
two — viz.,  that  of  Oozoongova,  between  Adrianople  and  Philip- 
opoli,  in  European  Turkey,  and  that  of  Zileh,  in  the  province 
of  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor.  These  correspond  to  the  great  fair 
held  yearly  at  JSTijnii  Novgorod,  in  Eastern  Russia.  Both  Oo- 
zoongova and  Zileh  are  small  towns,  insignificant  in  them- 
selves, the  former  indeed  a  miserable  little  village,  occupied 
only  by  a  few  families  of  farmers.  They,  however,  contain  a 
number  of  permanent  structures,  or  khans,  where  the  wealth- 
iest merchants  take  up  their  quarters.  Just  before  the  open- 
ing of  the  fair,  light  board  shops  and  stores  rise  up  as  by  en- 
chantment, and  the  plain  is  at  once  covered  with  street  after 
street  of  booths,  many  of  them  protected  from  the  rain  by 
means  of  planks  which  extend  across  from  shop  to  shop.  At 
Oozoongova  the  fair  is  held  in  October,  lasting  about  a  fort- 
night, and  closes  in  season  for  merchants  to  attend  at  Zileh, 
where  business  commences  the  first  week  in  December.  Peo- 
ple go  to  these  fairs  from  all  parts  of  the  empire,  and,  as  they 
usually  group  themselves,  first^  according  to  their  sectional 
predilections,  and,  secondly,  according  to  their  occupations,  the 
whole  thing  gives  a  correct  idea  of  the  products  of  the  land. 
But  there  are  also  goods  from  farther  off— from  Manchester, 
Berlin,  and  Cashmere ;  the  precious  stones  of  the  south ;  and 
slaves,  mostly  from  Africa,  not  openly  exhibited  in  the  market, 
but  shown  to  customers  in  the  khans.  The  most  important 
and  heavy  transactions  occur  between  the  merchants  them- 
selves, and  business  is  so  brisk,  while  it  lasts,  that  they  are 
obliged  to  remain  a  week  after  the  close  of  the  fair,  in  order  to 
settle  their  accounts.     Amusement  is  not  whollv  neglected  on 


798  BIBLE    LANDS. 

such  occasions ;  but  there  is  nothing  like  the  shows  at  our 
fairs,  or  at  their  own  festivals;  business  is  too  engrossing  to 
allow  any  time  for  play.  The  concourse,  however,  frequently 
brings  about  trials  of  strength  and  skill  in  wrestlings  and 
games  of  the  jerid.  The  neighborhood  of  the  fair  is  apt  to 
be  infested  with  highway  robbers,  who  pounce  upon  the  mer- 
chant and  carry  away  his  goods  or  his  well-filled  purse.  The 
authorities  usually  set  up  temporary  booths  and  tents  on  the 
various  roads,  and  an  extra  number  of  policemen  and  gen- 
darmes are  on  duty  both  within  the  precincts  and  in  all  the 
surrounding  region. 

It  is  not  at  these  fairs  that  the  authorities  interfere  with 
business,  for  the  articles  are  of  such  a  nature  that  their  value 
has  to  be  agreed  upon  by  the  merchants  themselves,  after 
mutual  consultation.  The  price  of  food,  however,  is  always 
and  everywhere  fixed  by  the  police,  who  severely  punish  the 
slightest  infringement.  Fruit  is  sold  at  the  same  price  when 
scarce  as  when  plenty,  and  he  who  reaches  the  market  first 
enjoys  only  the  advantage  of  making  the  earliest  sales.  The 
wrath  of  the  police  is  specially  exercised  upon  those  who  sell 
under  weight.  They  visit  the  shops  from  time  to  time  for  the 
purpose  of  comparing  the  weights  with  the  standard  they  car- 
ry with  them.  The  punishment  inflicted  consisted  until  lately 
of  the  bastinado  on  the  bare  soles  of  the  feet,  or  in  nailing  the 
culprit's  ear  to  the  side -post  of  his  shop -door  so  high  as  to 
oblige  him  to  stand  on  tiptoe.  He  is  now  sent  to  a  filthy  un- 
der-ground prison. 

The  sale  of  any  other  articles  than  comestibles,  however,  is 
wholly  left  to  the  parties  concerned.  It  is  ever  accompanied 
by  more  or  less  bargaining,  and  often  gives  occasion  to  the  dis- 
play of  considerable  diplomatic  skill.  We  have  a  specimen 
of  this  in  the  purchase  by  Abraham  of  the  Cave  of  Machpelah, 
with  the  adjoining  field  and  trees.*  Considering  the  high  rel- 
ative value  of  money  in  those  days,  Ephron  the  Hittite,  taking 
advantage  of  the  patriarch's  afiiiction,  made  an  excellent  bar- 
gain by  obtaining  from  him  the  sum  of  two  hundred  and  thir- 
ty dollars  for  the  property.  But  matters  are  not  always  con- 
cluded in  so  gentle  a  style.     Sometimes  there  are  even  high 


•  Gen.  xxiii.,  3-18. 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE   MECHANIC   ARTS.  799 

words,  and  generally  a  show  of  withdrawing  in  disgust,  which 
is  sure  to  bring  the  other  party  to  terms.  At  the  fairs,  how- 
ever, very  little  coin  is  handled,  except  in  the  small  retail  bus- 
iness ;  most  of  the  transactions  consisting  of  exchanges,  some- 
times in  quite  a  roundabout  way.  It  was  doubtless  so  ancient- 
ly. Indeed  there  was  a  time  when  in  those  very  countries  the 
precious  metals  were  unknown  as  a  medium  of  exchange ;  and 
there  are  now  retired  mountainous  districts  where  the  only 
coins  ever  seen  by  the  villagers  are  those  worn  by  their  wives 
and  daughters  on  their  caps  or  around  their  necks.  It  would 
seem  that  the  first  medium  of  exchange  consisted  of  cattle;* 
yet  they  could  have  been  used  only  for  the  purchase  of  valua- 
ble articles.  It  is  probable  that  sheep  were  also  employed  in 
the  same  manner  :f  we  often  hear,  even  now,  in  the  East  of 
purchases  being  made  for  so  many  sheep — not  goats,  for  they 
are  not  so  salable.  Slaves  are  now  used  as  currency  only  in 
Africa.:]:  The  most  ancient  gold  and  silver  coins  were  in  the 
form  of  rings,  which  had  to  be  weighed  in  order  to  ascertain 
their  value.§  They  seem  to  have  been  in  use  in  the  time  of 
Job,  each  of  whose  friends  gave  him  a  ring  of  gold,  not  a  gold- 
en finger-ring,  or  ear-ring;||  while  "the  piece  of  money  "  must 
have  been  a  piece  of  silver,  or,  as  the  old  versions  have  it — 
which  seems,  on  many  accounts,  most  probable — "  they  each 
gave  him  also  a  sheep." 

The  ancient  coins  of  Western  Asia  were  celebrated  for  their 
purity,  particularly  those  made  in  Persia,  and  called  "darics."T" 
This  is  also  the  case  with  many  modern  coins  struck  before 
the  present  century,  during  which  base  metal,  consisting  of  cop- 
per and  tin  washed  with  silver,  has  been  circulated  by  the  Gov- 
ernment at  an  arbitrary  valuation.  Each  successive  sovereign 
strikes  coins  of  different  sizes  and  denominations,  which  are 
laid  up  and  worn  as  ornaments  by  the  women  until  necessity 
compels  them  to  part  with  them ;  hence  there  are  constantly 
brought  into  the  market  a  great  variety  of  coins,  mostly  of 
gold,  whose  real  value  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  ascertain,  es- 

*  Gillies,  "  Greece,"  vol.  i.,  p.  11.  Denham  and  Clapperton  (vol.  ii.,  p.  41)  foun  1 
bullocks  the  medium  of  exchange  in  Central  Africa  in  1823. 

t  Gen.  xxxiii.,  10.,  marg.  t  I^u  Chaillii,  vol.  i.,  p.  380, 

§  Wilkinson,  vol.  ii.,  p.  149.  |j  Job  xlii.,  11, 

%  Lajard,  vol,  ii.,  p,  318,  note. 


800  BIBLE   LANDS. 

pecially  as  the  edges  of  nearly  all  are  scraped  by  the  Jews,  or 
their  substance  is  diminished  with  a  strong  solution  of  aqua 
fortis.  This  acts  as  a  great  hinderance  to  honest  commercial 
transactions,  and  has  given  rise  to  a  large  class  of  people  called 
"  sarafs,"  or  money-changers,  to  be  found  at  fairs  and  in  all 
commercial  places,  who  not  only  exchange  foreign  or  little- 
known  money  for  that  which  is  current  in  the  country,  but  are 
also  addicted  to  all  manner  of  usury  and  extortion.  The  mon- 
ey-changers whose  tables  our  Lord  overturned  must  have  be- 
longed to  a  similar  class  of  people,  for  the  occurrence  took  place 
during  Passover  week,  when  a  great  fair  was  held  at  Jerusa- 
lem in  connection  with  this  principal  festival  of  the  Jews.* 

These  sarafs  are  the  chief  money-lenders  and  usurers  of  the 
country,  and  most  unmercifully  do  they  ply  their  trade.  The 
Mosaic  law  forbade  a  Hebrew's  taking  interest  of  his  own 
brethren,  so  that  money-lending  was  made  an  act  of  charity.f 
Our  Lord  renewed  the  injunction  in  the  same  sense,  and  carried 
it  yet  farther.:}:  In  Nehemiah's  time  the  Jewish  sarafs  so  op- 
pressed their  poor  brethren  that  he  compelled  them  to  receive 
no  more  than  twelve  per  cent.  interest.§  Mohammed  also  for- 
bade the  taking  of  interest,  and  it  can  not  be  legally  collected; 
but  his  followers  get  over  the  difficulty  by  means  of  a  receipt 
for  a  sum  so  much  larger  than  the  loan  as  to  cover  the  interest. 
Moreover,  money  is  never  lent  without  a  pledge,!  usually  jew- 
elry, which  is  of  greater  value  than  the  sum  borrowed,  but  can 
not  be  disposed  of  without  the  consent  of  the  owner.  Money 
can  rarely  be  had  now  for  less  than  twelve  per  cent,  a  year. 
It  is  often  at  twenty -four  per  cent.,  but  more  commonly  at 
eighteen  per  cent.^  The  sarafs  often  acquire  great  wealth, 
those  especially  who^  transact  business  for  the  chief  pashas  of 
the  capital  and  the  governors  of  the  provinces.  The  most 
noted  in  our  day  was  Jezairly  Mugurdich,  an  Armenian,  of 
wealth  untold,  who  lived  in  a  degree  of  splendor  surpassing 
that  of  the  highest  dignitaries  of  the  state.  The  bedstead  on 
which  he  slept  cost  five  thousand  dollars;  he  built  a  country- 
seat  upon  the  Bosphorus  for  fifteen  million  dollars;  and  hired 
the  customs  for  two  million   five  hundred  thousand  dollars, 


*  Matt,  xxi.,  12,  +  Dent,  x.xiii.,  10,  20.  t  Luke  vi.,  34. 

§  Nell.  V.  II  Dent,  xxiv.,  G.  ^  Perkins,  p.  l.'il. 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE   MECHANIC   ARTS.  801 

cash  down.  He  was  thought  to  be  worth  from  forty-five  to 
sixty  millions,  yet,  under  the  arbitrary  government  of  Turkey, 
having  incurred  the  displeasure  of  a  profligate  but  highly  con- 
nected pasha,  he  in  a  few  months  lost  all  he  possessed,  and  was 
cast  into  prison,  where  he  languished  and  finally  died.  His 
widow  was  seen  not  long  after  in  the  market  of  Balookly,  at 
Constantinople,  buying  carobs  (husks)*  as  a  relish. 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  there  are  also  fairs  connect- 
ed with  yearly  gatherings  for  religious  purposes  at  favorite 
shrines  and  temples.  The  heathen  anciently  held  religious 
festivals  at  all  their  chief  temples  in  honor  of  the  gods  therein 
worshiped,  and,  as  the  gathered  multitudes  must  needs  be  fed, 
a  market  was  kept  for  their  accommodation,  which  in  process 
of  time  came  to  be  a  fair  for  the  exchange  of  the  products  of 
different  districts.  This  doubtless  occurred  also  at  Shiloh,  and 
afterward  at  Jerusalem,  during  the  yearly  festivals  ordered  by 
the  law  of  Moses, f  and  the  gathering  on  several  occasions  is 
said  to  have  been  very  great.;}:  Every  house  was  crowded, 
all  the  neighboring  villas  and  villages  were  full,  and  booths 
and  tents  were  set  up  in  the  open  places  (meidans)  of  the  city, 
in  all  the  surrounding  valleys,  and  upon  the  hill-sides  to  the 
very  summit  of  01ivet.§  Many  khans  (inns)  were  erected  for 
the  accommodation  of  these  temporary  guests.  Such  a  khan, 
or  caravanseray,  seems  to  have  been  built  by  Chimham,  the 
son  of  Barzillai,!  on  the  outskirts  of  Bethlehem,  both  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  Passover  gatherings,  and  as  the  first 
stage  on  the  road  toward  Egypt;!"  and  this  was  the  spot 
chosen  by  Divine  Providence  for  the  birth  of  the  Saviour  of 
the  world.** 

There  are  at  the  present  day  many  Christian  churches  where 
yearly  festivals  are  observed,  the  chief  oF  which  is  the  Church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  Crowds  of  pilgrims 
gather  on  these  occasions  to  visit  the  shrine  of  the  saint  whose 
relics  are  the  attraction  of  the  place.  They  hope  in  this  way 
to  propitiate  his  favor,  oftentimes  to  be  healed  of  some  incur- 
able malady.     This  superstition  exists  among  all  sects  alike ; 

*  Luke  XV.,  16.  t  Exod.  xxiii.,  17. 

t  1  Kings  viii.,  65,  C6  ;  2  Kings  xxiii.,  22.  §  Luke  xxi.,  37. 

II  2  Sam.  xix.,  37,  38.  1  Jer.  xli.,  17. 

**  Luke  ii.,  7;  Stanley,  "Jewish  Church,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  201. 


802  BIBLE   LANDS. 

for  the  tckkehs  of  the  Kuzulbashes  contain  the  tombs  of  their 
saints ;  the  Yezidies  yearly  gather  at  the  shrine  of  Sheikh 
Adi;  and  the  Persians  and  Turks  crowd  around  the  graves  of 
Hosein,  Fatima,  and  other  favorite  saints.  All  such  occasions 
are  improved  by  the  merchants,  who  travel  from  one  shrine  to 
another,  combining  a  handsome  worldly  profit  with  the  achieve- 
ment of  a  meritorious  religious  performance. 

But  by  far  the  most  important  gathering  of  this  sort,  both 
numerically  and  commercially,  is  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  in 
Arabia,  a  very  ancient  institution,  destroyed  by  Mohammed 
when  he  profaned  its  temple  by  casting  out  the  idols,  but 
restored  again  in  connection  with  the  faith  he  substituted,* 
Here  meet  the  representatives  of  the  most  distant  portions  of 
the  Muslim  world,  and  exchange  the  products  of  their  respect- 
ive countries,  which  would  otherwise  seek  for  themselves  new 
channels,  or,  most  probably,  altogether  cease  to  flow.  The 
long  line  of  the  caravan,  mostly  cotnposed  of  camels,  with  an 
escort  of  horsemen  for  defense  against  a  foe,  like  a  fleet  of 
merchantmen  guarded  by  a  convoy  of  ships  of  war,  winds 
along  the  same  path  through  the  Desert,  which  has  been  trod- 
den during  the  last  four  thousand  years.  The  caravan  from 
Cairo  alone  contains  fifteen  thousand  camels,  besides  other 
animals. f  Their  progress  is  very  slow,  for,  in  case  of  an  acci- 
dent occurring  —  and  they  are  frequent  —  the  whole  caravan 
must  stop  and  wait.  The  caravan  from  Morocco  is  an  entire 
year  on  the  way  to  Mecca.:}:  The  Jews  were  four  months  go- 
ing from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem  ;  but  most  of  their  beasts  were 
asses,  and  the  people  went  chiefly  on  foot.§ 

Despite  the  facilities  afforded  by  the  many  steamers  which 
now  ply  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  Emir  Haj  journeys  by  land 
all  the  way  from  Constantinople  to  Mecca,  picking  up  pilgrims 
as  he  goes.  The  great  numbers  which  compose  these  cara- 
vans save  them  from  some  of  the  inconveniences  and  dangers 
incident  on  travels  in  the  East.  A  large  supply  of  provisions 
must,  however,  be  carried,  not  only  when  passing  over  unin- 
habited regions,  but  even  where  villages  occur  along  the  route, 
as  they  are  too  poor  to  furnish  sustenance  for  such  a  multitude. 

*  Cricliton,  "Arabia,"  vol.  i.,  p.  277 ;  Garmier,  "Vie  de  Mohammed." 

+  Thevenot,  part  i.,  p.  150.  t  Bruce,  vol.  i.,  introd.,  pp.  39,  40. 

§  Ezra  viii. 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE   MECHANIC   ARTS.  803 

Water,  too,  is  often  scarce,  and  must  be  conveyed  in  leather 
bags.  A  caravan  is  always  exposed,  especially  when  its  num- 
bers are  few,  to  attacks  from  highway  robbers.  When  it  stops 
in  dangerous  places  for  the  night  no  tents  are  pitched,  for  fear 
of  observation,  but  each  one  arranges  his  goods  so  as  best  to 
guard  them  by  lying  among  them.  The  bread  they  eat  is 
made  into  dough  and  roasted  on  coals,  or  baked  in  an  extem- 
porized oven  dug  in  the  ground.* 

The  mode  of  reckoning  distance  by  the  hour  is  now  univer- 
sally adopted  in  Turkey.  It  consists  of  the  space  ordinarily 
traversed  by  a  good  walker  on  foot,  and  varies  from  three  to 
four  miles;  hence  it  differs  in  length  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  country.  The  Persians  have  the  same  measure,  but  it 
is  the  distance  which  a  smart  horse  can  walk  in  an  hour,  or 
about  four  miles  and  a  half  They  still  call  it  fursakh,  which 
is  the  same  as  the  parasang  of  Xenophon's  " Anabasis,"f  equal 
to  four  English  miles.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  meas- 
ure of  distance  by  the  hour  became  general  throughout  the 
country  at  least  as  early  as  the  Persian  empire  (b.c.  500).  It 
was  somewhat  set  aside  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  but  re-es- 
tablished by  the  Saracens,  who  could  use  no  other  measure  in 
the  desert  wastes.  Reckoning  by  day's  journeys  also  still  pre- 
vails, and  is  yet  more  indefinite  than  the  hour,  since  it  de- 
pends not  only  on  the  condition  of  the  road,  but  also  upon  the 
places  where  caravans  are  in  the  habit  of  stopping  for  the 

night-t 

The  night  shelter  best  adapted  to  Oriental  travelers,  and 
specially  intended  for  their  accommodation  and  comfort,  is  the 
caravanseray — literally,  the  caravan-house.  It  is  called  a  khan 
(from  khaneh,  a  house)  when  built  in  a  cityi  and  is  never  known 
in  many  districts  by  any  other  name.  These  buildings  are  not 
found  at  the  end  of  every  day's  journey.  The  traveler  must 
often  put  up  at  a  little  cafe,  in  a  village  stable,  or  even  on  the 
roadside.  But  he  is  best  satisfied  with  the  caravanseray,  wheth- 
er it  stands  alone  by  the  way,  as  is  often  the  case,  or  is  erected 
in  a  city  or  a  village.  These  structures  vary  in  size  and  ma- 
terial, and  are  made  of  mud-bricks  and  wood,  or  of  masonry — 

*  Tavernier,  p.  62.  t  Perkins,  p.  166,  note. 

I  Exod.  iii.,  18  ;  Numb,  xi.,  31 ;  Luke  ii.,  44. 


804 


BIBLE   LANDS. 


Interior  of  a  Caravauseiay,  or  Inn.     (Luke  ii.,  7.) 


sometimes  even  of  hewn  stone;  but  the  form  is  essentially  the 
same,  consisting  of  a  square  or  oblong  court,  with  one  or  two 
stories  of  rooms  built  around  it.  There  is  a  large  gate  in  the 
middle  of  one  of  the  sides,  which  is  closed  at  night  with  two 
heavy  folding-doors,  adjoining  which,  as  well  as  over  it,  are  the 
most  desirable  and  expensive  rooms.  A  gallery  often  runs  all 
around  the  court,  and  there  is  usually  in  the  centre  of  the  lat- 
ter a  fountain  with  a  tank,  or  a  well  with  troughs.  Here  the 
traveler  is  furnished  with  an  empty  room  for  a  very  small 
sum  ;  and  the  inn-keeper  is  often  able  to  provide  food  both 
for  man  and  beast.  The  stables  are  usually  situated  opposite 
the  entrance  gate.  They  are  divided  into  compartments  or 
rooms,  each  of  which  has  a  small  platform,  where  the  muleteers 
or  grooms  sleep,  in  order  to  watch  over  their  horses  and  other 
animals.  Many  people  prefer  to  lodge  here  in  winter,  the  pres- 
ence of  the  beasts  making  it  the  warmest  part  of  the  build- 
ing, except  where  fire  is  used.  Troughs  or  mangers  are  built 
against  the  walls,  or  the  animals  are  fed  from  the  bag.  No  dis- 
tinction is  -made  among  travelers  on  account  of  their  rank  or 
wealth;  no  one  may  take  another  man's  room;  for  the  khanjy 
strictly  adheres  to  the  rule,  "  first  come,  first  served." 

This  is  the  only  kind  of  "inn"  known  in  the  East  at  the 


COMMERCE,   AND   THE    MECHANIC    ARTS.  805 

present  day ;  and  it  so  well  agrees  with  all  the  habits  of  the 
people,  and  with  their  ideas  of  comfort  and  independence,  tha 
we  can  not  believe  any  other  fashion  or  style  has  ever  pre 
vailed  to  any  extent  in  those  lands.  Caravanserays  are  al 
luded  to  in  the  Scriptures  in  a  manner  that  leaves  little  doub 
upon  the  question  of  their  identity,*  The  foregoing  explana^ 
tions  will  serve  to  correct  some  of  the  current  misapprehen 
sions  respecting  the  birth  of  Him  who,  when  "  he  came  unto 
his  own,  his  own  received  him  not;"  and  who,  though  Lord  of 
the  Universe,  was  cradled  in  a  manger,  and  "  had  not  where 
to  lay  his  head."f 


It  would  be  no  easy  task  to  sum  up,  in  a  few  sentences,  the 
result  of  the  investigations  or  statements  contained  in  the  sec- 
ond part  of  this  work,  as  we  did  at  the  close  of  the  first  part ; 
for  the  material  differences  pointed  out  in  the  latter  between 
the  condition  of  Bible  lands  in  ancient  and  modern  times  can 
easily  be  epitomized  and  summarily  expressed;  whereas  cus- 
toms which  have  a  historical  origin  can  not  so  readily  be 
classified.  The  sketch  here  drawn  will,  however,  it  is  be- 
lieved, lead  the  reader  to  conclude  that  the  East  of  the  present 
day  bears  so  close  a  resemblance  to  that  of  ancient  times  that 
it  may  well  be  used  as  its  fiiithful  commentary.  And  this  be- 
comes clearer  when  we  enlarge  our  field  of  observation,  as  in 
the  present  work,  so  as  to  embrace  the  entire  circle  of  the  lands 
of  the  Bible,  wherein  are  laid  the  various  scenes  it  describes. 
Had  we  confined  ourselves  to  the  limits  of  Palestine,  as  has 
been  done  by  most  writers  before  us,  or  had  we  included  Syria 
and  Egypt  only,  we  could  have  studied  such  customs  alone  as 
have  been  preserved  by  Arabic-speaking  races.  By  consider- 
ing all  Bible  lands  a  proper  field  for  investigation,  wherein  we 
could  fairly  hunt  for  all  the  old  Bible  customs — whether  in 
person,  or  through  the  observations  of  other  travelers — many 
valuable  illustrations  have  been  secured  which  would  other- 
wise have  been  lost.  Our  work  is  now  done;  but  before  tak- 
ing leave  of  the  reader,  his  attention  must  be  called  to  a  few 
weighty  suggestions  by  way  of  conclusion. 

*  Gen.  xliii.,  21 ;  Exod.  iv.,  2-t ;  Luke  x.,  34.  t  Luke  ii.,  7,  10. 


806  BIBLE   LANDS. 

And  first :  the  study  of  Oriental  customs  is  of  far  greater 
importance  to  a  student  of  the  Bible  than  most  people  imag- 
ine. A  traveler  often  endures  great  hardships  and  runs  still 
greater  risks,  stimulated  by  the  most  laudable  enthusiasm,  in 
order  to  contemplate  some  spot  having  a  more  or  less  authen- 
tic connection  with  an  important  historical  event,  or  for  the 
purpose  of  visiting  a  ruin  of  more  or  less  uncertain  origin,  that 
he  may  more  vividly  realize  some  of  the  scenes  described  in 
the  Scriptures.  He  finally  reaches  the  end  of  his  long  and 
arduous  pilgrimage,  and  is  rewarded  by  the  contemplation  of 
the  object  of  his  search.  But  as  he  gazes  upon  the  dumb  wit- 
nesses of  the  past,  there  stands  beside  him  a  living  fragment 
of  that  same  past,  a  representative  of  the  very  men  who  enact- 
ed those  interesting  scenes — a  lineal  descendant,  it  may  be,  of 
Abraham,  or  of  David,  of  one  of  the  apostles  or  protomartyrs. 
His  face  and  form  are  perhaps  the  very  photograph  of  his 
ancestor;  his  garb,  his  manners,  the  dialect  he  speaks,  are 
fac-similes  of  those  delineated  in  Bible  story.  Yet  our  trav- 
eler heeds  him  not :  he  turns  from  him  with  the  exclamation, 
"What  a  queer-looking  fellow !"  and  goes  away  satisfied,  bear- 
ing home  as  a  precious  prize  the  fragment  of  a  column,  per- 
haps the  nose  of  a  statue,  which  is  to  figure  on  his  parlor  man- 
tel or  etag^re  for  the  admiration  of  his  gaping  visitors.  Some 
travelers  excuse  themselves  by  pleading  ignorance  of  the  lan- 
guage; but  the  excuse  is  insufficient.  And  many  who  are  fa- 
miliar with  Oriental  tongues,  or  have  access  to  an  interpreter, 
seem  only  anxious  to  impress  "the  natives"  with  a  conviction 
of  their  own  superiority.  These  things  ought  not  so  to  be. 
Both  parties  would  improve  by  unprejudiced  intercourse:  the 
Occidental  would  be  instructed,  and  his  faith  be  strengthened 
by  studying  the  manners  of  his  Oriental  brother,  no  less  than 
the  latter  would  improve  by  an  acquaintance  with  what  the 
former  claims  to  be  a  higher  refinement  and  more  perfect  civil- 
ization. 

The  late  Professor  Stewart,  of  the  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary, once  made  a  remark  in  our  hearing,  which  illustrates 
both  the  reach  of  his  mind  and  the  importance  of  the  subject 
treated  in  these  pages.  A  member  of  the  class  in  Exegesis  in- 
quired of  the  learned  professor  whether  he  thought  the  time 
was  likclv  ever  to  come  when  men  would  perfectly  under- 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE    MECHANIC   ARTS.  60 1 

stand  every  thing  contained  in  the  Bible.  He  replied,  "  I  know 
not  whether  such  a  time  will  ever  come;  but  if  it  should,  that 
most  desirable  end  will  be  attained  in  the  lands  where  the  Bi- 
ble was  written,  and  by  natives  of  those  lands."  The  remark 
produced  a  deep  impression  on  our  mind,  and  essentially  af- 
fected the  studies  of  a  lifetime. 

Another  important  inference  may  be  drawn  from  the  facts 
contained  in  the  foregoing  pages:  they  furnish  an  overwhelm- 
ing argument  for  the  authenticity  of  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments.  We  have  already  pointed  out  this  ar- 
gument with  reference  to  the  topography  of  the  Scriptures  (see 
page  32).  It  is  even  stronger  when  applied  to  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  people,  especially  to  such  as  are  not  de- 
rived from  the  climate  and  natural  products  of  the  country, 
but  are  of  a  more  ephemeral  character.  There  is  evidence  on 
every  page  of  the  Bible  that  it  was  written  in  Western  Asia, 
and  by  Asiatics,  about  the  time  claimed  therein.  It  could  have 
been  penned  nowhere  else,  and  by  no  other  people.  So  many 
minute  and,  in  themselves  considered,  insignificant  circum- 
stances are  woven  into  the  narrative  as  to  make  deceit  or  im- 
posture an  utter  impossibility.  Let  an  Occidental  take  up  any 
Bible  narrative,  and  attempt  to  reproduce  it  in  his  own  words 
with  an  equal  degree  of  minuteness,  and  before  many  minutes 
an  Oriental  audience  would  be  sure  to  show  unmistakable  signs 
of  mirth  on  account  of  the  incongruity  of  some  of  his  details. 
If  he  does  not,  like  the  colored  preacher,  speak  of  Martha  as 
"busy  frying  fritters,"  he  can  not  well  avoid,  in  some  other 
way,  showing  the  difference  which  exists  between  the  habits 
of  the  West  and  those  of  the  East.  There  is  very  much  in  the 
Bible  which  an  Occidental  can  not  understand  without  expla- 
nation, but  which  is  perfectly  plain  to  an  Oriental.  Now  all 
these  facts  are  incontrovertible  proofs  that  the  Scriptures  were 
written  by  Orientals.  So  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  they 
lived  at  the  periods  claimed.  This  fact  is  always  betrayed  by 
allusions  to  historical  events,  to  useful  inventions  and  discov- 
eries, and  by  the  dialect  employed ;  for  the  languages  of  men 
are  continually  undergoing  slow  but  sure  changes,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  alteration  in  their  circumstances,  and  their  inter- 
course with  other  nations.  And  we  add  that,  when  we  con- 
sider the  many  mistakes  as  to  facts  contained  in  the  most  care- 


808  BIBLE    LANDS. 

fully  written  histories  and  narratives,  and  notice,  at  the  same 
time,  the  perfect  freedom  of  the  Bible  from  all  such  mistakes, 
although  it  is  a  voluminous  and  extremely  varied  compilation, 
and  many  of  its  writers  were  illiterate  men,  we  can  not  avoid 
the  conclusion  that  we  have  in  the  present  case  something  be- 
yond mere  authenticity.  We  see  most  unmistakable  evidence 
that  the  authors  of  the  Bible  were  guided  and  controlled  in 
their  work  by  the  special  influence  of  that  Spirit  which  alone 
can  never  err.  This  is  inspiration :  it  is  all  that  is  required 
to  render  that  book  infallible  in  its  utterances,  though  more 
than  this  must  necessarily  be  claimed  and  conceded  for  all 
such  portions  as  lie  beyond  the  range  of  human  knowledge, 
and  require  a  more  direct  or  a  more  perfect  revelation.  We 
conclude,  therefore,  that  the  correspondence  between  the  man- 
ners of  the  modern  East  and  the  statements  and  allusions  of 
Scripture  constitute  an  important  argument,  not  only  for  their 
authenticity,  but  also  for  their  inspiration. 

There  is  yet  another  topic  which  can  not  fail  to  suggest  it- 
self to  the  mind,  after  contemplating  the  picture  of  the  present 
social  and  religious  condition  of  the  lands  of  the  Bible :  it  is 
the  question  of  their  regeneration— the  inquiry  respecting  the 
probability  of  their  ever  resuming  that  high  rank  among  the 
nations  of  the  earth  to  which  their  antecedents  fairly  entitle 
them. 

Some  good  people  feel  very  sanguine  on  this  subject.  They 
base  their  conviction  on  their  own  interpretation  of  the  "sure 
word  of  prophecy."  The  effect  of  this  feeling  when  indulged 
exclusively  is,  we  believe,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  to  make 
people  wait  and  do  nothing.  The  word  "prophecy,"  just 
quoted  from  2  Peter  i.,  19-21,  is  evidently  used  by  the  apostle 
according  to  its  more  common  Biblical  acceptation,  as  synony- 
mous with  inspiration.'^  The  cases  are  few  in  which  the  Holy 
Spirit  intended  distinctly  and  particularly  to  make  known  fu- 
ture events.  Prophecies  of  the  future  are  more  or  less  of  the 
nature  of  riddles ;  they  are  meant  to  be  fully  understood  only 
after  their  fulfillment.  In  the  discussion  of  a  question  like 
the  present,  we  are  safest  in  not  placing  our  chief  reliance 
upon  "doubtful  interpretations"  of  prophecies  which  men  are 

*  Stanley,  "Jewish  Church,"  vol.  i.,  p.  502,  etc. 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE    MECHANIC   ARTS.  809 

liable  to  "hear  and  not  understand,*  but  rather  in  those  "signs 
of  the  times"  which  it  is  folly  "  not  to  discern. "f 

It  needs  no  great  penetration  to  perceive  that  the  religious 
systems  now  prevalent  in  the  East  have  grown  old,  and  have 
lost  their  power  and  influence  over  their  votaries,  who  give 
unequivocal  signs  of  being  more  and  more  attracted  toward 
the  ideas  and  views  generally  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
body  of  doctrines  denominated  Evangelical  Christianity.  Mus- 
lims, even  the  proudest,  confess  that  Islam  is  practically  dead ; 
no  sincere  believer  is  left;  its  votaries  conform  to  its  rites 
without  zeal  or  conviction,  and  even  these  are  neglected ;  few 
observe  the  Ramazau ;  and  fewer  still  become  hajies.  The 
members  of  the  old  Oriental  churches  too  have,  for  the  most 
part,  become  emancipated  from  the  superstitious  veneration  of 
antiquated  and  now  unmeaning  forms.  As  a  highly  respecta- 
ble and  intelligent  Armenian  priest  lately  expressed  it :  "  There 
is  no  one  left  to  keep  the  fasts,  or  to  worship  the  mass,  the 
cross,  the  relics,  or  the  pictures — no  one  to  kiss,  as  formerly, 
the  hand  of  the  priest,  to  confess  to  him,  or  to  have  faith  in,  or 
spend  money  upon  any  thing  of  the  kind."  And  the  parti- 
sans of  still  older  systems  adhere  to  what  may  be  called  an 
unmeaning  legacy,  only  through  the  pressure  of  persecution. 
Evangelical  Christianity,  on  the  other  hand,  besides  the  charm 
of  novelty  and  the  hopes  excited  by  an  untried  system — be- 
sides the  fact  that  it  possesses  the  very  excellences  which  the 
others  are  felt  to  lack,  and  is  free  from  the  very  defects  they 
glaringly  possess — comes  to  them  as  the  faith  of  the  most  high- 
ly civilized,  prosperous,  powerful,  and  free  peoples  of  the  earth. 
Twenty -five  years  ago,  popery  was  making  rapid  strides  in 
Turkey,  owing  to  the  supposed  political  supremacy  of  popish 
countries;  but  recent  history  has  left  the  impression  that  the 
S3'stem  possesses  more  apparent  than  real  strength ;  and  those 
who  have  tried  it  are  now  abandoning  it,  because  they  find 
that  it  differs  in  no  essential  respect  from  the  effete  forms  of 
Oriental  Christianity. 

It  is  preposterous  to  suppose  that  there  exists  in  the  Oriental 
mind  any  thing  like  a  natural  bent  opposed  to  evangelical  re- 
ligion, rendering  difficult  its  introduction,  or  its  complete  tri- 

*  Luke  viii.,  10.  t  Matt,  xvi.,  3. 


810  BIBLE    LANDS. 

umph  among  them.  The  purest  form  of  Christianity  origi- 
nated in  the  East,  where  it  was  once  diffused  and  held  a  sway 
probably  unsurpassed  at  any  period  in  any  land.  And  as  for 
ecclesiastical  organization,  it  should  be  remembered  that  every 
Christian  sect  claims  its  peculiar  form  to  have  been  practiced, 
first  of  all,  in  Western  Asia,  during  the  apostolic  age,  and  is 
therefore  bound  to  believe  that  its  own  peculiar  system  can 
easily  be  naturalized  again  in  the  land  of  its  birth.  Moreover, 
the  Oriental  Christians  have  been  brought  up  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Christian  ideas  and  institutions ;  they  have  a  Christian- 
ized language,  a  Christian  literature;  they  need  but  to  be  re- 
formed, as  our  fathers  were  three  hundred  years  ago,  and  their 
history  will  find  its  parallel  not  in  the  conversion  of  India  or 
the  isles  of  the  Pacific,  but  rather  in  the  reformation  of  Ger- 
many, Switzerland,  or  Scotland. 

A  further  argument  for  the  regeneration  of  the  East  is  found 
in  the  progress  already  made  in  that  direction  during  the  last 
half  century,  which  has  deeply  affected  every  class  and  ev- 
ery department  of  political  and  social  life.  We  have  already 
pointed  out  some  of  the  mistakes  made  by  the  professed  po- 
litical friends  of  Turkey.  These  have  not  prevented,  though 
they  have  vastly  impeded,  her  progress.  A  great  improve- 
ment has  also  taken  place  through  the  adoption  on  the  part 
of  many  of  a  higher  scale  of  morality,  and  a  purer  standard  of 
faith.  Christianity  has  been  revived  and  brought  back  to  its 
original  simplicity,  and  something  of  its  apostolic  purity,  not 
only  among  the  twenty  thousand  professed  Protestants,  but 
also,  though  to  an  inferior  degree,  among  the  millions  who  de- 
sire to  reform  their  ancient  ecclesiastical  organizations  without 
abandoning  them.  And  education  has  made  most  rapid  ad- 
vances among  all  classes.  The  wonderful  spread  of  evangel- 
ical views  during  the  last  forty  years  is  a  pledge  of  the  readi- 
ness of  the  Oriental  mind  to  receive  them,  as  well  as  a  token 
of  their  future  prevalence ;  and  we  include  every  religious  sect 
in  this  statement,  though  the  nominal  Christians  naturally  take 
the  lead,  being  better  prepared  for  the  change. 

Evangelical  Christian  missions  have  contributed  greatly  to 
this  result;  but  what  has  distinguished  the  work  from  like  im- 
provements in  heathen  lands,  and  has  assimilated  it  to  the  Ref- 
ormation of  the  sixteenth  centurv,  is  the  fixct  that  it  was  brought 


COMMERCE,  AND   THE   MECHANIC   ARTS.  811 

about  in  great  measure  bj  the  distribution  of  the  Scriptures, 
without  note  or  comment.  The  minds  of  men  were  moved, 
bj  an  invisible  agency,  almost  simultaneously  throughout  the 
country,  to  inquire  after  religious  truths,  and  to  compare  their 
faith  with  the  Bible  standard.  The  result  could  not  be  doubt- 
ful. As  was  the  case  with  the  Jews  of  Berea,  who  were  in  the 
same  state  of  mind  and  pursued  the  same  course,  "  many  be- 
lieved."* Thousands  have  imbibed  the  spirit  of  apostolic 
Christianity,  and  many  have  been  raised  among  the  people  to 
preach  its  doctrines  with  eloquence  and  power  to  their  own 
countrymen. 

There  are  many  hopeful  signs  of  the  speedy  regeneration 
of  some  of  the  most  influential  nations  that  now  dwell  in  the 
lands  of  the  Bible.  There  are  also  adverse  circumstances,  which 
should  not  discourage,  but  rather  incite  us  to  labor  for  their  re- 
moval, and  to  struggle  the  more  manfully  for  the  good  cause. 
There  is  a  providence,  all-wise  and  beneficent,  which  "sees  the 
end  from  the  beginning,"  and  will  cause  every  obstacle  to  be 
removed  in  its  own  good  time.  It  is  our  conviction  that  the 
Christian  religion,  in  its  purity,  will,  at  no  distant  day,  prevail 
throughout  the  lands  of  the  Bible,  bringing  to  its  populations 
the  blessings  of  a  higher  civilization  than  they  ever  enjoyed 
before,  together  with  fertility  to  their  wasted  lands,  the  free 
enjoyment  of  the  fruits  of  their  industry,  secured  by  a  good 
government,  and,  above  all  these,  the  blessing  of  the  Almighty. 

*  Acts  xvii.,  11,  12. 

52 


APPENDIX  I. 

ORIENTAL   PROVERBS.* 

[Furnished  mostly  ly  my  excellent  and  talented  Armenian  friend^  Doctor 
Hagopos  J.  Giragosian,  now  of  Constantino'ple.  Most  of  these  Proverbs  con- 
tain a  play  tipon  words :  we  can  only  give  the  smse.^ 

1.  One  hand  is  a  mirror  of  the  other. 

2.  It  is  easy  to  mount  a  little  donkey. 

3.  Speak  one  word  while  you  listen  to  a  thousand. 

4.  Righteous  gains  make  the  pot  boil. 

5.  A  man  is  blind  to  his  own  shameful  deeds. 

6.  Every  trouble  is  a  warning. 

7.  Blame  is  the  servant's  portion,  but  to  the  master  belongs  forgiveness. 

8.  A  man's  chicken  looks  to  his  neighbor  a  goose. 

9.  The  rat  can  not  squeeze  through  his  hole,  because  he  has  tied  a  broom  to  his 
tail.     (Said  of  a  proud  man.) 

•     10.  Blood  is  not  washed  out  with  blood,  but  with  water. 

11.  Once  in  forty  years  I  set  out  to  steal,  and  then  the  moon  shone  all  night. 
(Bad  luck.) 

12.  To  the  crazy,  every  day  is  a  holiday. 

13.  When  I  get  my  new  shoes,  then  is  my  holiday. 

14.  The  two  ends  of  the  collar  come  short.     (Not  to  make  the  "ends  meet.") 

15.  The  tortoise  struts  on  clogs.     (The  incompetent  are  promoted.) 

16.  The  rider  on  the  lame  donkey  would  fain  join  the  caravan. 

17.  I  know  the  hog  I  pasture. 

—    18.  The  pot  has  rolled  and  found  its  cover.     (A  good  match.) 

19.  What  he  cooks  in  the  saucepan,  he  eats  in  its  cover.     (A  miser.) 

20.  His  hand  is  in  the  pot,  but  his  eye  on  the  window.     (He  is  absent-minded.) 

21.  The  nightingale  was  shut  up  in  a  golden  cage,  but  she  still  cried,  "  My  home ! 
my  home!" 

22.  They  made  the  Koord  a  Bey,  and  the  first  thing  he  did  was  to  kill  his  own 
father. 

23.  One  flower  does  not  make  a  summer. 

24.  The  candle  shines  not  upon  what  lies  beneath  it.  (Generosity  to  strangers 
alone. )  ^  • 

25.  To  strangers  the  candle,  and  to  me  the  candlestick.     (The  same.) 
—  26.  A  thousand  friends  are  few,  and  one  enemy  far  too  many.  «k 

27.  Two  captains  in  one  ship  will  surely  sink  her. 

28.  Buy  not  the  chestnut  horse,  sell  the  black,  feed  the  gray,  and  ride  the  bay. 

29.  The  boot  does  the  squeaking,  but  the  money  does  the  work. 

•  See  page  388. 


814  APPENDIX   I. 

30.  Play  with  the  hands  is  boorish  phiy.     {Jeu  de  mains,  jeu  de  vilains.) 

31.  Mountains  never  meet,  but  a  man  meets  a  man.     (Said  on  parting.) 

32.  The  stork  spends  its  time  chittering  with  its  bill.     (Said  of  a  braggart.) 

33.  He  that  sti'ikes  not  his  daughter  will  strike  his  own  knees.     (/.  e.,  in 
mourning.) 

34.  He  that  is  not  equal  to  whip  his  donkey  whips  the  saddle. 

35.  A  hungry  bear  will  not  dance. 

36.  False  words  and  false  money  come  from  a  false  man. 

37.  The  fox  ends  by  getting  into  the  furrier's  shop. 

38.  Knife  wounds  heal,  but  not  so  those  produced  by  a  word. 

s.  39.  The  heart  is  a  crystal  palace — once  broken,  it  can  never  be  mended. 

40.  When  it  thunders  many  call  upon  God. 

41.  Bitter  cures  bitterness,  and  cold  water  the  colic.    (Similia  similibus  curantur.) 

42.  Brothers  were  created  side  by  side,  but  their  purses  far  apart. 

43.  With  patience  sour  grapes  become  sweetmeat,  and  mulberry-leaves  turn  to 
satin. 

44.  Eyes  that  are  not  seen  are  soon  forgotten. 

45.  Do  not  take  every  old  gray -beard  for  your  father. 

46.  He  who  loves  the  rose  accepts  also  its  thorn. 

47.  Thanks  to  the  sweet-basil,  the  pot  gets  watered. 

48.  Though  the  sweet-basil  dries  up,  it  loses  not  its  fragrance. 

49.  A  beggar  being  offered  a  cucumber  refused  it,  saying,  "It  is  crooked." 

50.  After  the  cart  is  broken  do«n,  there  are  many  to  show  the  way. 

51.  If  the  Judge  be  your  enemy,  God  help  you ! 

*"  52.  Love  him  who  loves  you,  though  he  be  a  bad  man ;  love  not  him  that  loves 
you,  simply  for  his  being  Sultan  of  Egypt. 

53.  An  old  friend  can  not  become  an  enemy. 

54.  What  shall  a  fool  do  with  advice,  or  a  negro  with  soap. 

55.  Stretch  yourself  according  to  your  coverlet. 

56.  When  a  sheep  can  not  be  had,  a  goat  is  called  "My  Lord  Abdul  Rahman." 

57.  Do  not  take  off  your  shoes  before  you  see  the  river. 

58.  At  sight  of  a  glow-worm,  the  timid  cry,  "Fire!" 

59.  He  who  speaks  out  all  he  likes  has  to  hear  what  he  does  not  like. 

60.  Behind  this  mountain  lies  a  hope. 

61.  Strong  vinegar  corrodes  the  vessel  which  contains  it.     (Said  of  a  passionate 
man.) 

62.  The  tree  is  large,  but  hollow  within. 

63.  He  who  has  received  a  goose  should  not  be  chary  of  a  chicken. 

64.  A  fly  is  nothing,  but  it  spoils  the  appetite. 

65.  To  one  whose  beard  was  on  fire,  another  said :  ' '  Here !  let  me  light  my  pipe '.'" 

66.  The  goat  thinks  of  his  life  at  stake,  but  the  butcher  only  of  the  grease. 

67.  The  night  is  in  travail,  but  who  can  tell  what  it  will  bring  forth  ? 

68.  Even  a  Circassian  can  make  a  spoon ;  but  tlie  Wandle  is  not  straight. 

69.  Whoso  serves  at  the  tekkeh  (or  mosk)  eats  of  its  soup. 

70.  What  mak*s  a  camel  rush  down  a  steep  place,  is  a  tuft  of  green  grass. 

71.  Dig  not  a  pit  for  others,  lest  one  be  dug  for  you. 

72.  If  two  hearts  are  one,  a  straw-bin  becomes  a  palace. 

73.  Brass  always  succeeds,  provided  its  garb  offend  not. 

74.  Without  work  there  is  no  food. 

75.  Even  the  chicken,  after  drinking,  looks  up  to  heaven. 


APPENDIX   I.  815 

76.  Even  a  cupful  of  bitter  coffee  lays  one  under  obligation. 

77.  A  cock  which  crows  unseasonably  has  his  throat  cut. 

78.  Profit  and  loss  are  partners  in  business. 

79.  Wherever  there  is  night,  there  also  is  day. 

80.  Better  give  a  wide  berth  to  a  dog  than  drive  him  out  of  your  path. 

81.  Better  than  to  whip  a  child  is  to  make  him  dread  it. 

82.  Money  is  the  fuel  of  the  soul. 

83.  Money  acquires  money,  but  money  makes  not  a  man. 

84.  After  the  torrent  has  gone  by,  there  remains— sand.    (Said  of  a  boisterous 
braggart.) 

85.  Or  ever  his  mother's  thread  was  spun,  he  sold  it. 

86.  Where  there  is  a  big  mosk,  a  man  should  not  go  to  a  small  tekkeh  (chapel). 

87.  When  you  go  over  a  bridge,  make  friends  even  with  the  devil. 

88.  If  you  can  pull,  pull  away;  if  not,  stand  aside. 

89.  He  that  has  never  served  is  not  fit  to  rule. 

90.  It  is  not  he  who  has  lived  long  that  is  wise,  but  he  that  has  traveled  much. 

91.  Intelligence  lies  not  in  the  years,  but  in  the  head. 

92.  The  insane  asylum  lies  underneath.     (A  free  tongue.) 

93.  Than  the  camel  there  is  a  larger— the  elephant.     (Said  of  a  boaster.) 

94.  Expect  not  of  the  ant  more  than  its  ability. 

95.  Every  one  sings  the  praises  of  him  in  whose  cart  he  is  riding. 

96.  Open  not  your  sail  to  every  wind. 

97.  A  good  ship  makes  a  direct  voyage.     (Said  of  a  skillful  artisan's  work.) 

98.  He  who  would  steal  a  minareh  must  first  prepare  a  hiding-place  for  it. 

99.  The  camel  being  asked,  "Why  is  your  neck  so  crooked  ?"  replied,  "What 
part  of  me  is  straight  ?" 

100.  Wait  patiently — as  the  sparrow  waits  on  the  barley-man. 

101.  At  the  barking  of  a  dog  the  caravan  does  not  break  up. 

102.  Water  goes  to  rest,  but  an  enemy  never. 

103.  If  you'll  cook  the  meal  with  words,  I'll  promise  an  ocean  of  butter, 

104.  Water-jars  are  broken  on  the  way  to  the  fountain. 

105.  A  coverlet  is  never  burned  for  the  sake  of  one  flea. 

106.  The  house  indeed  was  burned,  but  the  rats  were  also  destroyed. 

107.  When  a  Jew  fails,  he  pores  over  the  old  accounts. 

108.  He  who  seeks  to  part  disputants  is  sure  to  get  the  blows. 

109.  He  who  fears  the  sparrows  abstains  from  sowing  corn. 

110.  Wlien  a  man  takes  a  crow  for  his  leader,  his  mouth  must  ever  be  full  of 
can-ion. 

111.  Whoso  grudges  the  horseshoe  loses  his  horse. 

112.  When  the  hands  have  washed  each  other,  then  they  both  wash  the  face. 

113.  A  soft  speech  drives  a  snake  out  of  his  hole,  and  sweet  words  drive  a  lie 
from  the  tongue. 

114.  One  eats  more  bread  by  dipping  it  in  honey  than  in  vinegar. 

115.  The  donkey,  vexed  with  the  cock,  called  him  a  blockliead. 

116.  Knowledge  is  a  tree  whose  root  is  bitter,  but  its  fruit  sweet. 

117.  A  single  hour  may  bring  to  pass  what  years  had  fiiiled  to  accomplish. 

118.  Better  ten  in  the  hand  than  a  thousand  by-and-by. 

119.  The  passage  of  a  rat  is  nothing,  but  it  soon  becomes  a  thoroughfara 

120.  The  apple  and  the  pomegranate  trees  disputed  which  was  the  fairer,  when 
the  thistle  exclaimed,  "Brethren,  let  us  not  quarrel!" 


816  APPENDIX   II. 

121.  He  that  has  lost  his  eyes  cares  no  more  for  his  spectacles. 

122.  A  fool  cast  a  stone  into  a  well  whicli  forty  men  could  not  draw  out  again. 

123.  Said  the  crab,  "Daughter,  why  do  you  walk  crooked?"     "Mother,"  re- 
plied the  other,  "show  me  how  to  go  straight." 

124.  The  judge  who  takes  five  cucumbers  as  a  bribe,  will  admit  any  evidence 
for  ten  beds  of  melons. 


APPENDIX  II* 


[Translation  of  an  Arab  Song  on  the  Death  of  Boo  Khaloom,  from  Den- 
ham  and  Clapjm'ton,  vol.  ii.,  p.  467.] 

"Oh!  trust  not  to  the  gun  and  the  sword!  The  spear  of  the  unbeliever  pre- 
vails! 

"Boo  Khaloom,  the  good  and  the  brave,  has  fallen  !  Who  shall  be  safe ?  Even 
as  the  moon  among  the  little  stars,  so  was  Boo  Khaloom  among  men !  Where 
shall  Fezzan  now  look  for  her  protector?  Men  hang  their  heads  in  sorrow,  while 
women  their  hands,  rending  the  air  with  their  cries !  As  a  shepherd  is  to  his 
flock,  so  was  Boo  Khaloom  to  Fezzan ! 

"Give  him  songs !  Give  him  music !  What  words  can  equal  his  praise !  His 
heart  was  as  large  as  the  desert !  His  coffers  were  like  the  rich  overflowings  from 
the  udder  of  the  she-camel,  comforting  and  nourishing  those  around  him ! 

"  Even  as  the  flowers  without  rain  perish  in  the  field,  so  will  Fezzaniers  droop ; 
for  Boo  Khaloom  returns  no  more  ! 

"His  body  lies  in  the  land  of  the  heathen !  The  poisoned  arrow  of  the  unbe- 
liever prevails ! 

"  Oh !  trust  not  to  the  gun  and  the  sword !  the  spear  of  the  heathen  conquers ! 
Boo  Khaloom,  the  good  and  the  brave,  has  fallen  !     Who  shall  now  be  safe?" 


See  page  3S6. 


INDEX 


OF  SCRIPTURE  TEXTS  ILLUSTRATED  IN   THIS  WORK. 


Genesis. 

PAGE 

ii.,  10-14 21,  367 

iii.,  1 308 

iii.,7 136 

iii.,  15 308,  309 

iii.,21 179 

iv.,4 179 

vi.,  14 155 

vi.,  14-16 57,  58 

viii.,  10,11,18 58 

ix.,4 471 

xiii.,2 174 

xiv.,23 186 

xvi.,  1-4 568 

xvi.,  12 236,  409 

xviii.,1-4 161 

xviii.,  2 591 

xviii.,4 28 

xviii.,  6 403-407 

xviii.,  7 473 

xviii.,  8 404 

xxi.,  14 57 

xxiv.,2,  4 539 

xxiv.,  10 342 

xxiv.,  11 242 

xxiv.,  15 43 

xxiv.,  16,  20 47 

xxiv.,  22 531 

xxiv.,  25 239 

xxiv.,  32 53 

xxiv.,  47 531 

xxiv.,  60 547 

xxiv.,  64 243 

XXV.,  6 403,  note 

xxv.,20 342 

XXV.,  29-34 470 

XXV.,  34 106 

xxvi.,  15 48 

xxvi.,  22,  23 47 

xxvii.,  17 403 

xxviii.,  17 204 

xxviii.,  18 44 

xxviii.,  18-22 752 


PAGE 

xxix.,  2-10 190 

xxix.,  3,  7,  8 47 

xxix.,  9, 12,  13 194 

xxix.,  32 568 

XXX.,  3-9,  20 568 

XXX.,  43 174 

xxxi.,  17 244 

xxxi.,  39 252 

xxxi.,  39,40 184 

xxxiv.,  25 566 

XXXV.,  4 530 

xxxv.,  4, 18 28 

XXXV.,  8,  19 411 

xxxv.,  20 582 

xxxvii.,  3 515 

xxxvii.,  24 48 

xxxvii.,  28 243 

xxxvii.,  34 587 

xxxvii.,  36 663 

xxxviii.,  8 543 

xxxviii.,  14 537' 

xxxviii.,  18 393 

xxxix.,  11 562 

xl.,  16 120 

xli.,22 77 

xli.,42 392 

xli.,43 663 

xli.,  56 577 

xliii.,  11 143,  158 

xliii.,  16 472 

xliii., 31 601 

xlv.,  5 475 

xlix.,9 249 

xlix.,  14 231 

xlix.,  17 308,309 

xlix,,  33 759 

1,,10 77 

Exodus. 

i.,19 569 

ii.,16 47,  194 

ii.,  17 190 

iii., 8 121 


818 


INDEX   OF   SCRIPTURE   TEXTS. 


VAGE 

iii.,18 803 

iv.,G 405 

v., 6-8 420 

vii.,24 73,95 

viii.,3 467 

viii.,21,  24 322 

ix.,  28 92,  note 

x.,5,15 314 

x.,6 315 

X.,  13-19 316 

xi.,  5 ; 87 

xii.,  22 747 

xii.,  34 467 

xii., 39 88 

xiii.,  19 584 

XV.,  20 615 

xvi.,  13 293 

xix.,4 270 

xix.,  15 728 

xxi.,7 567 

xxi.,28,  29 173 

xxii.,  17 541 

xxii.,  26,  27 405 

xxiii.,5 231 

xxiii.,  19 204 

XXV.,  25 795 

XXV.,  33,34 143 

XXV.,  38 463 

xxvi.,7 204 

xxvi.,32 401 

xxvii.,  20 722 

xxviii.,5,  6 794 

xxviii.,  16 795 

xxviii.,  33 141 

xxviii.,  33,  34 142 

xxviii.,  42,  43 405,509 

xxix.,  22 196 

XXX.,  22-31 757 

xxxii.,  2 531 

xxxii.,  6 748 

xxxiii.,  4,  6 588 

xxxiv.,  28 477 

xxxv.,  22 531 

XXXV.,  25 565 

xxxvii.,  19,  20 143 

xxxviii.,  8 536 

xxxix.,  3,  5,  22,  24,  29 794 

xxxix.,  38 431 

Leviticus. 

ii.,12 7.52 

ii.,13 588 

iii.,  9 194 

vii.,8 747 

vii.,  9 466 


PAGE 

vii.,  12,13, 19 748 

ix.,  19 197 

ix.,  24 759 

x.,6 586 

xi.,  24 756 

xi.,  30 312,  322 

xi.,  35 465 

xvi.,  4 510 

xvi.,  22 748 

xvii.,  10,  11 471 

xix.,  9 78 

xix.,  20 567 

xix.,  27 520 

XX.,  10 557 

xxi.,  14, 17 730 

xxii.,  30 588 

xxiii., 14 90 

xxiv.,20 692 

XXV.,  39 567 

xx\-i.,  1 708 

xxvi.,  13 97 

xxvi.,  26 89 

NUJIBERS. 

v.,  2 728 

vi.,5 781 

ix.,  10,11 574 

xi.,  1 106 

xi.,5,6 107 

xi.,8 404,467 

xi.,  16-35 293 

xi.,31 803 

xiii.,  23,24 112 

xiv.,5 759 

XV.,  38,  39 357,507 

XX., 5 141 

xxi.,  33-35 25 

xxii.,  23,27 116 

xxviii.,  7 747 

xxxi.,50 532 

XXXV.,  7,  8 735 

XXXV.,  13 692 

XXXV.,  31, 32 691 

Deuteronomy. 

i.,41 514 

ii.,23 403 

iii., 4 25 

vi.,  8 526,  527,  773 

vi.,9 435 

vii.,  22 272 

viii.,  7,  9 73 

viii.,15 309 

X.,  8 591 

xi.,  10,  11 92,  103 


INDEX   OF   SCRIPTURE   TEXTS. 


819 


PAGE 

....  83 

....  773 

....  729 

....  471 

536,  586 

....  756 

....  395 

....  729 


xi.,  U 

xi.,  20 

xii.,  12, 18 

xii.,23 

xiv.,  1 

xiv.,  8,  21 

XV.,  16,  17 

xvi.,11,  14 

xvii.,  15 739 

xvii.,16 211 

xvii.,  18 738 

xviii.,  1 - 736 

xix.,14 74 

XX.,  13,  U 362,745 

xxii.,4,10 231 

xxii.,  8 433 

xxii.,  10 75 

xxii.,  12 507 

xxii.,  29 541 

xxiii.,18 278 

xxiii.,24 123 

xxiv.,  1-4 556 

xxiv.,  5 555 

xxiv.,  6 800 

xxiv.,  20 128 

XXV.,  4 81 

XXV.,  11,  12 630,  note 

xxviii.,5,  17 120 

xxviii.,  27,  GO 579 

xxviii.,38 314 

xxix.,23 26 

xxxi.,20 74 

xxxiii.,  17 177 

xxxiii.,  19 68 

x.Kxiii.,  24 128 


Joshua. 


440 

750 

vi.,20 577 


iv.,  1-3. 


vii.,  6... 
ix.,  14... 
ix.,21.. 
xiii.,  14, 
xiii.,26. 


Judges. 


i.,  15 

iii.,  16 

iii.,  20,  24. 
iii.,  29. 


759 
57 
791 
736 
158 


102 
514 
443 

685 


iii., 31 76 

iv.,  19 403 

iv.,  17-22 410 

iv.,21 401 


PAGH 

v.,  25 404 

v.,  28 428 

vi.,2-6,  11 409 

vi.,3,  4 86,  184 

vi.,  11 117 

vi.,19 204 

vii.,  16 477 

vii.,  16,  19 480 

viii.,21 242 

viii.,  24 531 

viii.,  26 242,  531 

xi.,  30-40 751,  752 

xiv.,  10,  11 551 

xiv.,  18 248 

xiv.,  20 557 

XV., 14 280 

xvi.,  3 450 

xvi.,  21 87 

xvi.,  23,  25 748 

xvii.,  7-13 729 

xviii.,  11 514 

xix.,20 742 

xxi.,  19-23 114 

xxi.,21 623 

Ruth. 

ii.,  8,  9 78 

ii.,14 90,474 

ii.,  17 86 

iii.,  7 86 

iv.,10 541 

1  Samuel. 

vi.,5 286 

vi.,  7 80 

vi.,20 204 

viii.,  15 85,  HI 

ix.,  11 ^3 

X.,  5,  6 "67 

xii.,  16-18 83 

xiii.,  21 75 

xiv.,  3 732 

xvi.,  22 ^S>1 

xvi.,  23 G12 

xvii.,  7 91 

xvii.,  40 189 

xvii.,  43 277 

xvii., 49 188 

xviii.,  25,27 686 

xix.,  11 «63 

xix., 13,16 204 

xix.,  22 767 

xix.,  24 482,  767 

XX.,  25 598 

xxi., 11 HI 


820 


INDEX   OF   SCRIPTURE    TEXTS. 


xxiii.,  14,  25,  29. 

xxiv.,  8 

xxiv.,  14 

XXV.,  4-8 

XXV.,  6 

XXV.,  17 

XXV., 18 

xxvi.,  7 

xxvi.,11, 12 

xxvi.,  20 

xxviii.,  14 

XXX., 10 

XXX.,  12 

XXX.,  17 


243. 


PAGE 
417 

,  591 
,  278 
,  185 
.  590 
.  498 
.  91 
.  676 
.  43 
.  302 
.  648 
.  706 
.  Ill 
685 


2  Samuel. 

i.,  1-10 664,665 

ii.,13 55 

ii.,  18 259 

ii.,23 223,677 

iii.,  14 541,  663 

iii.,  31 587 

iv.,  12 55 

v.,  23,24 144 

vi.,5 615 

vi.,12,  14 512 

vi.,20 482 

viii.,10 492 

ix.,8 648 

ix.,  13 677 

X.,  1-5 521 

xi.,1 654 

xi.,  2 440 

xi.,9 638 

xii.,3,4 194 

xiii.,  19 513 

xiii.,  28,  29,  37 25 

xiii.,  29 224 

xiii.,  31 586 

xiv.,  21,  22 560 

xiv.,27 501 

XV.,  2 638 


XV. 


',99 


XV.,  32 513 

xvi.,  1 Ill 

xvii.,19 48.90 

xvii.,  28,  29 469 

xvii.,8 263 

xvii.,  10 248 

xvii., 18 48,428 

xvii.,  28 91,  104 

xvii.,  29 404 

xix.,18 65 

xix.,24 521 

xxi.,  9,  10 272 


PAGK 

xxi.,  20 498 

xxii.,  3 529 

xxii.,.34 529 

xxiii.,  10 677 

xxiii.,  15,16 56 

xxiv.,  2-4 668 

xxiv.,  22 81 

1  Kings. 

i.,33 225 

i.,  38-40 647 

ii.,  19 461,  648,  656 

ii.,28 693 

iv.,  25 137 

iv.,28 83 

v.,  8,9..... 65 

v., 17,18 34 

vi.,  18 105 

vii.,  7 639 

vii.,  18,20 142 

ix.,  18 35 

x.,1-11 661 

X..19 640,641 

X.J29 212 

xi.,  15,  16 362 

xii.,  14 311 

xii.,28 711 

xiii.,  13 230 

xiv.,  11 277 

xvii., 6 271 

xvii.,  12 132 

xvii.,  19-23 442 

xviii.,  2 577 

xviii.,  4 418 

xviii.,  28 767,770 

xix.,  4 28 

xix.,6 43,89 

xix.,  19 77 

xix., 21 575 

XX., 27 206 

xxii.,  10 457 

xxii.,  12 735 

xxii.,  27 206 

xxii.,  38 55,  276 

xxix.,19 276 

2  Kings. 

i.,4 482 

i.,  8 510 

ii.,  23-25 262-264 

iii.,  11 593 

iv.,2 132 

iv.,9,10 442 

iv.,  10 461,478 

iv.,24 233 


INDEX  OF   SCRIPTUEE   TEXTS. 


821 


PAGE 

iv.,42 86 

vi.,5-7 1.^5 

vi.,25 108 

vii.,  7,  8,  15,  IG 418 

viii.,3 278 

viii.,9 2-13 

ix.,  11-37 437-439 

ix.,  17 450 

ix.,  30 536 

ix.,35,36 276 

x.,8 638,  686 

xi.,  2 480,  note 

xvii.,8-6 356 

xvii.,6 685 

xvii.,25 250 

xvii.,  25,26 272 

xvii.,  26,  27 709 

xviii.,  14 357 

xviii.,31 52 

xix.,  28 688 

xix.,35 238 

XX., 7 138 

XX., 21 54 

xxi.,13 459 

xxiii.,11 700 

xxiv.,  15 656 

XXV.,  3 477 

XXV.,  10,  11 685 

xxxix.,28 224 

1  Chronicles. 

v., 26 32 

xi.,20 223 

xii.,40 Ill 

xiv.,14,  15 144 

XV.,  25-27 512 

xxi.,  5 22 

xxi.,15,  16 79 

xxi., 23 82 

xxvii.,1 666 

2  Chronicles. 

i.,31 497 

iv.,ll 466 

vii.,  13 313 

ix.,  17 644 

X.,  11 155 

xii.,2,9 355 

xvi.,4 687 

xviii.,  9 457 

xxii.,  11 480,  note 

xxiii.,11 689 

xxvi.,  10 51 

xxix.,9 566 


PAGE 

xxxiii.,  14 451 

xxxiv.,  3 702 

xxxiv.,  27 586 

xxxvi.^6 689 

xxxvi.,  17-20 685 

Ezra. 

iv.,7 382,  note 

vi.,  11 267 

viii 802 

ix.,  3 521 

ix.,5 513 

Esther. 

i.,5,  8 631 

i.,  10,  12,  19 628 

ii.,12 483,495,496 

ii.,14 437,  6.'')4 

ii., 19,21 436 

iii.,12 397 

viii.,  10,  14 245 

viii.,  15.. 511 

ix.,  19 444 

Job. 

i.,17 220 

i.,  19 238 

i.,  20 513 

ii.,12 513,587 

iv.,15 772 

XV., 33 128 

xviii.,  5,  6 479 

XX.,  17 404 

xxi.,  17 133 

xxii.,  7 45 

xxiv.,  2 74 

xxiv.,  11 120 

xxvi.,  6 482 

xxvii.,  16 532 

xxvii.,  18 109,  119,  414 

xxix.,  6 404 

XXX.,  1 191,278 

XXX.. 18 511 

xxxii.,19 121 

xxxvii.,  18 536 

xxxviii.,14 393 

xxxix.,5.., 229 

xxxix.,  9-12 177 

xxxix.,  19 209 

xxxix.,  19-25 214 

xl.,  15-24 246 

xli 247 

xlii.,  11 799 

xlii.,  14 536 


822 


INDEX   OF   SCRIPTURE   TEXTS. 


Psalms. 

PAGE 

i    3       102 

xxi.,9 

xxii.,  28 

xxiii., 10 

xxiii.,  30 

PAGE 
441 

74 

i    4       

84 

74 

224 

122 

529 

xxiv., 30,31 

123 

75  171 

xxvi.,  1 

83 

xxii    20                

192 

xxvii.,  9 

xxvii.,  22 

xxvii., 27 

XXX.,  4 

XXX.,  17 

XXX., 27 

XXX., 29,31 

xxxi., 13-24 

ECCLESIASTES 

ii    5  6 

594 

xxii    21                  

178 

638 

181 

204,  207 

xxiv    7            

431 

499 

xxix    6            

178 

271 

XXX     11        

587 

315 

XXXV.,  5 

Iviii     8    

83 

322 

205 

564 

lix.,  G 

Ixiii.,  10 

Ixv.,  13 

276 

281 

27 

...  297 

52 

xi.,1 

96 

276 

xii.,  7 

142 

Ixxv    4  10 

519 

xii.,  11 

Canticles. 

i.,5 

i.,  7 

i.,8 

i.,13,14 

ii  ,  1 

401 

122 

Ixxviii.,  46 

Ixxviii.,  45 

Ixxx.,  12,13 

Ixxx.,  13 

314 

323 

113 

....  119,  257,  258 

204,  400,  502 

182 

206 

Ixxxiv    3 

287 

143,535 

291 

165 

niv       1  1 

229 

ii  ,  2 

167 

civ    11 

302 

ii.,8,9 

ii.,  12 

ii.,  14 

259,428 

civ    18                 

204 

297 

civ    26 

247 

442 

cv    16               

86 

ii.,15 

iv.,  2 

119,280 

323 

191 

cix     23 

313 

iv.,3 

140 

519 

iv.,8 

250 

251 

iv.,  9 

532 

G38 

iv.,  13 

141 

404 

v.,  2,  4 

432 

593 

v.,  12 

299 

..;.'  "■ 

126  472 

v., 14 

531 

'  .     ■' 

446 

vi.,  11 

141,143 

^x.1if;;;     i± 

519 

522 

n-^M-u-      Q 

615 

vii     8  

147 

G15 

viii.,  2 

122,  141 

un.s. 
536 

123 

Pkovi: 
vi     "^5 

viii     14              

167 

Isaiah. 
i    8 

vii     17 

595 

ir;;;    Qi. 

638 

116.414 

ix.,2,.'-, 

122 

.  .     97 

76,  78 

ii.,  20 

706 

436 

iii.,  16 

561 

xvii    1 9 

436 

iii.,  20 

530,  532 

133 

iii., 21 

531 

xxi..  1 

103 

iii.,  22,  23,  24 

526 

INDEX   OF   SCRIPTUEE   TEXTS. 


823 


PAGE 

iv.,  1 540 

v., 2 117 

v., 4,6 IKS 

T.,11 603 

v.,  28 224 

vii.,18 328 

vii.,  22 404 

ix.,  1 32 

ix.,  10 14G 

xi.,  6 275 

xi.,7 83 

xiii.,  2 663 

xiii.,20 401 

xiv.,  23 100 

XV.,  2 521 

xvi.,  10 119,  120 

xvii.,  2 205 

xvii.,  6 128 

xxii.,  21 441 

xxii.,  22 432 

xxii.,  23 401 

xxiii.,16 628 

xxiv.,13 128 

XXV.,  11 72 

xxviii.  ,24 76 

xxviii.,  25 77 

xxviii.,  28 81 

XXX.,  6 240,308 

XXX.,  24 83,  84 

XXX.,  28 224 

xxxii.,  14 205 

xxxiv.,6,  7 178 

xxxiv.,  11 304,  note 

XXXV.,  1 165 

xxxvi.,16 106 

xxxvii.,  7 238 

xxxvii.,  27 446 

xxxviii.,  14 108,  299,  303 

xxxviii.,  21 138 

xl.,  8 107 

xl.,11 183,191 

xli,,  16 83 

xli.,  19 164 

xliii.,14 59 

xliii.,24 108 

xliv.,  12 4G3 

xlv.,  1 450 

xlvii.,1,2 87 

xlvii.,2 528 

xlviii.,2 35 

xlix.,9-11 399 

xlix.,22 563 

lii.,1 35 

liv.,2 402 


Ivi.,  10 278 

lix.,11 291 

lx.,S 297 

lxvi.,7 284 

xlvi.,20 224 

Jeremiah. 

ii.,23 245 

ii.,  24 229 

iv.,  20 402 

iv.,  30 536 

v.,  6 250 

v.,  24 83 

vi.,9 120 

vi.,20 108 

vii.,  34 548 

viii.,  7 288,  290,  297,  302 

ix.,  19,20 586 

x.,20 402 

xii.,  10 143 

xiii.,  23 249 

XV.,  3 276 

xvi.,  9 548 

xvii., 8 102 

xvii., 11 302 

xxii.,  14 435 

xxiv.,2 120 

XXV.,  10 466 

XXV.,  30 120 

xxxi.,13 623 

xxxii.,  35 698 

XXXV.,  5 45 

xxxvi.,  22,  23 428,  676 

xli.,  5 521,  767 

xlvi.,  16 623 

xlviii.,  28 297 

xlviii.,  33 120 

xlviii.,  38 441 

xlix.,  29 402 

l.,8 205 

l.,38 99,  note 

li.,  1 238 

li.,  36 99,  note 

lii.,  21 795 

Lamentations. 

iii.,10 263 

v., 13 87 

v., 18 278 

Ezekiel. 

iv.,9,  12-15 104 

v., 6 24 

vii.,  16 298 


824 


INDEX   OF   SCRIPTURE   TEXTS. 


PA  OK 

viii.,  7,  8 440 

ix.,  4 395 

xiii.,  10,15 440 

XV.,  2-4 115 

xvi.,  4 5G9 

xvi.,12 530,  531 

xvi.,  26 359 

xxi.,25 71 

xxiii.,  40 484,  536 

xxiv.,  17 522 

xxvii.,13 781 

xxvii.,  14 224 

xxvii.,  17 124 

xxvii.,  24 533 

xxxiii.,  30 436 

XXXV.,  5 205 

xxxvii.,  17-20 272 

xxxix.,  18 171 

Daniel. 

i.,  3,  4,18 667 

iii.,5 618 

iii.,29 266 

iv.,  30 419 

v.,  29 511 

vi.,17 394 

vii.,5 262 

vii.,  7 200 

ix.,24 35 

HOSEA. 

iii.,2 541 

iv.,  13 162 

vii.,  4 89 

ix.,  2 118 

xii.,1 124 

xiii.,  7 251 

xiii.,  8 263 

Joel. 

i.,7 314 

ii.,3 314 

ii.,9, 10,  20 315 

ii., 23,24 83 

iii.,  10 78 

Amos. 

ii.,  13 79 

iii.,  12 252 

iii., 15 115 

iv.,2 69 

iv.,  .5-7,  10 81 

v., 19 263 

vii.,  1 :{i:j 

vii.,  11 172 


Jonah. 

PAGE 

i.,3 6G 

i.,16 752 

ii 67 

iii.,  6 587 

iii., 8 725 

iv.,5-7 105 

MiCAH. 

iv.,4 137 

iv.,  13 78,81 

v.,  10 212 

v.,  U 702 

Nahcm. 

iii.,  U 421 

iii.,  17 314 

Habakkuk. 

i.,8 274 

i.,  15 70 

Zepiianiah. 

ii.,  15 271 

iii.,  3 274 

Haggai. 
i.,4 434 

Zechariah. 

ix.,9 235 

xii.,6 477 

xiv.,  20 218,  227 

Matthew. 

i.,  1-16 498 

ii.,1 364 

ii.,  23 741 

iii.,  4 245,319,40.5,510 

iii.,  11 522 

iii., 12 83 

iv.,5 35,  717 

iv.,  14-16 738 

iv.,21 71 

v., 15 478 

v.,  22 266 

vi.,5,  7 757 

vi.,  17 133 

vi.,  19,  20 440 

vi.,28,  30 166 

vi.,  30 90.404.  465 

vii.,  19 27 

vii.,  24,  27 422 

ix.,9 657 

ix..  17 57.  121 


INDEX   OF   SCRIPTURE   TEXTS. 


825 


PAGE 

ix.,  27 754 

X.,  10 189 

X.,  16 308 

x.,27 441 

x.,29 292 

xiii.,25 84 

xiii.,33 88 

xiii., 47,48 70 

xiv.26 772 

XV.,  2 473,599 

XV.,  5 735 

XV.,  20,  27 473 

XV.,  30 90 

xvi.,  18 638 

xvi.,39 759 

xvii.,24 659 

xvii.,27 69 

xviii.,  6 467 

xix.,24 452 

XX.,  1-5 114 

XX.,  3 778 

xxi.,  11 741 

xxi.,  18-22 138, 140 

xxi., 33 113,  117 

xxi.,  33,  34,  41 123 

xxii.,  2-4 593 

xxiii.,6,  7 598,732 

xxiii.,  14,15 396,757 

xxiii.,23 105 

xxiii.,  27 583 

xxiv.,  28 265,270 

xxiv.,  41 87 

XXV., 1 132 

XXV.,  1-12 554 

XXV.,  6 552 

xxv.,3,  4,  8,9 132 

XXV.,  10 550 

XXV.,  32 207 

xxvi.,  23 474 

xxvi.,  27 475 

xxvii.,  24 475 

xxvii.,  27-31 636 

xxvii.,  53 35 

xxvii.,  66 394,581 

Mark. 

i.,6 152 

ii.,  22 122 

iii.,  17 498 

iv.,  31,32 105 

v.,  13, 14 1.52 

vi.,9 18G 

vi.,13 134 

vii.,  3 599 

vii.,4 469 


PAGE 

vii., 13 338 

viii.,  17,  19,20 473 

x.,47 7.54 

xi.,  12-14,  20-2,'5 138-140 

xii.,  1 117 

xiii.,  15 433 

xiv.,  13 43 

xiv.,  14,15 442 

xiv.,  20 473 

xiv.,  51 481 

xvi.,  1-4 580 

Luke. 

i.,  59-61 500 

ii.,7 569,  804 

ii.,  8-12 183 

ii.,  24 298 

ii.,  44 803 

iii., 13 85 

iii.,  23-38 498 

iv.,17 738 

v.,  6,  7 71 

v., 19 441 

v.,  37,  38 121 

vi.,  1 86 

vi.,12 725 

vi.,38 405 

vi.;48,  49 422 

vii., 32 781 

vii.,  38 522 

vii.,  38,  45 591 

vii., 45 590 

viii.,  5-8 77 

ix.,  62 76 

X.,  3 275 

x.,5 742 

xi.,  12 311 

xii., 3 432,441 

xii., 6 292 

xiii.,  7-9 136 

xiii., 8 104 

xiii.,  32 281 

xiv., 5 48 

xiv.,  10 599 

xiv.,  16,  17 548,  593 

xiv.,  24 597 

xiv.,  28 117 

XV.,  5 190 

XV.,  6 151 

XV.,  8 468 

XV.,  12,  13,20,31 566 

XV.,  16 257 

XV.,  20 590 

XV.,  22 392 

XV.,  23 602 


826 


INDEX   OF   SCRIPTURE   TEXTS. 


XV., 

xvi., 
xvi., 
xvii. 
xviii 
xix.j 
xix., 
xix., 
xxii. 
xxiv 


20... 

21... 
,6... 
.,12.. 

,4 

,4,5. 

20... 
,20. 
.,36. 


i.,27 

ii.,1-10.... 
ii.,  2,  3,  10. 


11.,  o.... 
iv.,7... 
iv.,  9... 
iv.,  18  . 
iv.,20.. 
v.,  2-4. 


vi.,9... 
vi.,  12. 


John. 


X.,  1-3 

x.,3,4,5 

x.,12,  13 

xi.,31 

xiii.,  4 

xiii.,5,  6 

xiii.,  25,  27 

XV.,  1,2,6 

xviii.,  3 

xviii.,  18 

xviii.,  16-18,25-27. 

xix.,  23 

XX.,  5 

xxi.,  3 

xxi.,  7 

xxi., 6-11 

xxi., 9 


Acts. 


i.,  13,  li 
ii.,1,  2. 
ili.,2.... 
iii.,6.... 
iv.,34. 


PAGE 

,  204 
,  745 
,  473 
,  144 
,  753 
,  146 
,  145 
,  476 
,  597 
.  590 


186 
603 
122 

note 
,  44 
.  750 
,  557 
.  362 
.  46 
.  86 
.  473 
.  46 
,  185 
.  189 
.  184 


522 
600 
115 
479 
464 
443 
516 
580 

70 
516 

71 
465 


442 

442 

754 

741 

754 

viii.,28 212 

ix.,3 733 

ix.,  11,30 66 

ix.,25 I'-'O 

ix., 37,39 442 


X  ,  9 

PAGE 

758 

xi  ,  25 

66 

186 

xii.,  10 

450 

xii    r' 

..     .            500 

xiii    IG     

.    432 

xiii.,  27 

738 

xvi.,  13,  16 

725 

xvi.,  24 

690 

xviii    3 

...  415 

xviii  ,17    

659 

xviii.    18  

521 

XX    7 

90 

xxi  ,  24 

749 

xxii.,  3 

575 

754 

66 

xxvii..  15.  40 

62 

Romans. 


17-24. 

,26.... 


1  Timothy. 


ii.,9. 


James. 


iv.,  4. 


KliVEI.ATION. 


ii.,1. 

iii.,  li 

vii.,3 

ix.,  5, 

xiii., 

xiii., 

xiv., 

xviii. 

xviii, 

xix., 

xix., 

xxi., 

xxii. 


;,  10.... 

16 

16,17. 
20 


22 


200 
125 

755 


1  COKINTHIAXS. 

vii.,15 557 

X.,  7 748 

x.,16 90 

x.,20 703 


533 


Hebrews. 
xi.,38 418 


35 


133 
492 
395 
309 
771 
395 
120 
466 
548 
597 
120 
546 
278 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Ab'd-el-Kadie,  351. 

Abraham's  tree,  28. 

Acorn,  Valonea,  159. 

Adornments  of  houses,  433. 

Adultery,  a  crime  punishable  with  deatli, 
557. 

Afion  Karahissar,  167. 

Agriculture,  75. 

'AKpiSeg,  152. 

Aleppo  goat,  202. 

Almond-tree,  142. 

Alms-giving,  754. 

Apple  of  Sodom,  159. 

Arab  horse,  209,  217-220. 

Arabian  camel,  235. 

Arabs,  349  ;  Bedawin,  or  Desert,  405  ; 
character,  410 ;  dress,  40G ;  hospi- 
tality, 409  ;  migrations,  408  ;  tribes, 
407. 

Architecture,  416. 

Armenia,  kingdom  o.,  366-869. 

Arna,  176. 

Arrack,  producing  drunkenness  in  the 
East,  122. 

Arrows,  680. 

Arts,  fine,  and  public  buildings,  784. 

Asia  Minor,  30. 

Ass,  the,  227-234  ;  domestic,  229  ;  wild, 
228. 

Ass's  colt  pursued  by  hound,  229. 

Assyrian  house,  ancient,  424  ;  swimmer, 
72. 

Athanasius,  and  other  Alexandrian  di- 
vines, 358. 

Axe,  Oriental  woodman's,  155. 

Babel,  tower  of,  418. 

Bactrian  camel,  234. 

Bagdad,  siege  of,  685. 

Bagpipe,  Oriental,  610. 

Bahr  Yoosoof,  the  water  of  Joseph,  94. 

Balgadda  -  Area,  the  Abyssinian   chief, 

361. 
Banana-tree,  153. 
Baptism,  571 ;  font  for,  572. 
Bashan,  sixty  giant  cities  of,  25. 
Baskets,  Oriental,  for  the  produce  of  the 

vineyard,  120. 

53 


Bathing,  71,  488  ;  women  bathing,  493. 

Baths,  Turkish,  483-496 ;  fees  for  bath- 
ing, 491. 

Bazar  in  Cairo,  782. 

Bear,  259-264. 

Beard,  520. 

Bedawin,  description  of  the,  405. 

Bee-bird,  or  sirens,  the,  300. 

Bees  and  their  honey,  319,  320. 

Behemoth,  246. 

Bells  fastened  to  a  child's  ankle,  570. 

Bethesda,  Pool  of,  46. 

Betonim,  158. 

Bhainsa,  176. 

Bittern,  304. 

Blackbird,  300. 

Black  Sea,  or,  "stormy  Euxine,"  17. 

Blue-jay,  300. 

Boar,  wild,  254-258. 

Boat ;  or,  inflated  skin  raft,  59. 

Books,  ancient  form  of,  395. 

Booths,  413. 

Bos  Sylhetanus,  178. 

Botanv,  remarks  on  the  want  of  taste 
for,'l64. 

Bourse,  778. 

Bows  and  arrows,  680. 

Brackish  water,  95. 

Breaking  of  bread,  90. 

Bricks,  baked,  419  ;  sun-dried,  421. 

Bridal  costume,  545,  546. 

Bridegroom,  coming  forth  to  meet  the, 
552. 

Buffaloes  in  Palestine,  176. 

Burials,  586;  feast  for  the  dead,  588; 
tear-bottles  for  mourners,  587. 

Cafe,  778,  779. 

Calligraphy,  389. 

Camel,  Arabian,  235      Bactrian,   234; 

head  of  a,  238  ;  Rachel's,  244  ;  wild, 

236. 
Camphire-tree,  143. 
Candlesticks  for  the  Temple,  722. 
Captives,  heads  of,  held  by  liameses  II., 

king  of  Egypt,  353 ;  also  bv  Rameses 

III.,  354;  Jewish,  357. 
Caravanseray,  or  inn,  804, 


828 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


Carnation,  164. 

Carob-tiee,  151. 

Carpenters'  tools,  793. 

Carriages,  212. 

Carrying  children,  nGS. 

Caspian  Sea,  18. 

Cassi,  164. 

Castanets,  Oriental  brass,  616. 

Catching  fish,  raode  of,  69. 

Caterpillar,  321. 

Caves  of  Western  Asia,  417. 

Cedars  of  Lebanon.  27, 153. 

Cemetery,  Parsee,  585. 

Censers,  594. 

Cereals,  73. 

Chaldea,  Plains  of,  363. 

Chaldean  Christians,  346. 

Chariots  of  Egypt,  208-212 ;  price  of, 
212. 

Charms,  spells,  and  talismans,  773. 

Child's  ankle,  bells  fastened  to  a,  570 ; 
cradle,  569  ;  toys,  573. 

Church  and  State,  739. 

Church  services,  757,  760. 

Churches,  Oriental,  arrangement  of,  728. 

Cicada,  321. 

Circassians,  371. 

Circumcision,  755. 

Cisterns,  48,  51. 

Cities,  division  of,  458. 

Civil  and  military  affairs,  668-694. 

Cleanliness,  conventional,  755. 

Climate  of  Western  Asia,  575. 

Cloth  and  weaving,  794. 

Clothes-washing,  45. 

Coffee,  modern  introduction  of.  325, 477. 

Coins,  706,  799. 

Commerce,  discouragement  of,  74. 

Commercial  intercourse,  774. 

Consanguinity,  degrees  of,  542. 

Conversation,  596. 

Conversions,  forcible,  741. 

Costumes  for  men,  506-523 ;  for  women, 
523-538. 

Cradles  for  children,  569. 

CIrane,  290. 

("riminals,  treatment  of,  688-691. 

Crow  of  Western  Asia,  271. 

Crown,  pretenders  to  the,  635. 

(Cultivation,  division  of  land  for,  74. 

Curse  pronounced  by  Moses  against  Is- 
rael, 26. 

Dancing,   almeh,  624-629 ;    religious, 

763 ;   war,  623. 
Darabukkeh,  609. 
Date-palm-tree,  146. 
Dead,  disposition  of  the.  579. 
Dead  Sea.  23. 
Deluge,  (iiu>siii)n  of  tlie.  .■'9. 
Deiiuin,  siandiud  nieasine  of  Imu.I.  74. 


Dervish,  begging,  734;  howling,  763, 
767;  whirling,  733. 

Destruction  of  heretics,  743-746. 

Devotions,  posture  for,  758. 

Distaff,  Oriental,  565. 

Distances,  mode  of  reckoning,  803. 

Divorce,  556. 

Dodos,  or  pasteboard  cap,  547. 

Dogs,  191,  275. 

Drag-net,  Egyptian,  70. 

Drawing  water  from  wells,  42. 

Drinking,  and  the  different  kinds  of 
drinks,  602,  603. 

Dromedary,  description  of  the,  244,  245. 

Drugs  and'  dyes,  794. 

Druses,  360;'  horses  of  the,  221. 

Dunghill,  a  resort  for  ihe  scavengers  of 
Western  Asia,  265 ;  household  ar- 
ticles found  in  a,  267. 

Dwarfs,  629. 

Dyes  and  drugs,  794. 

Ear-rings,  707. 

Earthquakes,  577. 

Easter  lamb,  194  ;  ewe  Iamb,  194. 

Eating,  manner  of,  473. 

Education  of  children,  574. 

Elephant,  246. 

Elkoods,  name  now  given  to  Jerusalem. 

35. 
Elmalii.  the  village  of  apples,  158. 
Emir  B'shir  Sheliab,  prince  of  Lebanon. 

349. 
Entary,  523. 
Ephraim,  wood  of,  27. 
Ethiopians  of  the  Scriptures,  360. 
Euphrates,  99. 
Executions,  69  L 

Fairs,  797. 

Fanaticism,  740-746. 

Fasting,  and  afflicting  the  body,  753. 

Fayoom,  Lake,  93. 

Feast  of  Siuikes,  celebration  of  the,  .306. 

Ferret,  286. 

Ferry-boat  employed  by  King  David,  65. 

Fig,  different  varieties  of,  137 ;    dried, 

138 ;  tree,  136. 
Fire-temple,  701. 
Fire-worship,  699,  702. 
Firmans,  or  special  orders,  396. 
Flour-mills,  worked  by  wind,  water,  or 

hand, 86. 
Flv,  different  kinds  of,  as  mentioned  in 

Scripture,  322,  323. 
Formation  of  a  camel,  237,  239. 
Formulas,  fanciful  and  senseless,  773. 
Fortifications,  447. 
Fowls,  domestic,  305  ;   turkeys.  305. 
Fox.  2S1  ;   story  told  of  the  Vox  and  the 

partridge,  282. 


t 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


«29 


Frontlets  worn  by  ladies,  526 ;  horn,  528. 

Fuel,  and  fire-place,  4G3,  465. 

Furniture  of  houses,  459 ;  basin  and 
ewer,  476 ;  bedding,  480 ;  candle- 
sticks, 478  ;  chairs  and  stool,  461  ; 
cotfee-pot  and  cups,  468,  475 ;  dish- 
es, 474  ;  jars  and  water  -  pots,  469  ; 
kitchen  utensils,  466  ;  lamps,  479. 

Furs,  515. 

Gall-ndt,  158. 

Gates,  Jaffa,  451 ;  strait,  453. 

Gazelle,  254. 

Georgians,  369. 

Gibeon,  Pool  of,  55. 

Girdle,  men's,  513-515 ;  weapons  car- 
ried in,  514  ;  women's,  524. 

Glass,  462. 

Goats,  Aleppo,  202  ;  hair  of,  204  ;  milk 
of,  206 ;  Paseng,  202  ;  Teftik,  203. 

Gopher-wood,  155. 

Gourd,  description  of,  105. 

Government,  system  of,  633. 

Grape-curing,  111 ;  pruning,  114. 

Graves  ofthe  Nomads,  412;  Oriental,  582, 

Greeks,  371,  379. 

Guilds,  791. 

Guns,  Oriental,  671. 

Gymnastic  exercises,  629. 

Gypsy,  Oriental,  373. 

Hair  of  goats,  24. 

Hanjar,  or  dagger,  524. 

Harims,  652. 

Harlots,  560. 

Haversack,  native,  189. 

Hawk,  sparrow,  289. 

Head-dress,  men's,  518-520  ;  women's, 
525-531. 

Healing,  art  of,  578. 

Heber,  the  husband  of  Jael,  410. 

Helix,  or  snail,  322. 

Helmets,  674. 

Heretics,  destruction  of,  743-746. 

Herodias  dancing  before  Herod,  628. 

Heron,  blue,  brown,  and  white,  304. 

Hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water, 
791. 

Hoe,  102. 

Honev  of  Palestine,  74. 

Hoopoe,  301. 

Horses,  Arab,  209,  217-220;  Druse, 
221;  Koordish,  215;  Nesaaan,  217; 
Persian,  216. 

Hospitality  to  the  brute  creation,  268  ; 
salutations  to  guests,  590  ;  treatment 
of  guests,  591. 

Houses.  426-432  ;  courts  of,  431 ;  ma- 
terials used  for  building.  28 ;  roofs  of, 
432,  440 ;  staircases  of,  442. 

Hyena,  271. 


Idolatry,  264,  695-697,  706. 

Image-worship,  709. 

Implements  for  agriculture,  75-83. 

Iniprovisatores,  621. 

Industry  of  Oriental  women,  562. 

Inkstand,  390. 

Introduction,  Part  I.,  5-8;    Part  II., 

329-336. 
Irrigation,  92. 
Ismailyeh,  362. 
Isthmus  of  Suez,  18. 

Jackal,  278-281. 

Jehu's  journey,  438 ;  death  of  Jezebel. 

439. 
Jeremiah's  roll,  428. 
Jerid  exercises,  222. 
Jewels  worn  by  ladies,  530-533. 
Jewish  captives,  an  Assvrian   sculpture 

of,  357. 
Jews,  appearance  of  the  modern,  339 : 

Aramean,  341 ;  Arabian,  349. 
Jezebel,  death  of,  439. 
Jezreel,  residence  of  Ahab,  438. 
Jonah  and  the  fish,  67. 
Jordan,  River,  23,  41. 
Judah,  king  of,  an  Egyptian  sculpture 

of,  355. 

Ka'im   Hurmul,  in  Ccele-Syria,  monu- 
ment of,  254. 
Kaly,  or  parched  corn,  91. 
Kanoon,  or  santiir,  615. 
Kemenjeh,  or  violin,  614. 
Ketos,  67. 
Kiosks,  444. 
Koords,  368. 
Kuftan,  511. 
Kiirlangiich,  62. 

Lake  Fayoom,  93  ;  Van,  21. 

Lamb  at  Easter,  194 ;  ewe  lamb,  194. 

Lamps  for  use  of  olive-oil,  132. 

Land  of  the  Palm,  147. 

Language,  376-378. 

Law  on  the  door-post,  435. 

Laz,  370. 

Lesghies,  370. 

Letters,  mode  of  carrying  sealed,  397. 

Leviathan,  247. 

Lilv  of  the  vallev,  165  ;  of  the  field,  166. 

Lion,  247-249. ' 

Litter,  Eastern,  226. 

Lizards,  311;  chameleon,  and  its  tongue. 

312. 
Local  traditions,  40. 
Locks  and  kevs,  432. 
Locusts,  313-319  ;  Asiatic,  813  ;  flying, 

316  ;  food  of  John  the  Baptist,  319. 
Looking-glass  for  ladies,  534,  535. 
Lvnx,  252. 


830 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


Magpie,  long-tailed,  269,  270. 

Mahmood,  Shah  of  Persia,  646. 

Mail,  chain,  673. 

Maneiess  lion  at  Euyuk,  in  Asia  Minor, 
2i9. 

Mangal,  or  chafing-dish,  464. 

Map  of  physical  geography  explained, 
17-22  ;  of  ethnology,  331-336. 

Mar  Yohanan,  bishop  of  tlie  Chaldean 
Church,  347. 

Market,  781. 

Maronites,  156,  348. 

Marriages,  504,  548-554;  for  limited  pe- 
riods, 555  ;  processions  at,  550-552. 

Mattock,  102. 

Maturity  of  ^yomen,  504. 

Match-making,  539-544;  pm-chasing  a 
wife,  540. 

Meals,  and  manner  of  eating,  597-602. 

Measures.  795. 

Meidan,  222. 

Mesopotamia,  21,  98,  342. 

ilevlevies,  763. 

Metuallies,  362. 

Military  and  civil  affairs,  668-694. 

Military  system,  668;  cruelty  in  war, 
685 ;  mailed  cavalry,  673 ;  Oriental 
warfare,  681 ;  power  of  the  spear,  223, 
677  ;  power  of  the  sword,  679  ;  weap- 
ons of  war,  670. 

Milk  of  goats,  206. 

Mills,  flour,  worked  by  wind,  water,  or 
hand,  86. 

Mineral  springs,  46. 

Mosk  of  the  Metuallies,  721 ;  Muslims, 
719. 

Modern  seamen  of  "Western  Asia,  65. 

IVIohaninied,  and  the  peculiar  institutions 
of  Mohammedanism,  349. 

Monument,  discovery  of  a,  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  34. 

Mortar,  untempered,  440. 

Mount  Elboorz,  18. 

Mouse,  282-286 ;  short-tailed  field,  285. 

Mulberrv-tree,  144. 

Mule,  224,  225. 

Music,  Oriental,  604  ;  instruments  of, 
607-619  ;  lute,  or  David's  harp,  612 ; 
military,  611 ;  singing,  619  ;  timbrels, 
61.^ 

Muslim  traditions,  359. 

Mysticks,  or  piratical  vessels,  64. 

Nabloos,  Samaritans  at,  362. 

Names,  family,  497  ;    preservation   of, 

35 ;   proper,  500. 
Nargileh,  or  long  pipe,  476. 
Narii  Keuv,  the  village  of  pomegranates, 

158. 
Nay  and  case,  611. 
Nazarite,  730. 


Nestorians,  344,  345. 
Nets  for  fishing,  70,  71. 
Niglitingale,  299. 
Nile,  inundation  of  the,  29. 
Nineveh,  ruins  of,  420. 
Noah's  ark,  57. 
Nomads,  tribes  of,  26. 
Noosairyeli,  362. 
Nose,  ring  in  the,  688. 

Obstetrics,  568. 

Ofi^'ering  to  the  God  of  battles,  56. 

Oil  for  anointing  of  bodies,  133. 

Olive,  leaf  of,  plucked  by  the  dove  at  the 

time  of  the  Flood,  135  ;  oil,  123, 133 ; 

press,  129,  130 ;  tree,  129. 
Ood,  or  guitar,  613. 
Oriole,  300,  301. 
Ostrich,  304. 
Ovens,  88-90. 
Overworked  camel,  241. 
0.\,  169-175;  wild,  177. 
O.x-cart,  Oriental,  80. 

Palace  of  the  monarchs,  650. 

Palestine,  22,  25. 

Palm-date,  tree,  146. 

Palms,  city  of — Jericho,  149. 

Panther,  249-254. 

Parsees  and  their  habits,  698. 

Partridge,  gray,  or  European,  301 ;  rock, 

302. 
Paseng,  or  wild  goat  of  Western  Asia, 

202. 
Passover,  Samaritan,  749. 
Pastoral  tribes,  399. 
Pasture,  flock  going  to,  190. 
Patriarchal  system,  407. 
Pear,  pricklv,  152. 
Pelican,  304\ 
Pens  for  writing,  390. 
Perennial  spring,  102. 
Persecutions  for  religion,  742. 
Persia,  kingdom   of,   363;    climate   of. 

364;  fashions  of,  365;  horses  of,  216: 

ruling  race  of,  365. 
Persian  Gulf,  18. 
Personal  appearance,  502. 
Pestle  and  mortar  of  wood,  404. 
Pigeons,  108,  298 ;  houses  for,  107. 
Pilgrimage,  768;  to  Mecca,  771,  802. 
Pine-tree,   162 ;    stone   pine,  cone   and 

nut.s,  163. 
Pistols,  Oriental,  672. 
Places  of  worship,  712-727. 
Plowing  and  plows,  75-77. 
Pocket-knife,  102. 
Political  condition,  375. 
Polygamy,  437,  558. 
Pomegranate-tree,  140. 
Pojjpy,  opium,  167:  wild,  167. 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


831 


Poultry,  304. 

Pounding,  467. 

Priest,  Armeniiin,  733  ;  Greek,  732 ;  sup- 
port of,  735. 

Priesthood  and  priests,  729-736. 

Printing,  art  of,  396. 

Prisons  of  the  East,  690. 

Protestants  in  every  sect,  738. 

Proverbs,  frequent"  use  of,  in  the  East, 
388 ;  Oriental,  813-816. 

Pruning-saw,  102. 

Public  fountain  at  Jerusalem,  42. 

Pulpits,  720. 

Puppet-shows,  630. 

Purdeh,  or  curtain,  431. 

Pyrghoos,  koolah,  or  tower  in  the  vine- 
yard, 117. 

Quail,  292-297. 
Queens,  Eastern,  655. 

Races,  ancient,  353. 

Rachel's  camel,  244. 

Rains,  422. 

Ram,  four-horned,  200. 

Rameses  II.,  353. 

Ramleh,  tower  at,  449-450. 

Ras  Safsafeh,  crags  of,  36. 

Rashama,  or  "bird  of  Pharaoh,  "270. 

Rats,  different  species  of,  283. 

Rebekah,  Isaac's  wife,  541. 

Reckoning  distances,  mode  of,  803. 

Reem,  178. 

Refuge,  cities  of,  692-693. 

Rejoicing  over  the  birth  of  a  son,  568. 

Religious  persecutions,  742 ;  toleration, 
746 ;  vows,  752. 

Rewards,  bestowal  of,  664. 

Riding  by  women,  223,  224. 

River-wheel,  Persian,  101. 

Rivers  of  Western  Asia,  100. 

Robbers  of  the  sea,  66. 

Rock  excavations,  417. 

Roebuck,  259. 

Rose,  164-166. 

Royalty,  audience  to,  639  ;  body-guard 
of,  666 ;  harim  for,  651 ;  hunting 
establishment  of,  651 ;  obeisance  to, 
648 ;  palace  of,  650 ;  revenues  of, 
656 ;  titles  of,  636. 

Runners,  668. 

Sacrifices,  746-752. 

Saddles,  224,  230,  241. 

Sakkieh,  or  well-wheel,  104. 

Salian,  or  direct  taxation,  658. 

Samaritans,  362  ;  bearing  tribute,  356. 

Sambikeh,  63. 

Sandals,  shoes,  etc.,  406,  521,  522. 

Sarafs,  800. 

Sarcophagus,  785. 


Scorpions,  309-311. 

Sculptured  horse  at  Persepolis,  218. 

Sculptures,  Assyrian,  355-357;  Egyp- 
tian, 352-555. 

Sea-breeze,  the  refreshing,  83. 

Seals,  modern,  for  letters  and  documents, 
393,  394. 

Secret  societies,  marks  of,  394. 

Seed-sowing,  96. 

Sennacherib,  343. 

Serpents,  306-309  ;  venomous,  308. 

Servants,  593. 

Services  of  the  church,  757,  760. 

Shadoof,  modern,  97. 

Shah  of  Persia,  399. 

Sharon,  Rose  of,  165. 

Shaving  the  head,  517. 

Sheep,  broad-tailed,  195-198 ;  Etruscan, 
199  ;  snow-white,  191 ;   wild,  179. 

Shekel,  Hebrew  (worth  seventy -five 
cents),  35. 

Shell-fish,  68. 

Shepherd-dog,  Oriental,  191-193. 

Shepherd,  life  of  a,  184  ;  garb  of  a,  185  ; 
playing  on  a  flute,  187. 

Shields,  ancient  and  modern,  675. 

Shintian,  523. 

Ships,  Oriental,  61. 

Shiraz,  province  of,  364. 

Shitah,  253. 

Shops,  bakers',  89  ;  barbers',  778  ;  mer- 
chants', 777. 

Signatures  to  letters,  392. 

Silk  and  silk-worms,  320,  321 ;  produc- 
tion of,  143. 

Siloam,  Pool  of,  46. 

Simoon,  238. 

Sitting  posture  of  a  camel,  242. 

Skin-bottles,  56,  57. 

Skull-cap,  worn  by  the  poor  in  Egypt, 
119. 

Slavery  in  the  East,  566. 

Sleeping  apartments,  482. 

Sling,  ancient,  188. 

Snake-man,  307. 

Social  rank  proclaimed  by  a  man's  gar- 
ments, 637. 

Sofuk,  story  of,  410. 

Soil  in  the  fields,  104. 

Solomon,  Pools  of,  52. 

Songs  of  the  East,  619. 

Sook,  or  market-place,  114. 

Spade,  Oriental,  114. 

Sparrows,  291. 

Spies,  694. 

Spinning-women,  .564. 

Sports,  athletic,  games,  etc. ,  630-632. 

Springs,  mineral,  46 ;  perennial,  102. 

Squares,  public,  457. 

Squirrels,  284  ;  jerboa,  284. 

Staff  of  a  shepherd,  188. 


832 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


Stag,  anllered,  258. 

Standards  as  rallying-points  for  soldiers, 

683. 
Starling,  rose-colored,  316., 
State  and  Churcii,  739. 
Steering,  mode  of,  62,  63. 
Stores  and  shops,  Oriental,  776-781. 
Storks,  different  varieties  of,  302-30+. 
Streets,  narrowness  of  iM. 
Sugar-cane,  108. 

Summation  of  the  work,  805-811. 
Summer-houses  in  the  vineyards,  116. 
Swallows,  287 ;  Oriental,  and  nest,  288. 
Swimming,  71. 
Swords,  679. 
Syria,  29. 

Talmud,  338. 

Tamerlane,  famous,  686. 

Tares  and  wheat,  separation  of,  8-i. 

Tarshish,  66. 

Tattooing,  49-1.     « 

Teftik,  or  Angora  goat,  203. 

Temple,  Abyssinian,  727  ;  Caaba,  714 ; 
Greek,  728 ;  Jewisii,  714  ;  Nestorian, 
728. 

Tent-making,  415. 

Tents,  ancient,  400 ;  ^Vrabian,  401 ;  mil- 
itary, 415  ;  Turkmen's,  400. 

Tereb'inth-tvee,  157. 

Threshing,  78  ;  treading  the  corn,  82. 

Throne  of  Solomon,  640;  of  the  Sul- 
tans, 643. 

Thyatira,  well  at,  48. 

Tiberias,  Jews  of,  363 ;   Sea  of,  6."). 

Tithe-gatherers,  85. 

Titles  of  books,  737. 

Titmouse,  and  its  nest,  300. 

Tobacco,  cultivation  of,  324. 

Tombs,  579;  Parsee,  585;  sacred  ground 
for,  584 ;  sealed,  581  ;  whitened,  583. 

Tongue,  cutting  out  of  the,  636. 

Tools  of  the  ancients,  792,  793. 

Topogra])hy  of  the  Old  and  New  'I'csta- 
ments,  31,  32. 

Towers  of  Alexandria,  449  ;  of  Beirut, 
Constantinople,  Galata,  Uanileh,  and 
Teraskier's,  450. 

Toys,  terra-cotta,  573. 

Treatment  of  enemies,  687. 

Trees,  almond,  142;  banana,  153;  cani- 
phire,  143 ;  carob.  151  ;  cedar.  27, 
153;  date-palm,  146;  fig,  136;  mul- 
berry, 144;  oak,  158;  olive,  124-129; 


pine,  162;  platanus,  162;  poplar,  163; 
pomegranate,  140;  sycamore,  145;  ter- 
ebinth, 157. 

Tribute  being  borne  by  Samaritan  He- 
brews, 356. 

Turkey,  305. 

Turks*  373  ;  costumes  of,  373,  374. 

Turtle-doves,  298. 

Usurers,  800. 

Vale  of  Eshcol,  112. 

Vegetables  grown,  104-109. 

Veiled  women,  537. 

Vessels  used  by  water-carriers,  43,  44. 

Victims,  treatment  of,  687. 

Village  with  conical  roofs  near  Aleppo, 

423. 
Vine,  cultivation    of,   106;    vineyards, 

110-117. 
Vintage,  season  of,  119. 
Virgins,  the  Ten,  554. 
Vows,  religious,  752. 
Vulture,  the,  268. 

Wall  of  Jerusalem,  448. 

Washing  clothes,  467. 

Water,  connoisseurs  of,  55,  56 ;  pillars, 

55. 
Watering,  process  of,  103. 
Weapons,  modern  Oriental,  678. 
AVeaving,  and  cloth,  794. 
Well,  Jacob's,  46. 

Wheat  and  tares,  separation  of,  84. 
Wife,  names  given  to  a,  378. 
Wine-press,  ancient  and  modern,  118. 
Wolf,  272-275  ;    "  lyco  chakalos,"  273. 
Woman  riding  sideways,  223  ;  astride  on 

a  mule,  224. 
Wooden  water-jug,  57. 
Wool,  201. 
Words,  difference  in  the  pronunciation 

of,  in  various  Hebrew  districts,  385. 
Worship,  fire,  702  ;    idol,  706 ;   image, 

709;    places   of,  712;    serpent,  704; 

tree,  703. 
Writing,  mode  of,  391,  392;   pa]  cr  for, 

391. 

Yezidies,  697. 
Yuruks,  372. 

Zante  cm-rants,  1 10. 
Zoroaster,  religion  of,  700. 


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to  Central  Africa  for  the  Suppression  of  the  Slave  Trade.  Organized  by  Ismail, 
Khedive  of  Egyi)t.  By  Sir  Samuel  W.  Baker,  Pasha,  F.R.S.,  F.R.G.S.  With 
Maps,  Portraits,  and  upward  of  Fifty  full -page  Illustrations  by  Zweckeh  aud 
DuEANU.    Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

MYERS'S  REMAINS  OF  LOST  EMPIRES.  Remains  of  Lost  Empires.  Sketches 
of  the  Ruins  of  Palmvra,  Nineveh,  Babylon,  and  Persepolis,  with  some  Notes 
on  India  aud  the  Cashmerian  Himalayas.  By  P.  V.  N.  Myers,  A.M.  Illustra- 
tions.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE  CONFERENCE,  1873.  History,  Essays,  Orations,  and 
Other  Documents  of  the  Sixth  General  Conference  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance, 
held  in  New  York.  Oct.  ^-M,  1ST3.  Edited  by  Rev.  PiiiLiP  Scuaff,  D.D.,  and 
Rev.  S.  IREN.EUS  Prime,  D.D.  With  Portraits  of  Rev.  Messrs.  Pronier,  Carrasco, 
and  Cook,  recently  deceased.    Svo,  Cloth,  nearly  800  pages,  $6  00. 

VINCENT'S  LAND  OF  THE  WHITE  ELEPHANT.  The  Land  of  the  White  Ele- 
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Travel  aud  Adventure  in  Farther  India,  embracing  the  Countries  of  Burma, 
Siaui,  Cambodia,  aud  Cochin-China  (1S71-2).  By  Frank  Vinoeut,  Jr.  Mag- 
nificently illustrated  with  Map,  Plans,  aud  numerous  Woodcuts.  Crown  Svo, 
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TRISTRAM'S  THE  LAND  OF  MOAB.  The  Result  of  Travels  and  Discoveries  on 
the  East  Side  of  the  Dead  Sea  aud  the  Jordan.  By  H.  B.  Tristram,  M.A., 
LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Master  of  the  Greatham  Hospital,  and  Hon.  Canon  of  Durham. 
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SANTO  DOMINGO,  Past  and  Present:  with  a  Glance  at  Hayti.  By  Samuel  Hazaru. 
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SMILES'S  HUGUENOTS  AFTER  THE  REVOCATION.  The  Huguenots  in 
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2      Harper  &'  Brothers*  Valuable  and  Interesting  Works. 


POETS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  The  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Cei*. 
tnrv.  Selected  and  Edited  by  the  Kev.  Hohkrt  Akis  Willmott.  With  English 
^ud  American  Addilions,  arranged  by  Evert  A.  Ddyokinok,  Editor  of  "Cycle- 
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THE  REVISION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  VERSION  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 
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Divinity,  Cambridge.    Second  Edition,  Revised.    19G  pp. 
II.  ON  THE  AUTHORIZED  VERSION   OP   THE   NEW  TESTAMENT   i» 
Connection  with   some  Recent  Proposals   for  its  Revision.     By  Ricuaei, 
Chenevix  Trench,  D.D.,  Archbishop  of  Dublin.     194  pp. 
III.  CONSIDERATIONS  ON  THE  REVISION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  VERSION 
OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.    By  J.  C.  Eixicott,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Glou- 
cester and  Bristol.     178  pp. 

NORDHOFF'S  CALIFORNIA.  California:  for  Health,  Pleasure,  and  Residence. 
A  Book  for  Travelers  and  Settlers.    Illustrated.    Svo,  Paper,  $2  00  ;  Cloth,  $1  50. 

NORDHOPF'S  NORTHERN  CALIFORNIA,  OREGON,  AND  THE  SANDWICH 
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MOTLEY'S  DUTCH  REPUBLIC.  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic.  By  John  Lo- 
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JilOTLEY'S  UNITED  NETHERLAND'S.  History  of  the  United  Netherlands:  from 
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View  of  the  English-Dutch  Stru^jgle  against  Spain,  and  of  the  Origin  and  De- 
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Portraits.    4  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $14  00. 

MOTLEY'S  LIFE  AND  DEATH  OP  JOHN  OF  BARNEVELD.  Life  and  Death 
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Causes  and  Movements  of  "The  Thirty  Years'  War."  By  John  Lothrop  Mot- 
ley, D.C.L.     Witli  Illustrations.     In  Two  Volumes.     Svo,  Cloth,  $7  00. 

HAYDN'S  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES,  relating  to  all  Ages  and  Nations.  For  Uni- 
versal Reference.  Edited  by  Benjamin  Vincent,  Assistant  Secretary  and  Keeper 
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of  American  Readers.    Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00  ;  Sheep,  $G  00. 

MACGREGOR'S  ROB  ROY  ON  THE  JORDAN.  The  Rob  Boy  on  the  Jordan, 
Nile,  Red  Sea,  and  Gennesareth,  &c.  A  Canoe  Cruise  in  Palestine  and  E>:ypt, 
and  the  W'aters  of  Damascus.  By  J.  Macgregob,  M.A.  W'ith  Maps  and  Illus- 
trations.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $'2  50. 

WALLACE'S  MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO.  The  Malay  Archipelago:  the  Land  of  the 
Orang-utan  and  the  Bird  of  Paradise.  A  Narrative  of  Travel,  1S54-1SG2.  With 
Studies  of  Man  and  Nature.  By  Alfred  RrssEL  Wallace.  With  Ten  Maps 
and  Fifty-one  Elegant  Illustrations.     Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

WHYMPER'S  ALASKA.  Travel  and  Adventure  in  the  Territory  of  Alaska,  for- 
merly Russian  America — now  Ceded  to  the  United  States— and  in  various  other 
parts  of  the  North  Pacific.  By  Freheriok  Wuvmpee.  With  Map  and  Illustra. 
tlons.     Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

ORTON'S  ANDES  AND  THE  AMAZON.  The  Andes  and  the  Amazon  ;  or.  Across 
the  Continent  of  South  America.  By  James  Orton,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Natural 
History  in  Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  and  Corresponding  Member  of 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia.  With  a  New  Map  of  Equatorial 
America  and  numerous  Illustrations.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

WINCHELL'S  SKETCHES  OF  CREATION.  Sketches  of  Creation:  a  Popnla* 
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Science  res|)ecting  the  Primordial  Condition  and  the  Ultimate  Destiny  of  th? 
Earth  and  the  Solar  System.  By  Ale.xan7>fr  Win«:iii:ll,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
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LOSSING'S  FIELD-BOOK  OF  THE  REVOLUTION.  Pictorial  Field-Book  cf  the 
Revolution;  or,  Illustrations,  by  Pen  and  Pencil,  of  the  History,  Bio£;raphy, 
Scenery,  Relics,  and  Traditions  of  the  War  for  Independence.  By  Benson  J 
LossiNG.  2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $14  00;  Sheep,  $15  00;  Half  Calf,  $18  00;  Full 
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War  of  1812 ;  or.  Illustrations,  by  Pen  and  Pencil,  of  the  History,  Biography, 
Scenery,  Relics,  and  Traditions  of  the  Last  War  for  American  Independence.  By 
Benson  J.  Lossing.  With  several  hundred  Engravings  on  Wood,  by  Loseing  and 
Barritt,  chiefly  from  Original  Sketches  by  the  Author.  108S  pages,  Svo,  Cloth 
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ALFORD'S  GREEK  TESTAMENT.  The  Greek  Testament :  with  a  critically  revised 
Text ;  a  Digest  of  .Various  Readings ;  Marginal  References  to  Verbal  and  Idio- 
matic Usage ;  Prolegomena ;  and  a  Critical  and  Exe^etical  Commentar".  For 
the  Use  of  Theological  Students  and  Ministers.  By  Henry  Alfokh,  D.D.,  Deaa 
of  Canterbury.  Vol.  I.,  containing  the  Four  Gospels.  944  pages,  Svo,  Cloth, 
$6  00  ;  Sheep,  $G  50. 

ABBOTT'S  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.  The  History  of  Frederick  the  Second, 
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Cloth,  $5  00. 

ABBOTT'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  The  French  Revolu- 
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bott.   With  100  Engravings.   ""Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

ABBOTT'S  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE.  The  History  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  By 
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Svo,  Cloth,  $10  00. 

ABBOTT'S  NAPOLEON  AT  ST.  HELENA ;  or.  Interesting  Anecdotes  and  Remark- 
able  Conversations  of  the  Emperor  during  the  Five  and  a  Half  Years  of  his 
Captivity.  Collected  from  the  Memorials  of  Las  Casas,  O'Meara,  Montholon, 
Antommarchi,  and  others.  By  Joun  S.  C.  Abuott.  With  Illustrations.  Svo, 
Cloth,  $5  00. 

ADDISON'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Joseph  Addison,  embracing  the 
whole  of  the  "Spectator."    Complete  in  3  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

ALCOCK'S  JAPAN.  The  Capital  of  the  Tycoon :  a  Narrative  of  a  Three  Years' 
Residence  in  Japan.  By  Sir  Rotheiu-obd  Ai.cock,  K.C.B.,  Her  Majesty's  Envoy 
Extraordiuarv  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  in  Japan.  With  Maps  and  Engravings. 

2  vols.,  12mo,"Cloth,  $3  50. 

ALISON'S  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE.  First  Series  :  From  the  Commencement  of 
the  French  Revolution,  in  17S9,  to  the  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  in  1815.  [In 
addition  to  the  Notes  on  Chapter  LXXVL,  which  correct  the  errors  of  the 
original  work  concerning  the  United  States,  a  copious  Analytical  Index  has  been 
appended  to  this  American  edition.]  Second  Series  :  From  the  Fall  of  Napoleon, 
in  1S15,  to  the  Accession  of  Louis  Napoleon,  in  1852.    8  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $16  00. 

BALDWIN'S  PRE-HISTORIC  NATIONS.  Pre-Historic  Nations ;  or.  Inquiries  con- 
cerning some  of  the  Great  Peoples  and  Civilizations  of  Antiquity,  and  their 
Probable  Relation  to  a  still  Older  Civilization  of  the  Ethiopians  or  Cushites  of 
Arabia.  By  Joun  D.  Baldwin,  Member  of  the  American  Oriental  Society. 
12mo,  Cloth,  $1  75. 

8.\RTH'S  NORTH  AND  CENTRAL  AFRICA.  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  North 
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Auspices  of  H.  B.  M.'s  Government,  in  the  Years  1849-1855.  By  Henry  Barth, 
Ph.D.,  D.C.L.    Illustrated.    3  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $12  00. 

HENRY  WARD  BEECHER'S  SERMONS.     Sermons  by  Henry  Ward  Beeoheb, 

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courses, and  Revised  by  their  Author.  With  Steel  Portrait.  Complete  in  2  vols.. 
Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

LYMAN  BEECHER'S  AUTOBIOGRAPHY,  &o.  Autobiography,  Correspondenr*, 
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Steel  Portraits,  and  Engravings  on  Wood.    In  2  -;ols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

BOSWELL'S  JOHNSON.  The  Life  of  Samuel  John.son,  LL.D.  Including  a  Journey 
to  the  Hebrides.  By  James  Boswei.l,  Esq.  A  New  Edition,  with  nnmerouf 
Additions  and  Notes.  By  John  Wilson  Choker,  LL.D.,  P.R.S.  Portrait  of 
Boswell.    2  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 


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DRAPER'S  CIVIL  WAR.  History  of  the  American  Civil  War.  By  Joht*  W.  Dsa. 
I'FB,  M.I)..  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Cliemistry  and  Physiology  in  the  University  of 
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DRAPER'S  INTELLECTUAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  EUROPE.  A  History  of  the 
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DRAPER'S  AMERICAN  CIVIL  POLICY.  Thoughts  on  the  Future  Civil  Policy  of 
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ogy in  the  University  of  New  York.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  &0. 

DU  CHAILLU'S  AFRICA.  Explorations  and  Adventures  in  Equatorial  Africa  with 
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Paul  li.  Dc  Cuaillu.  Numerous  Illustrations.    Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

BELLOW.S'S  OLD  WORLD.  The  Old  World  in  its  New  Face :  Impressions  of  Eu- 
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BRODHE\D'S  HISTORY  OF  NEW  YORK.  History  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
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BROUGHAM'S  AUTOBIOGRAPHY.  Life  and  Times  of  Henry,  Lort>  Bkougham. 
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BULWER'S  PROSE  WORKS.  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works  of  Edward  Bnlwer. 
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BULWER'S  HORACE.  The  Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace.  A  Metrical  Translation 
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Latin  Text  from  the  Editions  of  Orelli,  Macleaue,  and  Youge.    12mo,  Cloth,  $1  75. 

BULWER'S  KING  ARTHUR.  A  Poem.  By  Eael  Lytton.  New  Edition.  12mo, 
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BURNS'S  LIFE  AND  WORKS.  The  Life  and  Works  of  Robert  Bums.  Edited 
by  RoBEisT  Cua.mbees.    4  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

REINDEER,  DOGS,  AND  SNOW-SHOES.  A  Journal  of  Siberian  Travel  and  Ex- 
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American  Telegraph  Expedition.     Illustrated.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

CARLYLE'S  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.  History  of  Friedrich  II.,  called  Frederick 
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CARLISLE'S  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  History  of  the  French  Revolution.  Newly 
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CARLYLE'S  OLIVER  CROMWELL.  Letters  and  Speeches  of  Oliver  Cromwell. 
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CHALMERS'S  POSTHUMOITS  WORKS.  The  Posthumons  Works  of  Dr.  Chalmers. 
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COLERIDGE'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Complete  Works  of  Samuel  Taylor 
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DOOLITTLE'S  CHINA.  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese:  with  some  Account  of  their  Rc- 
li"ious.  Governmental,  Educational,  and  Business  Customs  and  Opinions.  \\  iih 
special  but  not  exclusive  Reference  to  Fiihchau.  By  Rev.  Jcsius  Doolitii.-:, 
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(ilBBON'S  ROME.  Historv  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  By  Ep 
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Edition.  To  which  is  added  a  complete  Index  of  the  whole  Work,  and  a  Portrait 
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HAZEN'S  SCHOOL  AND  ARMY  IN  GERM.^NY  AND  FRANCE.  The  School 
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Harper  6-  Brothers'  Valuable  and  Interesting  Works.      5 

HARPER'S  NEW  CLASSICAL  LIBRARY.    Literal  Translations. 

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C.E8AE.  — Virgil.  —  Sai.i.ust.  —  Horace.—  Cicero's  Orations. — Cickro's  Ori'iOESi 
&c.— CicEuo   on  Oratory   and   Orators.— Tacitus   ('2  vols.). —  Terence. — 

Sophocles. — Juvenal. — Xenopiion. —  Homer's   Iliad Homkr's   Odyssey. — 

Herodotus. — Demostuenes. — Tuuovuides. — .^Escuylus.— Euripides  (2  vols.). 
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DAVIS'S  CARTHAGE.  Carthage  and  her  Remains  :  being  an  Account  of  the  Exca- 
vations and  Researches  on  the  Site  of  the  Phffinician  Metropolis  in  Africa  and  other 
adjacent  Places.  Conducted  under  the  Auspices  of  Her  Majesty's  Government. 
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GROTE'S  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.    12  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $18  00. 

HELPS'S  SPANISH  CONQUEST.  The  Spanish  Conquest  in  America,  and  its  Rela- 
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Helps.     4  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $G  00. 

HALE'S  (Mfes.)  WOMAN'S  RECORD.  Woman's  Record ;  or,  Biographical  Sketches 
of  all  Distinguished  Women,  from  the  Creation  to  the  Present  Time.  Arranged 
in  Pour  Eras,  with  Selections  from  Female  Writers  of  each  Era.  By  Mrs.  Saeah 
Josepiia  Hale.    Illustrated  with  more  than  200  Portraits.    Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

HALL'S  ARCTIC  RESEARCHES.  Arctic  Researrhes  and  Life  among^the  Esqui. 
maux:  being  the  Narrative  of  an  Expeiiition  in  Search  of  Sir  John  Franklinj  in 
the  Years  ISGO,  1S61,  and  1S62.  By  Chai.ii  ,  1  i:  \n.  is  Hall.  With  Maps  and  100 
Illustrations.  The  Illustrations  are  from  (n  i- inal  Drawings  by  Charles  Parsons, 
Henry  L.  Stephens,  Solomon  Eytintje,  W.  S.  L.  Jewett,  and  Granville  Perkins, 
after  Sketches  by  Captain  Hall.    Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

HALLAM'S  CONSTITUTIONAL  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND,  from  the  Accession  of 
Henry  VII.  to  the  Death  of  George  IL    Svo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

H.-VLLAM'S  LITERATURE.  Introduction  to  the  Literatiye  of  Europe  during  the 
Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  and  Seventeenth  Centuries.  By  Heney  Hallam.  2  vols., 
Svo,  Cloth,  $i  00. 

HALLAM'S  MIDDLE  AGES.  State  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.  By  Henry 
Hallam.     Svo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

HILDRETH'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  First  Series:  From  the 
First  Settlement  of  the  Country  to  the  Adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
Second  Series:  From  the  Adoption  of  the  Federal  Constituti(m  to  the  End  of 
the  Sixteenth  Congress.     6  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $1S  00. 

HUME'S  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND.  History  of:England,  from  the  Invasion  of  Ju- 
lius Cffisar  to  the  Abdication  of  James  II.,  16SS.  By  David  Hume.  A  new  Edi- 
tion, with  the  Author's  last  Corrections  and  Improvements.  To  which  is  Prefix- 
ed a  short  Account  of  his  Life,  written  by  Himself.  With  a  Portrait  of  the  Au- 
thor.   6  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $9  00. 

JAY'S  WORKS.  Complete  Works  of  Rev.  William  Jay :  compri.«ing  his  Sermons, 
Family  Discourses,  Morning  and  Evening  Exercises  for  every  Day  in  the  Year, 
Family  Prayers,  &c.    Author's  enlarged  Edition,  revised.    3  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth, 

$6  00. 

JEFFERSON'S  DOMESTIC  LIFE.  The  Domestic  Life  of  Thomas  Jefferson  :  com- 
piled from  Family  Letters  and  Reminiscences  by  his  Great-Granddaughter, 
Sauah  N.  Randolph.  With  Illustrations.  Crown  Svo,  Illuminated  Cloth,  Bev- 
eled Edges,  $2  50. 

JOHNSON'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Samuel  Johnson,  LL.D.  With 
an  Essay  on  his  Life  and  Genius,  by  Aethue  Muepiiy,  Esq.  Portrait  of  Johnson. 
2  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 

fc^INGLAKE'S  CRIMEAN  WAR.  The  Invasion  of  the  Crimea,  and  an  Account  of 
its  Progress  down  to  the  Death  of  Lord  Raglan.  Bv  Alexander  William  King- 
lake.  "^With  Maps  and  Plans.  Three  Vols.' ready.   i2mo,  Cloth,  $2  00  per  vol. 

KINGSLEY'S  WEST  INDIES.  At  Last:  A  Christmas  in  the  West  Indies.  Bj 
CuARLrs  KiNQSLET.    Illustrated.    12mo,  Cloth,  $1  50. 


6     Harper  6-  Brothers^  Valuable  and  Interesting  Works. 

KRUMMACHER'S  DAVID,  KING  OF  ISRAEL.  David,  the  King  of  Israel :  a  Por- 
trait drawu  from  Bible  History  and  the  Book  of  Psalms.  By  Feedeeick  William 
Krum.maoiiee,  D.D.,  Author  of  "Elijah  the  Tishbite,"  &c.  Translated  under  the 
express  Sanction  of  the  Author  by  the  Rev.  M.  G.  Easton,  M.A.  With  a  Letter 
from  Dr.  Krummacher  to  his  American  Readers,  and  a  Portrait.  12mo,  Cloth, 
$1T5. 

LAMB'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Charles  Lamb.  Comprising  his  Let- 
ters, Poems,  Essays  of  Elia,  Essays  upon  Shakspeare,  Hogarth,  &c.,  and  a  Sketch 
of  his  Life,  with  the  Final  Memorials,  by  T.  Noon  Talfouru.  Portrait.  2  vols., 
12mo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

LIVINGSTONE'S  SOUTH  AFRICA.  Missionary  Travels  and  Researches -in  Soiith 
Africa ;  including  a  Sketch  of  Sixteen  Years'  Residence  in  the  Interior  of  Africa, 
and  a  Journey  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Loando  on  the  West  Coast ;  thence 
across  the  Continent,  down  the  River  Zambesi,  to  the  Eastern  Ocean.  By  Davip 
Livingstone,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.  With  Portrait,  Maps  by  Arrowsmith,  and  numerous 
Illustrations.    Svo,  Cloth,  $4  50. 

LIVINGSTONES'  ZAMBESI.  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  the  Zambesi  and  its 
Tributaries,  and  of  the  Discovery  of  the  Lakes  Shirwa  and  Nyassa.  1858-1864. 
By  David  and  Cuakleb  Livingstone.  With  Map  and  Illustrations.  Svo,  Cloth, 
$5  00. 

M'CLINTOCK  &  STRONG'S  CYCLOPEDIA.  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical,  Theological, 
and  Ecclesiastical  Literature.  Prepared  by  the  Rev.  John  M'Clintock,  D.D., 
and  Jameb  Stkong,  S.T.D.  5  vols,  now  ready.  Royal  Svo.  Price  per  vol.,  Cloth, 
$5  00  ;  Sheep,  $6  00 ;  Half  Morocco,  $8  00. 

MARCY'S  ARMY  LIFE  ON  THE  BORDER.  Thirty  Years  of  Army  Life  on  the 
Border.  Comprising  Descriptions  of  the  Indian  Nomads  of  the  Plains ;  Explo- 
rations of  New  Territory ;  a  Trip  across  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  Winter ; 
Descriptions  of  the  Habits  of  Different  Animals  found  in  the  West,  and  the  Meth- 
ods of  Hunting  them;  with  Incidents  in  the  Life  of  Different  Frontier  Men,  Ac, 
&c.  By  Brevet  Brigadier-General  R.  B.  Mabcy,  U.S.A.,  Author  of  "  The  Prairie 
Traveller."    With  numerous  Illustrations.    Svo,  Cloth,  Beveled  Edges,  $3  00. 

MACAULAY'S  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND.  The  History  of  England  from  the  Ac- 
cession of  James  II.  By  Thomas  Bauington  Maoadlay.  With  an  Original  Por- 
trait of  the  Author.     5  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $10  00 ;  12mo,  Cloth,  $T  50. 

MOSHEIM'S  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY,  Ancient  and  Modern  ;  in  which  the 
Rise,  Progress,  and  Variation  of  Church  Power  are  considered  in  their  Connec- 
tion withlhe  State  of  Learning  and  Philosophy,  and  the  Political  History  of  Eu- 
rope durinc  that  Period.  Translated,  with  Notes,  &c.,  by  A.  Maolaine,  D.D. 
A  new  Edition,  continued  to  1826,  by  C.  Coote,  LL.D.    2  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 

NEVIUS'S  CHINA.  China  and  tht  Chinese :  a  General  Description  of  the  Country 
and  its  Inhabitants;  its  Civilization  and  Form  of  Government;  its  Religious  and 
Social  Institutions ;  its  Intercourse  with  other  Nations ;  and  its  Present  Condition 
and  Prospects.  By  the  Rev.  John  L.  Nevius,  Ten  Years  a  Missionary  in  China. 
With  a  Map  and  Illustrations.    12mo,  Cloth,  $1  75. 

THE  DESERT  OF  THE  EXODUS.  Journeys  on  Foot  in  the  Wilderness  of  the 
Forty  Years'  Wanderings ;  undertaken  in  connection  with  the  Ordnance  Survey 
of  Sinai  and  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  By  E.  H.  Pai.mku,  M.A.,  Lord 
Almoner's  Professor  of  Arabic,  and  Fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
With  Maps  and  numerous  Illu.strations  from  Photographs  and  Drawings  taken 
on  the  spot  by  the  Sinai  Survey  Expedition  and  C.F.  Tyrwhitt  Drake.  Crown 
Svo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

OLIPHANT'S  CHINA  AND  JAPAN.  Narrative  of  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  Mission  to 
China  and  Japan,  in  the  Years  1857,  '58,  '59.  By  Laurence  Olipiiant,  Private 
Secretary  to  Lord  Elgin.    Illustrations.    Svo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

OLIPHANT'S  mw.)  LIFE  OF  EDWARD  IRVING.  The  Life  of  Edward  Irving, 
Minister  of  the  National  Scotch  Church,  London.  Illustrated  by  his  Journals  and 
Correspondence.    By  Mrs.  OLiniANT.    Portrait.    Svo,  Cloth,  *3  50. 

RAWLINSON'S  MANUAL  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  A  ]\ranual  of  Ancient  His- 
tory, from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Fall  of  the  Western  Kmpire.  Comjinsing 
the  History  of  Chaldsea,  Assyria,  Media,  Babylonia,  Lydia  I-hoenicia,  Syria,  Jil- 
d«a,  Egvpt,  Carthage,  Persia,  Greece  Macodnni.i,  I'ailh.a,  and  Ronie.  By 
GKonGE  Rawlinson,  M.A.,  Camden  Professor  of  Ancient  llis4,ory  in  the  Univer- 
Bity  of  Oxford.    12mo,  Cloth,  .$2  50. 


Harper  6-  Brothers^  Valuable  and  Interesting  Works.      7 

RECLUS'S  THE  EARTH.  The  Earth  :  a  Descriptive  History  of  the  Phenomena 
aud  Life  of  the  Globe.  B}'  Smsee  Reolds.  Translated  l)y  the  late  B.B.Wood- 
ward, aud  Edited  bv  Henry  Woodward.  With  234  Maps  uud  Illustrations,  and 
23  Page  Maps  printed  in  Colors.     8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

RECLUS'S  OCEAN.  The  Ocean,  Atmosphere,  aud  Life.  Being  the  Second  Series 
of  a  Descriptive  History  of  the  Life  of  the  Globe.  By  fii.is^i;  Krci.us.  Pro- 
fusely Illustrated  with  250  Maps  or  Figures,  aud  27  Maps  printed  in  Colors. 
8vo,  Cloth,  $0  00. 

SHAKSPEARE.  The  Dramatic  Works  of  William  Shakspeare,  with  the  Correc- 
tions and  Illustrations  of  Dr.  Jounson  G.  Steevens,  and  others.  Revised  by 
ISA-.A.C  Reed.     Engravings.     6  vols.,  Royal  12mo,  Cloth,  $9  00. 

SMILES'S  LIFE  OP  THE  STEPHENSONS.  The  Life  of  George  Stephenson,  and 
of  his  Son,  Robert  Stephenson  ;  comprising,  also,  a  History  of  the  Invention 
and  Introduction  of  the  Railway  Locomotive.  By  Samoel  Smiles.  With  Steel 
Portraits  and  numerous  Illustrations.    8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

SMILES'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  HUGUENOTS.  The  Hugueuots :  their  Settlements, 
Churches,  and  Industries  in  England  and  Ireland.  By  Samuel  Smiles.  With  an 
Appendix  relating  to  the  Hugueuots  in  America.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

SPEKE'S  AFRICA.  Journal  of  the  Discovery  of  the  Source  of  the  Nile.  By  Cap- 
tain John  Hanning  Speke.  With  Maps  and  Portraits  and  numerous  Illustra- 
tions, chiefly  from  Drawings  by  Captain  Grant.  Svo,  Cloth,  uniform  with  Liv- 
ingstone, Barth,  Burton,  &c.,  $4  00. 

STRICKLAND'S  (Miss)  QUEENS  OF  SCOTLAND.  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scot- 
land and  English  Princesses  connected  with  the  Regal  Succession  of  Great 
Britain.    By  Agnes  Steioklanu.    8  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $12  00. 

THE  STUDENT'S  SERIES. 

France.     Engravings.     12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Gibbon.     Engravings.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Greece.    Engravings.    12mo,  Cloth,  |2  00. 

Hume.     Engravings.     l'2mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Rome.    ByLiddell.    Engravings.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Old  Testament  History.     Engravings.     12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

New  Testament  History.    Engravings.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Strickland's  Queens  of  England.    Abridged.    Engravings.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Ancient  History  of  the  East.     12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Hallam's  Middle  Ages.    12mo,  Cloth,  |2  00. 

Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  England.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Lyell's  Elements  of  Geology.    12mo,  Cloth,  |2  00. 

TENNYJ^ON'S  COMPLETE  POEMS.  The  Complete  Poems  of  Alfred  Tennyson, 
Poet  Laureate.  With  numerous  Illustrations  by  Eminent  Artists,  aud  Three 
Characteristic  Portraits.     Svo,  Paper,  75  cents;  Cloth,  SI  25. 

THOMSON'S  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK.  The  Laud  and  the  Book:  or,  Biblical 
Illustrations  drawn  from  the  Manners  and  Customs,  the  Scenes  and  the  Scenery 
of  the  Holy  Land.  By  W.  M.  Thomson,  D.D.,  Tweuty-flve  Years  a  Missionary 
of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  in  Syria  and  Palestine.  With  two  elaborate  Maps  of  Pal- 
estine, an  accurate  Plan  of  Jerusalem,  and  several  hundred  Engravings,  repre- 
senting the  Scenery,  Topography,  and  Productions  of  the  Holy  Land,  aud  the 
Costumes,  Manners,  aud  Habits  of  the  People.    2  large  12mo  vols..  Cloth,  $5  00. 

TYERMAN'S  WESLEY.  The  Life  and  Times  of  the  Rev.  John  Wesley,  M.A., 
Founder  of  the  Methodists.  By  the  Rev.  Luke  Tyekman.  Portraits.  3  vols., 
Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $T  50. 

TYERMAN'S  OXFORD  METHODISTS.  The  Oxford  Methodists :  Memoirs  of  the 
Rev  Messrs.  Clayton,  Ingham,  Gambold,  Hervey,  and  Broughton,  with  Bio- 
graphical Notices  of  others.   By  the  Rev.  L.  Tyerman.   Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

VAMBfiRY'S  CENTRAL  ASIA.  Travels  in  Central  Asia.  Being  the  Account  of 
a  Journey  from  Teheran  across  the  Turkoman  Desert,  on  the  Eastern  Shore  of 
the  Caspian,  to  Khiva,  Bokhara,  aud  Samnrcaud,  performed  in  the  "iear  1863. 
By  Akminius  VAmh^kt,  Member  of  the  Hungarian  Academy  of  Pesth,  by  whom 
he  was  sent  ou  this  Scientific  Mission.  With  Map  and  Woodcuts.  Svo,  Cloth, 
.$4  50. 

WOOD'S  HOMES  WITHOUT  HANDS.  Homes  Without  Hands:  being  a  Descrip- 
tion of  the  Habitati.nis  of  Animals,  classed  according  to  their  Principle  of  Con- 
struction. By  J.  G.Wooi),  M.A.,  F.L.S.  With  about  140  llhi;<trations.  Svo, 
Cloth,  Beveled  Edges,  $4  5U. 


HARPER'S  CATALOGUE. 


Harper's  Catalogue  comprises  a  large  proportion  of  the  standard  and 
most  esteemed  works  in  English  and  Classical  Literature — comprehend- 
ing OVER  THREE  THOUSAND  VOLUMES — which  are  offered,  in  most  in- 
stances, at  less  than  one  half  the  cost  of  similar  productions  in  England. 

To  Librarians  and  others  connected  with  Colleges,  Schools,  &c.,  who 
may  not  have  access  to  a  trustworthy  guide  in  forming  the  true  estimate  of 
literary  productions,  it  is  believed  this  Catalogue,  with  its  classified  and 
analytical  Index,  will  prove  especially  valuable  for  reference. 

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